ARCHAEOLOGIA

BULGARICA

XXI 2017 1
Archaeologia Bulgarica ХХI 2017 #1

table of contents
ARTICLES

Vasileva, Zh.: The Early Bronze Age Rings оf Type Leukas – New Considerations Regarding Their Origin,
Distribution and Function .....................................................................................................................................................1
Sharankov, N.: A Verse Epitaph and Other Unpublished Inscriptions from Heraclea Sintica ....................................15
Nikolić, E. / Milovanović, B. / Raičković Savić, A.: Contribution to the Study of Roman Architecture in
Viminacium: Research of Thermae Masonry Techniques .................................................................................................39
Inkova, M.: A Tenth Century Gold Pendant from the Inner City of Pliska ...................................................................59
Dоncheva, S. / Penev, I. / Tsekova, G. / Furu, E. / Szikszai, Z. / Uzonyi, I.: Elemental Composition of Artefacts
Found at the 10th Century Decorative Metalwork Centre near Nadarevo, Region of Targovishte, Bulgaria...............75

REVIEWS

Florian KLIMSCHA. Pietrele 1; Beile und Äxte aus Stein: Distinktion und Kommunikation während der Kupferzeit
im östlichen Balkangebiet (= Archäologie in Eurasien 34). Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, 2016, XVI + 382 pp.
(Antonović, D.) .......................................................................................................................................................................89
Nathan BADOUD. Le temps de Rhodes. Une chronologie des inscriptions de la cité fondée sur l’étude de ses
institutions (= Vestigia, Beiträge zur alten Geschichte, Band 63). München, Verlag C. H. Beck, 2015, XVIII + 542 pp.
(Damyanov, M.) ......................................................................................................................................................................93

Editor-in-Chief: Lyudmil F. VAGALINSKI PhD (Sofia, Bulgaria)

Editorial Advisory Board: Prof. László BARTOSIEWICZ PhD DSc (Budapest, Hungary); Prof. Florin
CURTA PhD (Gainesville, Florida, USA); Prof. Falko DAIM PhD DSc (Mainz, Germany); Prof. Haskel
J. GREENFIELD PhD (Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada); Jean-Luc GUADELLI PhD (Bordeaux, France);
Prof. Boris MAGOMEDOV PhD (Kyiv, Ukraine); Prof. J.V.S. MEGAW MA DLitt (Adelaide, Australia);
Prof. Aristotle MENTZOS PhD (Thessaloniki, Greece); Prof. Marcel OTTE PhD (Liege, Belgium);
Prof. Thilo REHREN (Doha, Qatar); Prof. Mustafa SAYAR PhD (Istanbul, Turkey); Nicolay SHARANKOV MA
(Sofia, Bulgaria); Rastko VASIĆ PhD (Belgrade, Serbia); Prof. Tivadar VIDA PhD (Budapest, Hungary); Prof. Jak
YAKAR PhD (Tel Aviv, Israel).
Language Editors: Sven CONRAD PhD (German), Leipzig, Germany; Jean-Luc GUADELLI PhD (French), Bordeaux,
France; Amber ROY (English), Newcastle, England.
All articles in Archaeologia Bulgarica are submitted to peer review.
On the cover: Gold pendant from Pliska, 10th c. AD; see the paper of M. Inkova in this issue; photo by Ivaylo
Levicharov.

ISSN 1310-9537 Printed in Bulgaria


Archaeologia Bulgarica
ХХI, 1 (2017), 39-58
1
The article results from the project:
IRS – Viminacium, Roman city and mili-
tary camp – research of the material and
non-material culture of inhabitants, us-
ing the modern technologies of remote
detection, geophysics, GIS, digitalization
and 3D visualization (# 47018), funded
by the Ministry of Education, Science
and Technological Development of the
Republic of Serbia.
Contribution to the Study
of Roman Architecture in
Viminacium: Research of Thermae
Masonry Techniques1
Emilija NIKOLIĆ / Bebina MILOVANOVIĆ / Angelina
RAIČKOVIĆ SAVIĆ
Abstract: Previous archaeological excavations of Viminacium, the Roman city and
military camp in the territory of today’s Serbia, were mainly of a protective character
and based on necropolises, while buildings on the site have been researched to a lesser
extent. One of these buildings is the Roman baths, or thermae, which is located near
the amphitheatre and the fortress. The theme of this paper is the architectural research
of the building or, more precisely, a review of the masonry techniques and materials
used in the building. In order to obtain relevant conclusions, it also includes a brief
overview of the ceramic and numismatic material. This work shows that the results of
architectural research are closely associated with the analysis of the movable material,
and vice versa, and that conclusions regarding the history of a building can only be
reached on the basis of multidisciplinary research.
Key words: Viminacium, Roman baths, thermae, Roman architecture, masonry tech-
nique, Roman coins, pottery, brick.
Introduction
Viminacium was a Roman city, a military camp and the capital of the
province of Moesia Superior (Moesia Prima in Late antiquity). The ter-
ritory was occupied by the Romans in the 1st century AD. The set-
tlements flourished during the following centuries, but also survived
different historical destructions up until the 7th century, when they fi-
nally fell under the Slav attacks (Mirković 1968, 56, 63-73). The graves
excavated in the necropolises, more than 13,500 to date, offer the
most valuable data for reading and interpreting the history of this city
(Golubović / Korać 2013, 65). However, the buildings on the site have
been researched to a much lesser extent. One of these buildings is the
Viminacium baths, the thermae (fig. 1, 2), excavated under the direc-
tion of the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade, from 1973 to 1974,
and from 2004 to 2007.
Archaeological excavations of Viminacium have confirmed the ex-
istence of several phases of Roman settlement (Zotović 1973, 49-50;
Kondic / Zotović 1974, 96), which are visible in the baths building.
Previous studies showed that there were three construction periods
and that the building of each subsequent period was built on the ruins
of the previous one. Based on the movable material that was found,
the first building of the Viminacium baths was dated to the 1st and 2nd
century, the middle phase belongs to the 3rd century, while the young-
est phase of the building is dated to the 4th century (Kondic / Zotović
1974, 97; Миловановић 2008, 51-55). The reason for the cessation
of life in the first phase of construction is unknown, while the baths
40 Emilija NIKOLIĆ / Bebina MILOVANOVIĆ / Angelina RAIČKOVIĆ SAVIĆ

from the 3rd century were destroyed in a fire (Kondic / Zotović 1974,
97). It is not known when the third phase began, but it certainly lasted
until the end of the 4th century, probably contemporary with the Goths
passing through this territory. During research of the “Svetinja” site,
situated on the left bank of the old bed of the River Mlava, the remains
of Roman architecture dated to the period from the 2nd to the 4th cen-
tury were found. The abandonment of these buildings was dated to
the year 380 and the time of the Goth invasion. Soot discovered at
the site is evidence of the devastation of Viminacium in this period
(Поповић 1987, 1, 5). Excavations carried out in 1974 indicate that the
baths building survived even longer (Kondić / Zotović 1974, 97) but,
given the fact that the most recent building layers have been destroyed,
its later purpose is unknown.
During archaeological excavations of the Viminacium baths, in an
area measuring 33 m x 25 m, or 825 m², five apses (pools for bath-
ing), a central hypocaustal space with the preserved remains of two
construction periods, and many peripheral facilities of the building
were found (fig. 3). The connection of a structure to the middle or to
the youngest phase of the building was determined by its position in
relation to the hypocaustal space (or presumed floor level), which is
partially preserved, and visible in two levels of the building. Layers of
soot found in the hypocaustal space of the youngest phase indicated
that the building dated to the 3rd century was burnt in a fire. The old-
est building dated to the 1st and 2nd century was also found beneath
the floor belonging to the 3rd century (Kondic / Zotović 1974, 96-97).
According to the movable material found, all the apses of the building
(fig. 3) were used during the 3rd and 4th century, but their use in earlier
periods is yet to be fully explored.
Analogies in the functional arrangement of the rooms, as well as in
the masonry techniques, can be found in the territory of today’s Serbia,
a number of other sites of the former province of Moesia Superior, and
in the neighbouring provinces. Previous archaeological excavations of
the remains of Roman architecture in Serbia have shown the existence
of a large number of baths (Јеремић / Гојгић 2012, 27). The largest
were the imperial baths in Sirmium (thermae of Licinius with an as-
sumed gross area of ​​5,340 m²)2 whose monumental phase is dated to
the 4th century, while a previous construction period containing struc-
tures of smaller dimensions destroyed in a fire is dated to the 2nd and
3rd century (Јеремић 1993, 109-112).
Given the number and arrangement of the walls that have been par-
tially explored and extend further into all the earthen profiles, it can
be concluded that the Viminacium baths were larger than the struc-
ture discovered so far, or that they were part of a larger complex. One
of the smaller baths discovered in Sirmium (about 195 m² gross floor
area)3 was part of a larger building complex, or a city villa, built in the
second half of the 3rd century (Јеремић 1993, 103-108). The imperial
residence of Mediana had the largest number of buildings built during
the reign of Constantine I, in the early 4th century. Its baths were prob-
ably linked to the central edifice, which includes the so-called “villa with
peristyle” (Петровић 1994, 29-32, 34-35, 54). One of the baths in Scupi 2
Area obtained on the basis of draw-
was also part of a larger complex, possibly a palace. What is defined ings from: Јеремић 1993, 109-110.
as the main building of this complex is dated to the beginning of the 3
Area obtained on the basis of draw-
4th century and was built on the foundations of another, older building ings from: Јеремић 1993, 104-105.
 Contribution to the Study of Roman Architecture in Viminacium... 41

Fig. 1. Viminacium baths today,

after partial restoration: view from
the southwest. Documentation of the
Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade ‒
Documentation Centre of Viminacium

Fig. 2. Viminacium baths today,

after partial restoration: view from
the southeast. Documentation of the
Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade ‒
Documentation Centre of Viminacium

(horreum), which dates from the late 2nd century and the beginning of
the 3rd century. This was also built over an older building, of unknown
function, dated to the 1st century AD. Part of the youngest building was
turned into a cult object during the 4th century (Коракевик 1985, 76-78;
Коракевик 2002, 116, 118, 120). The thermal complex Aquae Iasae, in
Varaždinske Toplice, in Croatia was built in the 1st century AD. With
various additions and modifications, it lasted until the 4th century. The
baths also went through several phases, whereby each one was built over
the previous one, and all were subjected to fire resulting in destruction
and looting (Vikić-Belančić / Gorenc 1971, 121-157).
Masonry Techniques
The different layers of the Viminacium baths building which lay one
over the other and can be seen in the cross-section of floors in some
rooms, are witness to the phases of its construction, and are certainly
in accordance with the historical conditions, the ups and downs of
Viminacium. After archaeological excavations in 1974, three explored
floor surfaces were assigned to the youngest phase, two were assigned
42 Emilija NIKOLIĆ / Bebina MILOVANOVIĆ / Angelina RAIČKOVIĆ SAVIĆ

Fig. 3. Plan of the baths building with the marked bonding course (at the same height) and its visible discontinuation. Plan drawn
by Emilija Nikolić. Documentation of the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade ‒ Documentation Centre of Viminacium
Contribution to the Study of Roman Architecture in Viminacium... 43

to the middle, and one was assigned to the oldest phase (Kondic /
Zotović 1974, 97).
The building of Viminacium baths is preserved very little above
the bonding course of the bricks, which is clearly visible in three out
of the five apses. Most of the structures were repaired during the life of
the building. The first phase of the building, as already mentioned, has
been partially explored. Its existence was concluded only on the basis
of the detected part of the hypocaustal space, so we cannot comment
on the masonry techniques used in this period. The walls of the mid-
dle phase were used as the foundation for the masonry of the youngest
phase of the building.
The basic building materials used in Viminacium baths are stone –
green schist, baked brick and lime mortar. Green schist is present here
in different dimensions, split into pieces and untreated. On the inner
faces of the upper parts of the walls the stone is slightly more flattened
than on the outer faces. Owing to the fact that it is very difficult to
process it into regular shapes (Васић 1907, 67), schist used in the wall
structures needed to be rendered, plastered or covered in some other
way. Also, due to lack of stone suitable for appropriate architectural
treatment, the builders of Viminacium often additionally used bricks
(Васић 1907, 69). In this commercial and trade city centre, the manu-
facture of brick was carried out with the aim of meeting the needs
of construction (Jordović 1994, 95-96; Raičković 2005, 11, 15). Bricks
used for forming the arched constructions (fig. 4a), walls and wall
cladding of the Viminacium baths were rectangular in shape. The cor-
ners of the walls executed in mixed masonry techniques were also built
with bricks, as were the piers, wall openings and channels. Square and
rectangular brick tiles (fig. 4b) were used for the hypocaustal space.
The floors inside and around the building were made of rectangular
(fig. 4b, 5b) and hexagonal (fig. 4b) bricks. Brick also formed part of
the wall cores, wall faces and bonding courses, and was an important
component of lime mortar. It was also the main material used for wall-
ing up openings in the building and various modifications (Rogić et al.
2008, 76), while repairs of the ruined parts of the building were carried
out using schist mixed with fragments of bricks and pieces (including
smaller blocks) of limestone.
It is apparent that different types of lime mortar were used in
the building of the Viminacium baths. Accordingly, the mortars can
be divided into two groups. The first group consists of lime mortars
with structural features, which were used for building the stone and
brick walls and for making the wall cores. The second group consists
of mortars without structural properties, which were used for plas-
tering and rendering of the walls, with or without a painted finish.
Bricks and pottery fragments, were used as artificial materials with
pozzolanic properties. They were often added to Viminacium mortars
where waterproofing was required. These additives are not visible in
the composition of structural mortars but, as a crushed or ground ad-
ditive, they were almost always present in mortars used for plastering
and rendering and in areas exposed to water and humidity, as well as
in floor layers (Nikolić et al. 2015, 80, 105) (fig. 12b).
The walls of the Viminacium baths were plastered on the inside
and rendered on the outside, which is, in addition to the irregularities
of the masonry techniques that required finishing layers, also evident
44 Emilija NIKOLIĆ / Bebina MILOVANOVIĆ / Angelina RAIČKOVIĆ SAVIĆ

a b

Fig. 4. Bricks in different structures of the baths: arched openings in the room 1 (a), pillars made of square bricks in the
hypocaustal space of room 2 (b). Documentation of the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade ‒ Documentation Centre of
Viminacium
from the remains of red rendering surfaces on the outer surfaces of
the two apses. Additionally, many walls were painted, as evidenced by
an in situ part of the wall with vegetative motifs, but also by numer-
ous fragments of wall paintings found during the excavations (Zotović
1973, 49; Миловановић 2008, 53; Rogić et al. 2008, 75-77; Nikolić et
al. 2015, 80-85).
The wall core made with “Roman concrete”, characteristic of
Roman architecture from the territory of present-day Italy, consist-
ed of small stones or gravel and strong lime mortar with natural ad-
ditives with pozzolanic properties. However, due to the lack of these
natural additives in many other regions, mainly the eastern parts of
the Roman Empire, builders constructed walls with a core containing
larger amounts of coarse crushed material, such as stone and bricks
bound with lime mortar, generally without additives. This type of core
is called “trpanac” in Serbia (Radivojević / Kurtovic-Folić 2006, 693-
694). The face of the walls consisted of stones or bricks laid in a variety
of masonry techniques. The most commonly used masonry technique
in Viminacium, according to buildings researched so far, was opus mix-
tum, or its sub-group known as opus incertum mixtum (Nikolić 2013,
33). It is assumed that in Viminacium, thanks to the local brick produc-
tion, the technique of opus testaceum was also often used (Nikolić 2013,
37), especially in high, above-ground parts of the buildings, which, un-
fortunately, are not sufficiently preserved to confirm this assumption.
The middle phase of the Viminacium baths building includes walls
built mostly in the above-mentioned techniques, i.e. opus incertum
 Contribution to the Study of Roman Architecture in Viminacium... 45

Fig. 5. Masonry technique

of opus incertum mixtum used in the
wall of apse I (a) and the wall
of apse III (b). Documentation of the
Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade ‒ b
Documentation Centre of Viminacium

mixtum, using green schist with a bonding course made of three rows
of bricks (fig. 5a, 5b), and opus testaceum. The opus testaceum tech-
nique is present here in two forms - as a technique used for the faces
of walls with the cores made of “trpanac” and, more often, as a tech-
nique used for walls entirely built of bricks, this is called “Byzantine”
opus testaceum (Radivojević 2004, 57; Radivojević / Kurtović-Folić
2006, 693-694) (fig. 6a, 6b). The opus incertum technique is present in
the lower zones and foundations of the walls belonging to the middle
phase of the building (fig. 7).
On the outer face of apse II with visible remains of red render,
opus incertum mixtum is present, similar to the one in the apse I and
apse III. However, on the inner face of apse II, a technique that can be
simply called opus mixtum appears. Here, schist stones and bricks are
placed in the structure of the inner wall face without order and with-
out forming a continuous bonding course. In some areas of the wall,
the stones and bricks are slightly condensed, which may represent a
46 Emilija NIKOLIĆ / Bebina MILOVANOVIĆ / Angelina RAIČKOVIĆ SAVIĆ

Fig. 6. Masonry technique

of “Byzantine” оpus testaceum used
in the wall of apse V:
view of the inner wall face (a), view
of the outer wall face (b).
Documentation of the Institute of
Archaeology, Belgrade ‒ Documentation
b
Centre of Viminacium

subsequent repair to the wall (fig. 8). The different masonry technique
this apse is built with, its dimensions with piers built as supports, the
mortar laid over its hypocaustal space and the remains of a walled hole
in the middle of its wall, are some of the features that can lead us to a
different assumption concerning its dating and its usage, all of which
require additional research.
In the already mentioned baths of Scupi, similar masonry tech-
niques are present, as well as “irregular” opus mixtum. Stone and bricks
fill the wall zones between the bonding courses of bricks in three or
four rows (which are sporadically disconnected and do not extend the
entire length of the walls) without order and are bound with a thick
layer of mortar. These baths went through numerous adaptations and,
accordingly, through changes of masonry techniques and the intro-
duction of irregularities. This occurred during a period of decline for
the city, throughout the 4th century (Коракевик 1985, 77; Коракевик
2002, 116, 118, 120). A very well-preserved thermal complex in the
 Contribution to the Study of Roman Architecture in Viminacium... 47

Fig. 7. Masonry technique

of opus incertum used in the walls
of room 1. Documentation of the
Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade ‒
Documentation Centre of Viminacium

village of Bansko, near Strumica, in Macedonia, was built at the end

of the first half of the 3rd century and in use until the end of the first
half of the 5th century (Sekulov 2009, 21-34). Here a similar difficult
to process green schist was used, flattened and completely irregular,
and drowned in thick layers of mortar. In places of subsequent repairs
and walling, stones and bricks formed the irregular faces of the walls,
as it is the case in the preserved inner wall surface of apse II in the
Viminacium baths.
The technique of opus incertum mixtum is often present in the con-
struction of baths in the territories of the province of Upper Moesia
and neighbouring provinces. In the Galerius baths at Gamzigrad (Felix
Romuliana), dated to the beginning of the 4th century (Чанак-Медић
/ Стојковић-Павелка 2010, 33, 38, 100-102), a prevalent masonry
technique is opus incertum mixtum, with a bonding course made
from three rows of bricks. In view of the apparent tendency towards
putting stones in more regular rows, here the technique occasionally
carries hints of a more regular technique named opus vittatum mix-
tum. However, in some spots, it is made completely irregularly, with
alternating rows of stones and bricks and with disconnections, as is the
case with apse II in the Viminacium baths. An example of the extensive
use of the opus incertum mixtum technique in walls is found in the
48 Emilija NIKOLIĆ / Bebina MILOVANOVIĆ / Angelina RAIČKOVIĆ SAVIĆ

Fig. 8. Irregular masonry technique

of opus mixtum used in the wall
of apse II. Documentation of the
Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade ‒
Documentation Centre of Viminacium

baths in Heraclea Lyncestis in Bitola, Macedonia, built in the late 3rd

century or early 4th century, and in use until the end of the 6th century.
Here, the stone is used in irregular pieces with flat and curved faces,
with four rows of brick forming the bonding course (Georgieva 2009,
69-74). The baths of Diocletianopolis were built in the late 3rd century
and destroyed, along with the town, in the late 6th century and at the
beginning of the 7th century. The masonry technique used here was the
more regular opus incertum mixtum, with a succession of stone zones
with three, four and five rows of bricks as bonding courses (Madjarov
2009, 59-68). The example that may be used in the visual reconstruc-
tion of the walls of the Viminacium baths is the already mentioned
thermal complex in the village of Bansko. The first and second phases
of the complex are dated from the end of the first half to the second
half of the 3rd century. The third phase is dated to the end of the second
half of the 3rd century or to the early 4th century (Sekulov 2009, 21-34).
The techniques we meet in this building are also opus testaceum and
opus incertum mixtum. The courses of brick are formed from one, two
and three rows. As the predominant technique, we see opus incertum
mixtum in the aforementioned thermal complex at Aquae Iasae, with
one to three rows of bricks as bonding courses and wall corners made
from stone blocks (Vikić-Belančić / Gorenc 1971, 121-157).
The walls of the youngest phase of the Viminacium baths, which
suffered the most over the centuries, have been preserved only to
a small height, and were built of whole bricks in the technique of
“Byzantine” opus testaceum. Most of the above-ground part of apse
V, apart from the masonry techniques, differs from other apses in the
form of the outer face of the wall (trapezium shape) (fig. 3, 6a, 6b)
(Миловановић 2008, 52). This apse has no visible bonding course in
the structure of its wall. Also, in the wall that from the north side con-
nects this apse to the adjacent apse IV (where the course is visible),
we can see the point of the course break; an area made of limestone
blocks placed in succession with vertically positioned bricks (fig. 3, 9).
Similar wall segments made of limestone occur in several places in the
baths and probably represent repaired areas. The wall that continues to
 Contribution to the Study of Roman Architecture in Viminacium... 49

the south after apse V is built with a bonding course and, at this point,
it is clearly visible that apse V is structurally separated from it (fig. 10,
11). After previous observations, we can suggest that apse V was used
in the 4th century, whilst earlier, in its place, there was possibly differ-
ent structure. The bonding course of the middle phase of the build-
ing is probably the beginning of the youngest phase of construction
which, during upgrades or repairs, followed the existing technique of
opus incertum mixtum, while for new, maybe different, structures the
technique of “Byzantine” opus testaceum was used. In the lower part
of the apse walls which is rendered (fig. 6b, 10, 11), we can see the
bricks similarly used in the structures of brick walls from the middle
phase (fig. 12b). A further study of the eastern area of the Viminacium
baths, where many walls employing a variety of building techniques
were detected near apse V, will allow us to form new conclusions about
this structure.
During the middle of the last century, the Bulgarian architect
Sava Bobčev made the assumption that the number of brick rows in
bonding courses gradually increased over the centuries in Roman and
Byzantine architecture. Although he warned that this number had to
be considered along with the thickness of joints and height of the stone
masonry zone. He suggested a division, according to which three rows
of bricks represented the 3rd and 4th century, four the 4th and 5th cen-
tury, five the 5th or 6th century, while four to seven rows were used
from 7th to 9th century (Бобчев 1952, таблица). This can lead to an as-
sumption that the construction of the middle phase of the Viminacium
baths was completed during the 3rd or 4th century (apses I, III and IV
have courses made of three rows of bricks). However, some buildings
belonging to the aforementioned periods had simultaneous courses of
two or more rows of bricks that were not the consequence of various
stages or periods of construction. Therefore, this division cannot be
fully adopted, and can only be used for indicative dating of buildings
(Čanak-Medić 1980, 142-143).
The walls using the opus testaceum technique within apse V are
made of bricks almost half the thickness of those from which the bond-

Fig. 9. The point in the wall connecting

apse IV and apse V, where the bonding
course was broken and limestone blocks
were used for building. Documentation
of the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade
– Documentation Centre of Viminacium
50 Emilija NIKOLIĆ / Bebina MILOVANOVIĆ / Angelina RAIČKOVIĆ SAVIĆ

ing courses in other apses were made and those generally used in older
brick walls. In this apse, the horizontal mortar joints are much thicker
than the bricks they bond (fig. 6a, 6b). There is an assumption that in
Roman buildings built up until the second half of the 3rd century, the
mortar joint between the rows of bricks in a bonding course is con-
siderably thinner than the bricks themselves. In the second half of the
3rd century, the joint thickness reaches the thickness of the bricks and
sometimes exceeds it; this becomes standard practice from the begin-
ning of the 4th century (Canak-Medic 1980, 142). The bonding course
of the Viminacium baths, dated to the middle phase of the building, or
to the 3rd century, is made of bricks thicker than the mortar joints be-
tween them (fig. 12a). This may be a possible new element for the as-
sumption of the dating of the middle phase and its placement into the
period up to the second half of the 3rd century. In the aforementioned
baths in Scupi, Heraclea Lyncestis and Diocletianopolis, and thermal
complexes in Bansko and Varaždinske Toplice, the thickness of the
bricks and mortar in the bonding courses confirms the dating of these
buildings.
As for the relationship of between brick thickness and the thick-
ness of the mortar joint on the walls built completely of bricks at the
Viminacium baths, we can see that these walls, which probably date
from the middle phase of the building, or from the 3rd century, also
have joints that are thinner than the bricks (fig. 12b). The walls of the
partially excavated rooms in the northwest part of the building, called
“room 1” (fig. 3, 4a, 7) and “room 2” (fig. 3, 4b), are generally built in
the opus incertum technique and brick is present in the arched open-
ings, the reinforcement of angles, in places of subsequent infill and
in central substructure (room 1)4. Here, the thickness of the brick is
significantly greater compared to the thickness of the mortar joint. If
the previously set presumption of the dating of a structure according
to the relative thickness of the bricks and the mortar joint (which is
normally used for the dating of the bonding courses) is applied here,
it will prompt the consideration of the creation and use of these two
facilities in the older or middle phase of the baths, or in the 2nd century
and the first half of the 3rd century. The walls of the youngest phase,
i.e. those dated to the 4th century, have joints distinctly thicker than the
bricks (fig. 6a, 6b, 10, 11). The walls of praefurnia belonging to apse
V and apse IV show the same characteristics as the walls of apse V,
and it can be assumed that they were part of the youngest phase in the
shape we see them today, being built or renewed in the 4th century. It is
interesting to look at the already mentioned joint between the younger
apse V and the, probably, older “broken” wall which connects the apse
to the southern wall of the building (fig. 6b, 11). Here, in addition to
the existence of dilatation due to upgrading, the mutual difference in
the thickness of the bricks and the mortar joints present in the two
structures is visible.
Next to the south wall of the Viminacium baths, rendered and red
painted piers are positioned (fig. 10). Beside a thinner wall continu-
ing to the east, after the dilatation with this massive southern wall, a
staircase is situated, leading to the space called “room 4” (fig. 10, 11).
In the case of the south wall being the southern facade in one build- 4
According to the central substructure
ing period, this space would represent the outer area of the building. and arched openings in the walls, it is as-
The existence of the staircase before the construction of apse V in the sumed that room 1 was used as latrine.
 Contribution to the Study of Roman Architecture in Viminacium... 51

Fig. 10. Room 7, apse V and the

staircase. Documentation of the
Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade ‒
Documentation Centre of Viminacium

Fig. 11. The staircase and the point at

which the structural division between
apse V and the wall, which connects
the apse to the building’s southern wall,
is visible (it can be seen in Fig. 6b as
well). The bonding course of three brick
rows in the wall is clearly visible here.
The marked brick is the height of the
bonding course, which can be traced
in the other parts of the building (Fig.
2). Documentation of the Institute of
Archaeology, Belgrade ‒ Documentation
Centre of Viminacium

shape we see it today, can be assumed by the trapezium form of the

5
Reading of the coins was carried out
by Dr. Saša Redžić from the Institute of
Archaeology, Belgrade.
apse, which may have been built this way so that access to the stair-
case would still be possible. Further excavations in this area, with walls
built in opus incertum technique having layers of brick, similar to the
walls of the room 1 and the room 2, will allow us to offer more sup-
ported assumptions.
Archaeological Finds
Archaeological excavations of the Viminacium baths conducted from
2003 to 2007 provided us with hundreds of finds, the most numerous
being bronze coins (Миловановић 2008, 53). This remarkable numis-
matic material has mostly been read,5 and we can present certain pre-
liminary conclusions here.
In room 2, the largest number of coins that were found date from
the end of the 2nd to the 4th century. By far the largest number of coins
dates from the second half of the 3rd century, especially from the reign
52 Emilija NIKOLIĆ / Bebina MILOVANOVIĆ / Angelina RAIČKOVIĆ SAVIĆ

Fig. 12. Bonding course in the wall

of apse III, dated to the middle build-
ing phase, with joints thinner than the
bricks (a), a brick wall dated to the mid-
dle building phase with joints thinner
than the bricks (b). Documentation of
b the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade ‒
Documentation Centre of Viminacium

of Aurelian (270-275) ‒ which is represented by 26 specimens, and

Probus (276-282) ‒ with 7 specimens found. The layers of soot in room
1 and room 2, together with the lack of coins dated to a later period, tes-
tify to a fire and the cessation of use of this part of the baths at the very
end of the 3rd century (280s). Although the demolition of Viminacium
has been recorded by sources, it was dated to the second half of the
3rd century, and was assumed to be the consequence of punishment
Contribution to the Study of Roman Architecture in Viminacium... 53

meted out by Emperor Gallienus to the Moesian residents following a

military rebellion (Mirkovic 1968, 72). The mentioned destruction of
the baths cannot be associated with these events because they probably
happened before it. According to some authors, Gallienus took his re-
venge in 261 (Mirkovic 1968, 71) and he ruled until 268. So, the cessa-
tion of life in the Viminacium baths may be connected to some other
destruction or a fire that followed for some other reason. Based on the
above, we can assume that room 1 and room 2 were not renewed in
the 4th century, and that they existed in the form in which we see them
today during the middle phase of the building life, the 3rd century. We
can maybe connect the beginning of their use, according to the coins
found, with the end of the 2nd century.
The coins dating from the rule of Emperor Constantine I are the
oldest dated coins found in the parts of the building where new struc-
tures were probably built during a renewal above the bonding brick
courses. This further suggests that the renewal of the building was
performed at the beginning of the 4th century. However, immediately
next to the south wall of apse V, by the preserved staircase and room 4,
precisely in the so-called “room 7” (fig. 3, 10), coins dated to the time
of Alexander Severus (222-235), Aurelian (270-275) and Diocletian
(292) were found. Thus, evidencing the existence of this room / space
at an even earlier stage of the bath’s life, before the building of apse V
in the form we see today. The coin dated to the latest period is a coin
of Theodosius (379-395), found in a layer of the rubble in the southern
part of the building.
In addition to money, during the research of the Viminacium
baths, a large amount of ceramic material was found in the layers of
rubble, together with remains of bricks and stones, floor bricks, tiles
and mosaic and wall painting fragments.
An older ceramic horizon was recorded in the northern and north-
western part of the baths, in the space to which room 1 and room 2
belong. Bowls are represented in the largest number of types in this
entity. Irrespective of whether they were imported, locally produced
or locally produced but modelled on imported examples, their com-
mon feature is that they are all dated to the period from the second
half of the 2nd to the end of the 3rd century. Only sporadic samples of
forms that occur later are present. The same is true with pots. They
are mostly cooking pots made of sandy clay with a grey fabric and an
untreated external surface. They often have grooved rims, a lid and,
usually, no handles. However, in examples made of medium fine-tex-
tured clay with red fabric, they had cylindrical necks and two or three
handles. This type of pot belongs to table pottery and is one of the
most commonly present forms in all Viminacium sites. Unfortunately,
this typology is difficult to determine chronologically, as it occurs in
layers ranging from the 2nd to the 4th century. When talking about pot-
tery for transport and the storage of food and drinks, in this area of the
Viminacium baths several types of amphorae were found, with import-
ed examples from present day Spain and Myrmekia in Greece, dated to
the middle and the end of the 2nd to the second third of the 3rd century.
The repertoire of these forms is supplemented by local specimens with
a flat bottom, originating from the Viminacium workshop and dated to
the same period. All reviewed and analysed ceramic material from the
northern and north-western part of the baths leads to the assumption
54 Emilija NIKOLIĆ / Bebina MILOVANOVIĆ / Angelina RAIČKOVIĆ SAVIĆ

Fig. 13. Late antique forms of pot-

tery found in the baths building.
Documentation of the Institute of
Archaeology, Belgrade ‒ Documentation
Centre of Viminacium

that, after the end of the 3rd century, it was not functional or used in
the way it was previously.
The youngest ceramic material found in the Viminacium baths be-
longs to the late Roman horizon and dates from the second to the sev-
enth decade of the 4th century. It is present in the central and southern
part of the building, as well as in the area related to apse V and room 4
(but in a much smaller quantity). Here, glazed shapes characteristic of
the 4th century were found (Raičković 2012, 154) (fig. 13).
Conclusion
The Viminacium baths were, therefore, in use from the second half of
the 1st century AD to the end of the 4th century. Structures belonging to
the oldest phase, dated to the period of the 1st to the 2nd century, have
been partially excavated. If we talk about the remains of architecture we
can see today, we can assume that the emergence of the structures of the
northern and western part of the baths, as well as the central area with
four apses, are connected to the end of the 2nd and the first half of the 3rd
century. The north-western part of the building (room 1 and room 2)
was probably in use only until the end of the 3rd century, when life at the
baths was interrupted for a short time. While, other parts of the build-
ing lasted even later, being renewed in different ways and probably used
until the end of the 4th century. The renewal from the beginning of the
4th century is most visible in the south-eastern part of the baths, where
apse V is positioned. The Viminacium baths survived until the end of
the 4th century, when they were abandoned after a fire that is testified
to by the presence of soot, especially in the area of the ​​hypocaust of the
youngest phase of the building (h2 – fig. 3). This event, resulting in the
permanent abandonment of the building, can be connected with the
period around 380, and the invasion of the Goths.
The interruption to the Viminacium bath’s life that occurred in the
late 3rd century and may have been caused by events important for the
whole area of ​​Viminacium is also indicated by the results of research of
a nearby amphitheatre that ceased to function during the same period.
The amphitheatre excavations have shown the existence of at least three
Contribution to the Study of Roman Architecture in Viminacium... 55

phases of the building, defined by changes in the structures. According

to research, the emergence of a wooden amphitheatre is apparent in
the first quarter of the 2nd century and the reign of Trajan, while the
construction of the second phase of stone and wood mostly relates to
the rule of Hadrian, being finished in the middle of the 2nd century. In
the period from the second half of the 2nd century to the middle of the
3rd century, further changes to the structure of the building were made,
but at the end of the 3rd century or in the early 4th century, the building
lost its function for an as yet unclear reason, after which the space was
abandoned and filled with 4th century layer. In the middle of, or during
the second half of, the 4th century, a late Roman necropolis emerged
here (Nikolić / Bogdanović 2015, 553-554).
It is interesting to compare this research of the Viminacium baths
to the research of the baths in the nearby Roman town of Margum,
near today’s Dubravica. These baths were built in the second century,
and were used until some period in the 3rd century, when a pause in
use occurred (Марић 1951, 119-126; Цуњак 1996, 111-112), also for
an as yet unknown reason. However, unlike the Viminacium baths, the
Margum building was not renewed soon afterwards. The first inter-
ventions followed only in the late 4th or early 5th century, probably after
the Gothic intrusion. This attack did not lead to a permanent aban-
donment of the building, as is assumed to be the case in Viminacium,
rather to the continuation of its life, which lasted until 453, and the ar-
rival of the Huns (Марић 1951, 119-126; Цуњак 1996, 107, 111-112).
Recent research of the Viminacium baths have not provided evidence
that the building continued to be used after the 4th century, although
following excavations carried out in 1974, these assumptions were also
made (Kondic / Zotović 1974, 97).
The Viminacium baths are the oldest baths to have been researched
in the territory of Serbia thus far (Janković 2012, 29; after comparing
data given in Јеремић / Гојгић 2012, 27). The majority of the remains
of Roman baths discovered in former Moesia Superior belong to the
3rd and 4th century (Кузмановић 1988, 15). The remains of wall paint-
ings, marble slabs, window glass, and mosaic tiles indicate that the
Viminacium baths were lavishly decorated (Kondic / Zotović 1974, 97;
Миловановић, 2008, 53). Research conducted thus far has provided
us with plenty of pottery and numismatic material that shows several
phases in the building life and supports the assumptions made follow-
ing the research of masonry techniques present in the structures of the
building.
The mutual dependence of masonry techniques and construction
periods in Roman buildings is shown in the Viminacium baths, as well
as in the examples of baths researched in the nearby territory, mainly
in the territory of the former Eastern Roman Empire. In these build-
ings we see the same techniques and principles in the use of building
materials, with only small differences as a result of local conditions
and available resources. Many of these baths also underwent several
phases of construction and underwent a variety of new constructions
and adaptations, usually after some damage. But, certainly also as a
result of the desire for a change in the space, especially in the later pe-
riod when a large number of baths were converted into buildings for
other purposes. All of these processes were accompanied by different
modifications to the masonry techniques.
56 Emilija NIKOLIĆ / Bebina MILOVANOVIĆ / Angelina RAIČKOVIĆ SAVIĆ

In this paper, attention has been focused on the area of the​

Viminacium baths in which the largest number of coins were found
(room 2), and on the space in which the masonry techniques most
differed from the techniques represented in other parts of the baths
(apse V). Therefore, the short analysis of masonry techniques repre-
sents only a small contribution to the study of the architecture of the
Viminacium baths. Techniques in this building are unevenly used, and
today they are unrecognisable in some areas, due to their adjustment
to a particular use in the construction or to repairs on a smaller or
larger scale. The fact that the Viminacium baths have not yet been fully
excavated does not allow us to offer any final conclusions regarding
the reasons for the existence of the varieties of masonry techniques
and the periods of their use. Only after the completion of excavations
and research of the surrounding buildings, including obtaining new
information about the historical events that caused or stopped the
construction works in whole area of Viminacium in a particular pe-
riod, together with analysis of each individual structure of the baths,
will it be possible to explain the presence of different building and ma-
sonry techniques and their execution in this building.
Acknowledgments
We warmly thank our colleague Dr Saša Redžić, from the Institute of
Archaeology in Belgrade, who performed the cleaning and reading of
the coins found during research of the Viminacium baths conducted in
the period from 2003 to 2007.

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Принос към изучаването

на римската архитектура
във Виминациум: изследване
на строителните техники
на термите
Емилия НИКОЛИЧ / Бебина МИЛОВАНОВИЧ /
Ангелина РАИЧКОВИЧ-САВИЧ

(резюме)
Обществените бани (терми) на Виминациум (край днешния град
Костолац в Сърбия) са най-старите римски бани на територията
на съвременна Сърбия. Използвани са от втората половина на І
век до края на ІV век. Досегашните проучвания показват, че тер-
мите имат три строителни периода, като всеки е построен върху
руините на предходния. В края на ІІІ век баните не се използват
58 Emilija NIKOLIĆ / Bebina MILOVANOVIĆ / Angelina RAIČKOVIĆ SAVIĆ

за известно време. Причината за това прекъсване засега е неиз-

вестна. Но тя е характерна за района около Виминациум, защото
същото се случва по това време в амфитеатъра на града и в близ-
кия римски град Маргум.
Налице е взаимна зависимост между техниките на градеж
и строителните периоди както в термите на Виминациум, така
и в други околни римски бани. Повечето техни конструктивни
промени са наложени от разрушения. Но някои адаптации са ре-
зултат от желания за промяна на пространството през периоди,
когато много бани са преобразувани в сгради с друго предназна-
чение.
Строителните техники в баните на Виминациум са прилагани
нерегулярно и днес са трудно различими в някои части на тер-
мите, защото са адаптирани за специален градеж или за ремонт.
Стените на средния строителен период са използвани за осно-
ва на градежа на третия най-млад период. Средният е построен
главно в opus incertum mixtum, докато следващият период е из-
дигнат в така наречения „византийски“ opus testaceum.
Археологическите разкопки в термите на Виминациум осигу-
риха многобройни находки, сред които преобладават бронзови
монети и керамика. Те също са взети предвид в настоящата ста-
тия, за да се изведат надеждни изводи. Изследванията на тези и
други дребни находки потвърдиха архитектурния анализ. Ясно е,
че историята на една древна сграда е надеждна само ако се прила-
га интердисциплинарен подход при нейното изследване.
Изчерпателно обяснение на строителната история на терми-
те във Виминациум ще бъде възможно само след завършване на
тяхното археологическо проучване, както и на това на околните
сгради.

Emilija Nikolić
architect, research assistant
e.nikolic@ai.ac.rs

Bebina Milovanović PhD

archaeologist, research associate
bebina27@yahoo.com

Angelina Raičković Savić PhD

archaeologist, research associate
araickovic@yahoo.com

Institute of Archaeology
Knez Mihailova 35/IV
PO Box 202
SRB-11000 Belgrade