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Title: Cultural history of the konkan based on silahara inscriptions

Researcher: Paranjape, Binda
Guide(s): Gokhale, S L
Keywords: Cultural History, Inscriptions, Biological Animals
Components
University: Savitribai Phule Pune University
Completed Date: 1989
Abstract: Abstract not available newline newline
Pagination: 222p.
URI: http://hdl.handle.net/10603/149017
Appears in Departments: Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute Pune

file:///G|/...s/Cultural%20history%20of%20Konkan%20based%20on%20Silahara%20inscriptions_Binda%20PAranjape_1989/00_Details.txt[12/28/2018 7:13:55 PM]

CULTURAL HISTORY OF THE KONKAN
BASED ON
S IL A H A R A INSCRIPTIONS

Thesis Submitted To

THE U N IV E R S IT Y OF POONA

For The Degree Of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

In The Department Of Archaeology

By

Ms. B IN D A PARANJAPE

July, 1989. Poona.

 ■ C O N T E N T S

Chapter Page

INTRODUCTION 1

1 THE PO LIT Y AND ADMINISTRATION 7

2 HISTOR ICAL GEOGRAPHY AND

CLT.TURAL ETHNOGRAPHY 51

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 64

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 130

RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY 153

SUr-'J-L\RY AND CONCLUSION 199

A PPS; DICES

I ; GENEOLOGY OF THE S IL A w Ir AS 208

II : AMBARNATH TEMPLE 211

BIBLIOGRAPHY 214

MAP : LOCATION OF THE PLACES

FROM THE SILAH^RA RECORDS
 LliJT OF PLATES

(A l l Platos a re of Ambarnath torrple)

I t'irtya - -anesa
• •

II TenTOle - S i d e V i e w

T IT Details 0 -: t h e o u t e r w a l l

IV Camunda

V Mahisac:,’. r ;iar d in i

VI S rid h a r a - visnu
« •

VII Sursundari
 a c k m o w l e d g e m s n t

I v/ould l i ':e to express m / s in c e r e g r a t it u d e to

my G u id e Dr. s. L. Qo::hale whose expert g u ida n ce has

h e lp e d me at e v e r / step of my research work.

The s t a f f of the Department o f A rc h a eo lo g y ,

Deccan C olleqe des'.?rves a substanti.al c r e d it of t h is

work. I thank ther: a l l .

A. sp-?cial mention needs to be made o f the

l i b r a r / stiaff o f Deccan c o lle g e . I ofl;er them a ll my

s in c e r e thanks for the help e x te n d e d .

I take t h is o p p o r tu n ity to thank the a u t h o r it ie s

of Deccan c o l l e g e Fost- graduate and Research I n s t i t u t e ,

UGC and I ,:!!R fo r exten ding f i n a n c i a l a s s is t a n c e for my

work.

To rn/ f r i e n d s , no e x p r e s s io n of g r a t it u d e is

su ffic ien t.

B in d a P a r a n ja p e .
 CERTIFICATE

C ZR T IPIS D th a t the work in co rp o ra ted in the

t h e s is 'C u lt u r a l H is to r y O f The Konkan Eased on

S h ila h a r a I n s c r i p t i o n s ' suk^mitted by Smt. Binda

P a ran jap e was c a r r ie d out by t h e c a n d id a te under

my g u id a n c e . Such m aterial as has b een o b t a in e d

from o th er sources has l e e n d u ly acknov/ledged in

the t h e s i s .

D r. S. L. Gokhale
(Research G u id e)
 /.EFRSVIATIONS

AS ; K au tiliy a Arthasastra

A SI : A r c h a e o lo g ic a l Survey Of I n d i a R e p o rts.

AT'/SI : rirchaeological Survey of 'Western In d ia

R eport.

-II ; corpus In sc rip tio n u m Indicarum .

lA : In d ia n .antiquary.

JTPRAS : jo u r n a l O f the Borribay Branch o f the Royal

A siatic s o c ie t y

: Jo u r n a l of the U n i v e r s i t / o f Bombay.

JESI ; jo u r n a l Of the Ep igra- phical S o ciety of

In d ia .

: jo u r n a l of the Numismatic So ciety of I n d i a .

J^^AS ; Journal O f the Royal A s i a t i c S o c ie t y .

riabh : Mahah'harat

PIH C : Proceedings o f the In d ia n H is t o r y C ongress.

 \
I N T R 0 D U C T I 0 N

B i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e g r o u p s rnan t o g e t h e r w i t h

m onkeys, l e m u r s a n d the t a r s i e r s ^ . H o wever, ma n

p r o v e s to b e d i f f e r e n t f r o m r e s t o f the animals.

T h i s d i f f e r e n c e has c o m e t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s of

adaptation to h i s natural se tting which t ransferred

m a n f r o m a n i m a l to h u m a n b e i n g . T h i s a d o p t i o n gets

r e f l e c t e d t h r o u g h knowledge, belief, art, moral, law,

c u s t o m a n d a n y o t h e r h a b i t o f m a n as a m e m b e r of

society. All t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s of h u m a n a d o p t i o n ar e

b r o a d l y t i t l e d as 'culture*. C u l t u r e is m o r e than a

biological phenomenon, it is l e a r n e d and t r a n s f e r r e d

f r o m o n e g e n e r a t i o n to another. A n i m a l s can h a v e

culture, b u t t h e y c a n n o t p a s s it to a n o t h e r m e m b e r of

t h e i r society. H u m a n b e i n g s h a v e an a d d e d g i f t of

memory, w h i c h p r e s e r v e s the e a r l i e r esqjerience. Human

b e i n g s , b e c a u s e of t h e i r c a p a c i t y to m e m o r i s e c a n

s u s t a i n cul t u r e .

c u l t u r e is a u n i v e r s a l phenotmenon. All the

human groups have created and sustained culture.

H owever, t h e I n t e r e s t i n g f a c t is t h a t t h e m a n i f e s t a ­

t i o n s o f c u l t u r e d i f f e r f r o m r e g i o n to r egion. Each

c u l t u r e h a p p e n s to h a v e a u n i q u e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s .

T h e u n i v e r s a l s in c u l t u r e p r o v i d e a f r a m e w o r k In w h i d i
 5
the d e t a i l s o f e a c h c u l t u r e con )onents h a v e t h e i r

s e p a r a t e e x i stence.

F or t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c u l t u r e as u n i v e r s a l

e x p e r i e n c e o n e m u s t h a v e m o r e and m o r e d e t a i l s a b o u t

the regional culture manifestations. A culture can­

n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d u n l e s s its p a s t is t aken i n t o

consideration. T h u s the s t u d y o f r e g i o n a l h i s t o r y •

b e c o m e s v e r y I n p ortant. w i t h this i n t e n t i o n the s t udy

of c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y of a s m all g e o g r a p h i c a l u n i t viz.

t h e KoAkan, is t a k e n up. For the understanding of t h e

c u l t u r e of the D e c c a n in g e n e r a l a n d of t h e c o a s t a l

r e g i o n s of^ I n d i a In p a r t i c u l a r this s h o u l d p r o v e useful,

I

T h e h i s t o r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s are p o s s i b l e w i t h

t h e h e l p o f r e l i a b l e sources, o u t of a w i d e r a n g e of

s o u r c e s I n s c r i p t i o n s are c o n s i d e r e d to b e o n e o f the

i n p o r t a n t ones. F o r the p r e s e n t t o p i c I n s c r i p t i o n s o f

t h e S i l a h a r a s d y n a s t y are t r e a t e d as the m a i n souirce

m aterial. Thus, this p r o j e c t a l m s a t s t u d y i n g the

c u l t u r e of the K o A k a n as r e f l e c t e d through t h e i n s c r i p ­

t i o n s o f the Silaharas, t h e r d a y I n v e s t i g a t i n g the

p o s s i b i l i t y o f f o r m i n g a c o m p r e h e n s i v e p i c t u r e of the

c u l t u r a l p a s t b a s e d on t h e I n s c r i p t i o n a l data.
 Koftkan, the c o a s t a l s t r i p o f M a h a r a s h t r a / b o u n d e d

b y the S a h y a d r i r a n g e s on the e a s t and b y the A r a b i a n sea

o n the west, is a land w h i c h is s u p p o s e d to h a v e b e e n

r e c l a i m e d f r o m the s e a b y the M y t h o l o g i c a l h e r o
I A

Parasurama . T h e land is hilly# e s p e c i a l l y t o w a r d s south,

intersected by m a r s h y creeks. H e a v y m o n s o o n s are

followed by a dry season of eight months even the

d r i n k i n g w a t e r b e c o m e s scanty. The o n l y p r o f i t ^ l e

a s s e t of t h i s l a n d s c a p e is the p o r t s . The contribution

o f B o m b a y P o r t in the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the m o n s t e r c i t y o f

B o m b a y is p r o v e d b e y o n d doubts. In the h i s t o r i c a l t imes

the ports like K a l y ^ / sopara, Chaul, Ttiana o n the Koftkan

• • •
c o a s t f u n c t i o n e d as the g a t e w a y s t h r o u g h w h i c h n o t o n l y

the c o m m o d i t i e s b u t even the i d e a s w e r e e x c h a n g e d w i t h

t h e o u t s i d e world. Thus, t h e l a n d o f KOftkan h a s p l a y e d

a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in t h e c u l t u r a l life of India.

O v e r this l a n d of Koflkan the s i l a h a r « s r u l e d

f r o m a b o u t 8th c e n t u r y to 12th c e n t u r y A.D. Two houses

o f the s i l ^ a r a s are k n o w n f r o m the i n s c r i p t i o n a l

records. T h e s o u t h e r n h o u s e s t a r t e d its r u l e w i t h

S a n a p h u l l a a r o u n d 765 A.D. Rastrakuta king KTsna I

• •• • •• •
d e f e a t e d the c h a l u k y a s a n d p l a c e d S a n a p h u l l a as a

f e u d a t o r y o v e r the s o u t h e r n K o A k a n p r o v i n c e . This h o u s e

r u l e d o v e r the south K o n k a n a r e a u p t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
 ‘
f

t h e 1 1 t h c e n t u r y A .D . Ttien t h e a r e a w a s t a k e n o v e r b y

the northern house. The nort h e r n house also started

i ts r u l e a s a f e u d a t o r y of the R a s t r a k u t a s d u r i n g the
•• •
t i m e o f G o v l n d a III, a r o u n d 8 0 0 A.D. So far n o links

b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o h o u s e s h a v e b e e n found. Both these

h o u s e s c l a i m t h e o r i g i n f r o m t h e s a m e l i n e a g e i.e.

from the v i d y a d h a r a Jitmtavahana. Both these made

l a r g e s c a l e d o n a t i o n s to v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s

w h i c h a re r e c o r d e d o n c o p p e r p l a t e s auid s t o n e slabs.

T h e i n s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h a r e f o u n d so far a r e c o m p i l e d

b y the e m i n e n t e p i g r a p h i s t Dr. V.V. M i r a s h i i n t h e sixth

v o l u m e of t h e c o r p u s I n s c r i p t i o n u m . Indicarrura,

p u b l i s h e d i n 1976. in t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s t h e c u l t u r a l

s t u d y of K o n k a n b a s e d o n t h e s e i n s c r i p t i o n s is p r e s e n t e d .

P o l i t i c a l B a c k g r o u n d ^;
I
The rock edicts of Maurya k i n g A s oka found at

sopara indicate t h e trlauryan p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e r e a c h i n g

u p t o t h e Kortkan r e g i o n d u r i n g t h e tioie of A s o k a # i f n o t

earlier. The next political power to have this territory

u n d e r i ts r u l e w a s the ^ d h r a - S a t a v i ^ a n a s . During the

constant struggle between the Kshatrapas and the

S a t a v a h a n a s K o n k a n m u s t b e u n d e r e i t h e r o f the p o w e r s b y

turns. A f t e r t he S a t a v S i a n a s t h e Trail<^takas a n d t h e
K a l a c h u r i e s r u l e d o v e r t he KoAkan. F r o m a b o u t t he 5th

c e n t u r y A.D. o n w a r d s it w a s u n d e r the chal u k y a s .

D a n t i d u r g a , o n e o f the f e u d a t o r i e s o f t h e C h a l u k y a s

f o u n d e d t h e n e w e n p i r e o f t h e R a s t r a k u t a s in t h e Deccan,

larsna I, the s u c c e s s o r o f D a n t i d u r g a c o n q u e r e d the

••«

Koftkan. T h i s w a s t h e f i r s t h o u s e of th e S i l S h a r a s in

Koftkan. A s it h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t earlier# Govlnda

III a n o t h e r R a s t r a k u t a k i n g e s t a b l i s h e d o n e m o r e
•• •

S i l a h a r a h o u s e in KoAkan t o w a r d s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 5th

c e n t u r y A.D,
 ?.::?ERENCES

1. A.L. Kro: er _ A nthropo logy, p . 43.

2. s ah y ad rik h a n d a , 2 .1
••

3. T.S. 3hGjv;alkar -

Konkonchya Itihasachi Parsvabhumi

 7

POLITY AND administration

AS a m a r k o f g o o d a n d e f f i c i e n t G o v e r n m e n t the

s t a t e was to p r o m o t e Dharma, A r t h a a n d K a m a a c c o r d i n g

to a n c i e n t I n d i a n texts on poli t y ^ , in t h i s c h a p t e r

\ie p r o p o s e t o p r e s e n t the s t u d y o f the i n s c r l p t l o n a l

d a t a f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w s t a t e d above. Similarly

the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l e l e m e n t s o f the state w i t h t h e i r

respective functions known from the records will b e

presented.

1, The p r o m o t i o n of Dharma: T h e w o r d D h a r m a is

g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d in t h e s e n s e o f s p i r i t u a l a s p e c t

o f life. However, when it is u s e d in the c o n t e x t of

2
polity it receives a specific meaning , This principle

m a i n l y a i m e d at the e n c o u r a g e m e n t g i v e n to virtues, the

n o b l e q u a l i t i e s o f man. F o r the a c h i e v e m e n t o f this

g o a l the s t a t e p r o m o t e d e d u c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g so that

the s u b j e c t s w i l l b e e n r i c h e d in t helf k n owledge.

Secondly, the s t a t e r e c o g n i z e d the irrportance o f r e l i g i o u s

i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h assu r e s the m e t a p h y s i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t

of m a n k i n d a nd g a v e l i b eral s u p p o r t to such i n s t i t utions.

• — —
F r o m the i n s c r i p t i o n s of the s i l a h a r a s t h e s e two aspects

viz, p r o m o t i o n g i v en to e d u c a t i o n a n d to the r e l i g i o u s

i n s t i t u t i o n s is r e f l e c t e d v e r y often, in f a c t m a j o r i t y

o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s are the r e c o r d s of d o n a t i o n s m a d e to

various religious institutions. The Brahmins who received

 8

the donations were expected t o p e r fo rm six religious

d u t i e s in w h i c h A d h y a y a n a a n d A d h y a p a n a i.e. l e a r n i n g

a n d i m p a r t i n g the e d u c a t i o n is i ncluded, in the

C h i n c h a n i p l a t e s o f c a m u n d a r a j a t h e r e i s r e f e r e n c e to

o n e M a t h i k a w h e r e l e a r n e d B r a h m i n s w e r e rece i v e d . T h i s

Mathika was most probably the place where the scriptures

w e r e s t u died. The concept of education was probably

r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e s p i r i t u a l learning, other religious

i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h r e c e i v e d p a t r o n a g e f r o m the s i l a h a r a s

w e r e the t e m p l e s . The Buddhist establishment at Kanheri

was functioning without any hindrance from the s i l a h ^ a

kings. Th e p r i n c i p l e o f p r o m o t i o n of d h a r m a I n t e n d e d at

the p e a c e f u l c o - e x i s t e n c e of d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s of t h e

society. T h e r e is n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e to s h o w t h e a c h i e v e -

m e n t of th e S i l a h a r a s i n this regeurd f r o m the i n s c r l p t i o n a l

data. However, the fact t h a t t h e S i l a h a r a s c o u l d c o n t i n u e

t h e i r r u l e f or a p e r i o d of f o u r c e n t u r i e s o r m o r e I n d i c a t e s

t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t s as r u l e r s i n the f i e l d o f 'Etfiarma* as

well,

2. The Promotion of Artha t T h e a c h i e v e m e n t of m a t e r i a l

p r o s p e r i t y Is I n t e n d e d b y the f o l l o w i n g of t h i s prlnciftle^.

Throughout the Indian history agriculture has bee n the

b a c k b o n e o f e c o nomy. The maxicoum I n c o m e e a r n e d b y t h e s t a t e

w o u l d b e f r o m t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l revenue. To keep this

source constant or increasing the state h a d to make

p r o v i s i c A S f o r the d e v e l o p m e n t o f a g r i c u l t u r e *

c o n s t r u c t i o n of d a m s a n d rese r v o i r s , d i g g i n g the canals,

p r o v i d i n g g r a n a r i e s for s t o r a g e a r e s o m e of the f u n c t i o n s

c a r r i e d o u t b y the state, in this r e g a r d h a r d l y a n y t h i n g

is k n o w n f r o m t h e S i l a h a r a r e c ords. R i c e c u l t i v a t i o n is

k n o w n f r o m the p l a c e - n a m e s like Saliyapa, (Sail - m e a n i n g

paddy). However, t h e r e i s n o r e f e r e n c e to t h e s t a t e

m a k i n g a n y p r o v i s i o n s for t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f p a d d y

cultivation,

I ___ ___

In the t r a d e a c t i v i t y the S i l a h a r a s s e e m t o h a v e

t a k e n a l o t of i n t erest. T h e t r a d e r s h a d s o m e s p ecial

r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S i l a h a r a k i n g s like t h e y c o u l d p r o t e c t

t h e i r i n t e r e s t b y o f f e r i n g g i f t s t o t h e king. In t he

P a t t a n« k u• d i p l a t e s of A v a s a r a II t h e r e a r e r e f e r e n c e s to

m e r c h a n t s w h o o f f e r e d 40 D i n a r a s t o t h e k i n g a s k i n g for

h i s favour. T h e t ra d e w a s e n c o u r a g e d b y c o n s t r u c t i n g the

r o a d s a n d w a r e h o u s e s , b y e n s u r i n g the s a f e t y o f the roads,

b y keeping strict control over weights and measures. The

I ^ _

i n s c r i p t i o n s o f the s i l a h a r a s do n o t r e f l e c t a n y o f t h e s e

f u n c t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e state. However, c e r t a i n

i n d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e c a n b e cited. Sea-trade was carried

o u t w i t h the n e a r b y states, i h e r e a r e r e f e r e n c e s t o the

4 _ _
p o r t s l i k e C h e m u l l y a , s u r p a r a k a , N a g a p u r w h i c h w e r e the

f a m o u s p o r t s f r o m t h e S a t a v a h a n a period. Exenptlon was

 iO

g i v e n in t h e c u s t o m d u e s to s o m e t r a d e r s t r a d i n g t h r o u g h

the p o r t s o f K o A k a n p r o b a b l y as a p a r t of e n c o u r a g e m e n t

g i v e n for th e t r a d e b y the state. T h e r e f e r e n c e s to

trade activity during the p e riod under r e view are too

l e s s to f o r m a n y c o n p r e h e n s i v e p i c t u r e o f t h e c o m m e r c i a l
I _ _

a c t i v i t y b a s e d u p o n the inscriptic»ns o f t h e Silaharas.

3. T h e P r o m o t i o n o f Kama: I ^ m a w a s to b e p r o m o t e d

b y m a i n t a i n i n g l a w a n d o r d e r i n the land. The subjects

s h o u l d b e e n s u r e d o f p e a c e a n d j u s t i c e b y t h e king^.

A s a p a r t o f p r o m o t i o n o f K a m a t h e s t a t e w a s to g i v e
I.

p a t r o n a g e to f i n e a rts as well. T h e S i l a h a r a s s e e m to

h av e discharged their duties in t his regard considering

it to b e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t . In a long p e r i o d of four

centuries they maintained the internal order and protected

the b o u n d a r i e s e v e n b y g i v i n g t h e c o s t of t h e i r llves^.
I __ ^

S i l a h a r a k i n g A n a n t adeva, l i k e a n i d e a l king, fought

a g a i n s t t h e A r a b s w h o h a d t r o u b l e d the G o d s a n d B r a h m i n s ^ ,

T h e p r o m o t i o n of K a m a b y o f f e r i n g e n c o u r a g e m e n t to
I _ ^

f i n e arts w a s also a c h i e v e d b y t h e - S i l a h a r a s . The

b e a u t i f u l t e n p l e a t A m b a m a t h b e a r s a t e s t i m o n y o f it.

T h i s t e n p l e is v e r y i m p o r t a n t f r o m t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l p o i n t

of view. This is the earliest dated temple o f M a l w a style

8
below Narmada , a number of loose sculptures found all
over the KoAkan r e g io n are Identified as the creations of
 11

the s i l a h a r a period, u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h o s e c a n n o t b e da t e d

with accuracy, Hence# n o t h i n g m o r e can b e s a i d abo u t them.

Apart from the duties mentioned above there are a

f e w m o r e a c h i e v e m e n t s of t h e s i l a h a r a s tanown f r o m their

records. A c c o r d i n g to t h e t e x t s t h e kin g is r e s p o n s i b l e
9
for the m o r a l u p l i f t m e n t of t h e p e o p l e . The concept of

m o r a l i t y c h a n g e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e times. Hence, i t was

n e c e s s a r y for the k i n g to b e w e l l - a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the

c o n t e n p o r a r y c u s t o m s a n d m o r a l l a w s and u p h o l d t h e roost

b a l a n c e d o n e s o u t of those. The s i l ^ ^ a s , though not

m u c h k n o w n f o r t h e i r m i l i t a r y exploits, s e e m to h a v e b e e n

v e r y p a r t i c u l a r a b o u t p r o t e c t i n g the m o r a l order. King

A p a r a d i t y a of t his d y n a s t y w r o t e a c o m m e n t a r y o n

Yajnavalkya-smrti. T h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s w o r k lies in

the f act t h a t i t s u g g e s t s m o d i f i c a t i o n in c e r t a i n m l e s

so as to s u i t t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s i t u ations. The best

exatiple of it w o u l d be t h e c o m m e n t s o n t h e p r a c t i c e of

sati. Y a j n a v a l k y a d o e s n o t r e f e r to sati. But Aparark

i n c l u d e s it in h i s work^®. H e g i v e s his o p i n i o n in f a v o u r

o f sati. T h e p o i n t t o b e n o t e d h e r e is t h a t w h e n the i s s u e

is a b s e n t in the o r i g i n a l w o r k A p a r ^ k a d i s c u s s e d i t in h i s

work. T h i s w o r k of A p a r a r k k n o w n as *A p a r a r k a t i k a ’w a s

a c c e p t e d as t h e c o d e of m o r a l i t y in K a s h m i r ^
 12

T h e s l l a h a r a k i n g s e x p r e s s e d the i r a p p r e c i a t i o n

of literature b y offering royal p atronage to the famous

p o e t sodhc3hala^^. some of the ministers o f the

• •
S i l a h a r a s are d e s c r i b e d a s p o e t s in the r e c o r d s w h o w e r e

a l s o the cottposers o f t h e r e c o r d s ^

T h e i d e a l of C a k r a v a r t i n :

This i d e a l is p r a i s e d v e r y h i g h b y t h e w o r k on
14
ancient Indian political systems . A k i n g w a s to

f o l l o w t h i s p r i n c i p l e so as t o a c h i e v e t h e p o l i t i c a l

supremacy. The word cakravartin literally means the

w h e e l s of w h o s e c h a r i o t r o l l e v e r y w h e r e w i t h o u t o b s t r u c -
• — —
tlon. The s i l a h a r a s c o u l d n e v e r b e c o m e c a k r a v a r t i n In

t h i f s e n s e o f the term. The probable cause would b e

t h e s i z e a n d t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e i r kingd o m . K o A k a n is

b o u n d e d b y s e a in t h e w e s t a n d S a h y a d r i r a n g e s In t h e

east. T h e m o u n t a i n s a r e v e r y d i f f i c u l t to c r o s s w i t h

t h e i n t e n t i o n o f a m i l i t a r y attack. The s e a c o u l d b e

us e d for naval expeditions p r o v i d e d o n e h a d a strong

I ^

n a v a l force. T h e s i l a h a r a s d i d n o t h a v e that. The

K a d a m b a s o f G O a o f t e n i n v a d e d the s l l a h a r a t e r r i t o r y

w h i c h the S i l a h a r a s c o u l d n o t check. Howev e r # Inspite

of these hardships the silaharas continued with their

r u l e for a l o n g p e r i o d o f fou r c e n t u r i e s . This they

achieved either b y force o r b y diplomacy, in thi s s e n s e

t he y m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r s u p r e m a c y o v e r K o n k a n a n d c a l l e d

t h e m s e l v e s the 'KoAkan C a k r a v a r t l n s • w i t h pride^^.

 13

A d m in is t r a t io n :

.^ncient I n d i a n P o l i t i c a l t h i n k e r s c o n c e i v e d the

s t a t e as an o r g a n i c v.’
hole. T h e c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h i s

o r g a n i c b o d y are nurril ered seven ^ ^ . These seven

c o n s t i t u e n t s are c a l l e d Saptangas^*^. They a r e as follows:

1) S w a m i n - the k i n g

2) A m a t y a s - the m i n i s t r y

3) R a s t r a o r J a n a p a d a - the t e r r i t o r y
••

4) K o s a - the r e s o u r c e s

5) D u r g a - the f o r t s

6) B a l a o r D a n d a - the m i l i t a r y f o r c e
• *

7) M i t r a - the allies.

T h e s e s e v e n e l e m e n t s are t h e o f f i c e s f o r the

f u n c t i o n of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e king, the f i r s t a n d

t h e m o s t i n p o r t a n t c o n s t i t u e n t w a s to w o r k i n c o - o p e r a ­

t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r offices. (Dentral G o v e r n m e n t w h i c h

e x e r c i s e d the s o v e r e i g n p o w e r s w a s m a i n l y f o r m e d b y the

f i r s t two, r e s t f i v e f o r m e d the s o u r c e s for the state.

The i n s c r i p t i o n s o f the S i l a h a r a s are r i c h in i n f o r m a t i o n

a b o u t t h e s e s e v e n elements.

1. T he K i n g ; T h o u g h t h e S i l a h a r a s a l w a y s h e l d the

s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n t h e y e x e r c i s e d full p o l i t i c a l

a uto n o m y . They could alienate land and villages without

irrperial s a n c t i o n . M o s t o f the t i t l e s a s s u m e d b y the

 14

S il a h a r a s are t o o pompus fo r t h e ir feu d a to r y p o s i t i o n -

p o s s i b l y b e c a u s e they w e r e t h e s u p r e m e a u t h o r i t y for t h e

l a n d t h e y ruled, e.g. S a h a s a - c a k r a v a r t i^ ^ , N i j a b h u j a -

vikramaditya^^, etc. The g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n o f t h e

K o A k a n must h a v e e n a b l e d the s i l a h a r a s to e x e r c i s e the

t o t a l f r e e d o m in t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . It m u s t h a v e b e e n

d i f f i c u l t f or the p a r a m o u n t r u l e r s t o keep d i r e c t h o l d

o v e r s u c h a r e m o t e area. Hence» t h e y w e r e to b e s a t i s f i e d
I ^ ^

w i t h the' a n n u a l t r i b u t e s r e c e i v e d f r o m the s i l a h a r a s a n d

p r e f e r r e d r e c o g n i z i n g t h e i r i n t e m a l autonomy.

T h e d u t i e s o f the r u l e r s r u l i n g in s u c h a r e m o t e

a r e a is to b r i n g t h e local c u l t u r e s of the a r e a t h e y r u l e d

in h a r m o n y w i t h the c u l t u r e s t r e a m of the m a i n l a n d . Further­

m o r e i t was n e c e s s a r y to a c h i e v e t h i s g o a l w i t h o u t c a u s i n g
20
an a b r u p t e n d to a n y o f the p r e - e x i s t i n g p r a c t i c e s , The

S i l a h a r a s s e e m to h a v e a t t e m p t e d in this d i r e c t i o h . Thus

the S i l a h a r a k i n g s d e c l a r e d t h e m s e l v e s to b e t h e d e s c e n d a n t s
— — 21 —
o f the J i m u t a v a h a n s V i d y a d h a r a . This Vidyadhara had

p r o t e c t e d the N a gas. In t h i s s t o r y the p e o p l e o f Koflkan a r e

s y m b o l i z e d as t he N a g a s w h o a r e p r o t e c t e d b y the p o w e r f r o m

the De c c a n . A d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h i s s t o r y is p r e s e n t e d
22
in t h e c h a p t e r on r e l i g i o n a n d m y t h o l o g y ,

Most o f the i n s c r i p t i o n s u n d e r r e v i e w a r e the

donation charters. T h e d o n a t i o n s w e r e m a d e to t h e B r a h m i n s

w h o w e r e the p r o t e c t o r s o f v e d i c and B r a h m a n i c t r a d itions.

 15

By e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s e B r a h m i n s in the land o f Koftkan the

S i l a h a r a s m u s t h a v e a t t e m p t e d to p o p u l a r i s e the e r a h m a n i c a l

faith in this r e m o t e land. T h e y t h e m s e l v e s b e i n g staunch

Saivites, s ' ^ v i s m also r e c e i v e d g e n e r o u s p a t r o n a g e d u r i n g

the si I n a r a s peri o d . T h i s m u s t h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o wards

the p o p u l a r i t y o f S a i v i s m in Koftkan. The s i l a h a r a ru l e r s

a l s o i n t r o d u c e d the n e w style o f t e m p l e a r c h i t e c t u r e viz.

— — 23
the M a l a w a s t y l e in t h e K o A k a n re g i o n d u r i n g the i r r e g i m e •
•

The 'Apar^katika' a commentary on Yajnavalkyasmrtl conposed

b y the s i l a h ^ a king A p a r a d i t y a is a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n In

the l i t e r a r y m a s s of the w o r k s o n co d e s on l e g a l and

s o c i o l o g i c a l issues.

A s the rulers, the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t he S i l a h a r a s

in o t h e r f i e l d s is h a r d l y k n o w n f r o m t h e records.

A p a r t f r o m t h e k i n g o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e royal

h o u s e h o l d a l s o h a d i m p o r t a n t r o l e s to play. T w o such

m e m b e r s a r e f o u n d d i s c h a r g i n g t h e i r d u t i e s f r o m the r e c o r d s
I __ ___

of the Silaharas.

1. T h e Q u e e n 2, T h e C r o w n Prince.

T h e R o l e of t h e Q u e e n : in t h e V e d l c l i t e r a t u r e the

Q u e e n f i g u r e s in t h e l i s t o f t he R a t n i n s i n d i c a t i n g h e r
O A
i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n in t h e c o u r t . T h e r e are n u m b e r o f

instcuices in the a n c i e n t I n d i a n h i s t o r y w h e r e t h e q u e e n

t a k e s p a r t in t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , in the S o u t h I n d i a n
 16

t e r r i t o r y a n d in Decfian u n d e r t h e C h a l u k y a s a n d t h e

R a s t r a a k u t a s , p r i n c e s s e s h a d s h o u l d e r e d the admi n i -
« • •

strative responsibilities. T h e d a u g h t e r of A m o g h a v a r s a

I w h o was the w i f e o f E r r a G a A g a was acting as a

25
g o v e r n o r of a p r o v i n c e . ite p r a c t i c e of t h e q u e ^

a c t i n g as a r e g e n t w h e n t h e h e i r w a s m i n o r w a s f a i r l y

c o m m o n in a n c i e n t India, T h e f a m o u s e x a n p l e s of t h i s
_
__ _ 2g
p r a c t i c e are th e V a k a t a k a Q u e e n P r a b h a v a t i G u p t a and
— — — -27 ’ —
the S a t a v a h a n a jueen U a g a n i k a . In c a s e of t h e Silaharas,

however, t h ere is m o r e f e r e n c e to a n y such r u l e of the

I _ _
queen, C h l y t h r e e q u eens are k n o w n f r o m the S l l a h a r a

records,

1. Queen P a d mala; She w a s the m o t h e r of t h r e e b r o t h e r s

w h o s u c c e e d e d t h e t h r o n e o n e a f t e r t h e other, viz,

Chhit t a r a j a , N a g a r j u n a a n d Mummuni. F r o m the i n s c r i p t i o n s

— 90 29 *
of Chhittaraja*^*^ a n d r-lummuni Q u e e n P a d m a l a is known.

T h e i n s c r i p t i o n s in v ^ich this Q u e e n is m e n t i o n e d are

r e f e r r e d to as ' v yavastha charters. V y a v a s t h a chart e r s

a r e u s u a l l y the c h a r t e r s I s s u e d in the n a m e o f some

s u p r e m e authority, even h i g h e r than the king, e.g, the

Vyavastha c h a r t e r i s s u e d d u r i n g the time of t h e

R i s t r a k u t a k i n g K r s n a iii was i s s u e d in the n a m e o f c o d

•• • ••*

Bhillamaladeva^^. in c a s e of the S l l a h a r a r e c o r d s the

C u e e n - m o t h e r Padm ala s eems to h a v e g a i n e d this p osition.

The p o s i t i o n o f this q u e e n is a l s o r e f l e c t e d in the

B h o i g h a r p l a t e s o f King c h h i t t a r i j a . The d o n a t i o n r e c o r d e d
 17

in t h e s e p l a t e s w e r e m a d e hy the o r d e r s of t h e q u e e n -
» I
•padmaladevya-adesena

2, Q u e e n Pa d m a i : She w a s the w i f e o f k ing Mummuni. T h e

k i n g m a d e t h e d o n a t i o n for t h e w e l f a r e of t h i s queen^^.

N o f u r t h e r d e t a i l s are a v a i l a b l e a b o u t t h i s queen.

3. Queen Liladevi; T h i s q u e e n is a l s o r e f e r r e d to in
— 32
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e donation. K i n g V i k r a m a d i t y a III

m a d e the d o n a t i o n for t h e w e l f a r e of t h i s q u e e n w h o w a s

h i s mother.

T h e R o l e o f T h e G r o w n - P r i n c e ( Y u v a r a j a or K u m a r a ) . T h e

R a t n i m a n d a l o r th e council o f th e k i n g of t h e V e d i c
••
p e r i o d does n o t i n c l u d e the c r o w n - p r i n c e i n t o the list.

N o r does t he l a t e r t e x t s p l a c e h i m am o n g the m i n i s t e r s .

B u t t he l i s t o f r i r t h a s i.e. t h e b o d i e s of l e g a l o f f i c e r s

a n d t h e o f f i c e r s - i n - c h a r g e o f e x e c u t i v e w o r k s i n c l u d e the

crown-prince^^. D u r i n g t h e l i f e - t i m e of t h e r u l i n g k i n g

t h e y u v a r a j a o r t h e h e i r - a p p a r e n t u s e d to f u n c t i o n as

v i c e r o y s o v e r the i m p o r t a n t p r o v i n c e s . The famous example

I

of i t is of K i n g A s o k a w h o w a s t h e v i c e r o y o f u j j a l n d u r i n g

t h e r e i g n o f Bindusar^*^. T h e c r o w n - p r i n c e s u s e d to h a v e

t h e i r o w n coun c i l s o f m i n i s t e r s , p r o m t h e r e c o r d s of t h e
I ^ ___

S i l a h a r a s o n e s u c h a c t i v e c r o w n - p r i n c e is known. King

V i k r a m a d i t y a a c t e d as the v i c e r o y o f P r a n a l a k a - d e s a d u r i n g

.the l i f e - t i m e o f h is f a t h e r A p a r a d i t y a His own

c o u n c i l e r s a re k n o w n f r o m the P a n h a l e p l a t e s I s s u e d b y
 18

himself. A part from this s o l i t a r y r e f e r e n c e the role of

the c r o w n - p r i n c e is n o t r e f e r r e d to in the r e c o r d s u n d e r

review. Th e w o r d R a j a p u t r a o c c u r s in m a n y r e c o r d s w i t h o u t
36
a n y s p e c i f i c p o s i t i o n a t t a c h e d to it ,

— 37
The c r o w n - p r i n c e is also k n o w n as K u m a r a , Very

o f t e n o n e comes a c r o s s the t e r m K u m a r a m a t y a s in c o n t e x t
•20
of Indian p ol i t y . The t e r m is i n t e r p r e t e d as a p r i n c e

of royal b l o o d w h o c a r r i e d o u t the d u t i e s o f Amatya. F r o m

t h e r e c o r d s of th e S i l a h a r a s o n e s i m i l a r c o m p o u n d - n o u n is
— — 39
available, viz. K u m a r a g a d y a n a k a , w e p r o p o s e to take
•
t h i s as an i n d i c a t i o n o f the r u l e of the c r o w n - p r i n c e

o v e r a p a r t of th e kingdom. A detailed discussion conce­

r n i n g this issue is i n c l u d e d in the c h a p t e r on Economy^^,

2. The Ministry ; A c c o r d i n g to Saptartga t h e o r y the n e x t

i m p o r t a n t c o n s t i t u e n t o f the s t a t e i s ministry. T h ough i t

c o m e s second in the o r d e r it is e x t r e m e l y important. The

k i n g is s a i d to b e p o w e r l e s s in a b s ence of the mlnistry^^.

T he irrportance o f m i n i s t r y is e x p r e s s e d in its h e i g h t In

the S a b h a p a r v a o f Mahabharat"^^. Kautilya also emphasises

43
the inpoirtance of tfie m i n i s t r y

A c o u n c i l of m i n i s t e r s a c c o r d i n g to S u k r a n i t l was

c o n s i s t e d of ten members. F o l l o w i n g is the l i s t g i v e n

b y the text"^"^.

1. P u r o h i t a - the r oyal p r i e s t

2. P r a t i n i d h i - the r e p r e s e n t i v e s o f the local

assembly
 19

3. P r a d h a n a - the p r e s i d e n t of t h e o o u n c i l

4. S a c i v a - the M i n i s t e r of w a r / d e f e n c e

5. M a n t r i n - t he H o m e m i n i s t e r

6. P r a d v i v a k - the M i n i s t e r of j u s t i c e / c h i e f j u s t i c e

7. P a n d i t a m a t y a - t h e M i n i s t e r of l a w

8. sumanta - the Minister of finance

9. Atnatya - the M i n i s t e r o f r e v e n u e a n d agriculture

10. D u t a - t h e M i n i s t e r o f alliance.

Manu*^^ a n d Kautllya"^^ m a i n t a i n t h e v i e w t h a t the

nun±»er o f m i n i s t e r s s h o u l d d e p e n d u p o n t h e n e e d of t h e

s i t u a t i o n in the s t a t e and o n t h e s i z e of t h e k ingdom,

— — 47
A c c o r d i n g to N i t i v a k y a m r t a a s m a l l e r n u m b e r is p r e f e r r e d

for the ministry. T h e c o u n c i l c o u l d b e o f 3, 5 or 7

m embe r s . T h e s m a l l e r n u m b e r i s e s s e n t i a l for t h e m a i n t * -

i n a n c e o f t h e s e c r e c y a c c o r d i n g to this text. This helps

in e x p l a i n i n g the s m a l l e r nunnber o f th e c o u n c i l o r s m e n t i o n e d

in the S i T a h a r a records. K o A k a n i is c o n p a r i t i v e l y a s m a l l

a r e a a n d it m i g h t h a v e n e e d e d l e s s n u m b e r o f ministers.

T h e M i n i s t e r s of the S i l a h ' ^ a s known f r o m the r e c o r d s .

(The list Is in a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r ) .

1. A m a t y a : An o f f i c e r i n c h a r g e o f a d i s t r ict^®. He i s

a l s o c a l l e d as t he D e s a k a r y a - N i r v a h a k a ~ o n e w h o c a r r i e s
49
o u t the f u n c t i o n of a p r o v i n c e . T h i s d oes n o t seeni to

b e a s u p e r i o r grade. Dr. A l t e k a r i n t e r p r e t s it in two ways.

 20

At one p la c e he c a l l s the amatyas as the a d v is o r s to the

P r iv y c o u n c il^ ^ and elsew here he quotes sukra^^ who

_ 52
r e fe r s to the Amatyas as the revenue m in is t e r s . D u rin g

the time of H arsavardhana Amatya was the c o l l e c t o r o f the

s t a t e 's share of the land p rod uce in k i n d ^ ^ . Prom the

SiTaTiara records i t appears to have b een in the s im ila r

sense during the p e r io d under r e v ie w . The Amatya or

Kahamatya i s r e fe r r e d to more fr e q u e n tly than another

o ffic e r. In fa c t two o f f i c e r s are r e fe r r e d to more fr e q u ­

ently v i z , the S a n d h iv ig r a h ik a and Amatya, I t i s a lre a d y

s ta te d e a r l i e r t h a t i f the s t a t e i s small the number of

m in is te r s w i l l be a u to m a t ic a lly l e s s . Hence, the most

im portant o f f i c e s v/ill be g iv e n to In d ep en d e n t o f f i c e ­

b e a r e r and r e s t o f t h e fu n c t io n s w i l l be d iv id e d and grouped

under the headshio of a fdw o f f i c e r s . The kingdom o f the

I __ ___

■Silaharas was v e r y sm a ll. Because o f which they had a

sm all m in is t r y . I n th at sm all m in is t r y , however/ th e

revenue department was under a person s p e c i a l l y appointed

for the ta s k . The Amatya is mentioned in the maximum

records p ro b a b ly due to t h e f a c t t h a t b e in g a revenue

o f f i c e r he was d ir e c t l y concerned w ith t h e la n d d o n a tio n .

A part from Amatya on e more revenue o f f i c e r i s known from

these records v i s . the D rv a ^^. The on ly r e fe r e n c e to Drva

« •
is along with Maharnatya, T h is fjrobably i n d i c a t e s that

Drva was a lower ran k revenup o f f i c e r and was p la c e d a t the

 21

pro v in cial le v e l. Out o f the SaptaAgas m entioned e a r l i e r

the Ajnatya correspo nd s to the fourtJi on e, v iz. the K osa.

2. E h a n d a g a r a s e n a /E h a n d a g a r lk a ^ ^ ; An o f f i c e r In charge
• • • •
o f the t r e a s u r y or the roy al s to r e h o u se. It is very

obviou s that th is m in is t e r makes a fr e q u e n t occ u ren ce in

the d o n a tio n c h a r t e r s . T h is departfnent seem to have got

a l o t of irrportance in t h e S l l a h a r a a d m in is t r a t io n v ery

o ft e n the f i r s t and second^^ (Prathama and d v i t l y a ) ,

p r o b a b ly the c h i e f and the a s s i s t a n t t r e a s u r y o f f i c e r s

are r e fe r r e d to in the i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h is o f f i c e r was

a lso c a l l e d as C h h e p a t i. sometimes the number of

C h h e p a t is are more than two. In N andui sto n e i n s c r ip t io n

o f A p a r a d ity a I I th ere are fo u r c h h e p a t is m entio n ed,

— — 57
3. Dandanayaka or D an d a d h lp atl ; These terms are
• •

ex trem ely rare in t h e c o n te x t o f th e S il a h a r a r e c o r d s .

They o c c u r once e a c h . The P anhale p la t e s of v ik ra m ad lty a

m entions the h e r e d it a r y c o n t in u a t io n o f t h i s o f f i c e .

Dandanayak was the o f f i c e r i n c h a r g e of arm - forces. I t is

• •
s u r p r is in g th a t such an im p o rtan t p o s i t io n i s no t r e fe r r e d

to in the records of the S i l a h a r a s . Probat-ly the r u le r s

them selves loo ked i n t o the m atters c o n c e r n in g armaments

a n d s t r a t e g i e s o f w a r. The m i l i t a r y s k i l l s o f ooranaandlng

the troops are ex p re s s e d by the t i t l e s taken b y the

' — — .cp
sila h a ra k in g s , e .g . Raya - catura.r)ga- jaya- catur .
 II

D rv a "^: T h is term o ccurs on ly once in silah a ra

recordsf'^ D r. K ir a s h i m a in ta in s t h a t he was the

revenue o f f i c e r . A a t h is o f f i c e r i s r e f e r r e d to o n ly

once i t i s d i f f i c u l t to continent on h i s e x a c t p o s i t i o n

o r im portance in the a d m in is t r a t iv e system o f the

S ilah aras. O nly thing t h a t can s a f e l y b e s a i d a b o u t

t h is m in is t e r i s th at he was i n f e r i o r in p o s i t i o n than

the Mahamatya, The r e f e r e n c e to t h is is a lr e a d y beai

used under the Amatya.

5* Hadapada o r Tam bulavahaka^^ Hadapa i s a K annada word

fo r Tambul. He i s r e f e r r e d to in one of th e i n s c r i p t i o n s
62
of th e southern b ranch . Tam bula -VaJ:iaka was the b e t e l

box b e a r e r o f the k i n g . On the b a s i s o f o n ly one

referen ce i t i s d iffic u lt to say whether he h a d any

p o s i t io n in the o r d e rs o f the m in is t e r s ,

6, N a u v it a k a : A le a d e r o f the N a v a l w in g ^ ^ , N a u v it a k a
I ___ ^

is m entioned o n ly once in the r e c o r d s of the S i l a h a r a s .

I t comes from the K harepatan p l a t e s o f A nan ta de va.

Anan tadeva was the r u le r from the no rthern b r a n c h who

conquered the southern p r o v in c e . For t h is e x p e d it io h he

must have used n a v a l fo r c e . Hence, the n a v a l o f f i c e r is

m entioned in h i s r e c o r d . In the A r t h a s a s t r a the o f f i c e r

in charge o f the N auka, g e n e r a l l y u n d ersto o d as a b o a t /

is s a i d to b e N avadhyaksa '. H is duty in c l u d e d the

c o l l e c t io n of o c t r o i d u e s.
 23

7, P u r o h ita ^^/R a ja g u r u ^^: D r. A lte k a r m a in ta in s the

v ie w t h a t in t h e S i l a h a r a reco rds he was d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

— 6 7
from the M antrin and Amatya . The Royal p r i e s t i s

r e f e r r e d to as P u r o h it a o r R a ja g u ru in the S i l a h a r a

records, in the Atrfcarnath temple in s c r i p t i o n two p r i e s t s

are r e c o r d e d ; Rajaguru and laghu- R ajagu ru. A c c o r d in g to

I
the l i s t o f m in is t e r s g iv e n in t h e S u k r a n it i (which we

have quoted e a r l i e r ) P u r o h it a i s a t the f i r s t p o s i t i o n ,

p r o b a b ly i n d i c a t i n g h i s s u p e r i o r i t y . Hov<ever, from the

records un d er r e v ie w i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t to u n d er stan d

h is exact p o s it io n ,

8 pradh^^^* T h i s term o cc u rs fo r the f i r s t time I n the

D iv e a g a t p l a t e s of MuiTimuni in the h is t o r y o f the S i l a h a r a s .

S in c e then i t makes a fr e q u e n t o c c u re n c e . A c c o r d in g to
I

Sukra he was the sup er- in ten de n t o f the whole a d m in is t r a t io n ,

•S a r v a d a r s i P r a d h a n a s t u ' i n c a se o f the S i l a h a r a

a d m in is t r a t io n i t is d i f f i c u l t to s ta te the e x a c t p o s it io n

o f t h i s m in is t e r . Pa n h a le p l a t e s o f V Lkra m a dity a records

the m in is tr y h a v in g two P r a d h a n a s. But such r e fe r e n c e s

a re r a r e . More o ft e n a person a c tin g as P r a d h ^ a i s fou nd

h o ld in g other d e s ig n a t io n s as w e l l , e .g . a c tin g as

tre a su ry or a s s i s t a n t t r e a s u r y o f f i c e r ^ ^ . The reason fo r

such combined p o r t f o l i o s co u ld b e th a t the kingdom was very

sm all and each departm ent had l i t t l e work to d o . Hence#

one o f f i c e r co u ld manage more than one d ep ar tm o it.

 24

9. s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a ^ ^ : He was the m in is te r in c h a r g e fo r the

departm ent o f f o r e ig n a f f a i r s , in the smrti l i t e r a t u r e he

is r e f e r r e d to as !Duta^^. Four p r e f i x e s are found a s s o c ia t e d

w ith the word s a a d h iv ig r a h ik a from the S il a h a r a r e c o r d s .

— 73
1. Mahas a n d h iv ig r a h lk a
74
2. Lekhas a n d h iv ig r a h ik a

3, K argatasan d h iv ig ra h ik a '^^

76
4, Nagaras a n d h iv ig r a h ik a

H a h a s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a i n d i c a t e s the h ig h e r fu n ctio n

o f the departm ent. K a r n a t a s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a in d ic a t e s the

n eed for s p e c ia l s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a to pay more a tt e n t io n to

the r e la t io n w ith the n e ig h b o u r in g r u l e r from the K a m a t a k

r e g io n . T h is term occurs on ly once/ p r o b a b ly s u g g estin g

the p e r io d of c r i s i s .

L e k h a s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a i s r a th e r d i f f i c u l t to under­

s ta n d . He may be the r e c o r d keep er in t h e o f f i c e o f

s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a . T h is term does no t occur in the other

conterrporary r e c o r d s . Another term t h a t rem ains obscure

i s N a g a r a s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a . 'N ag a ra * means a township and

I
s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a is the o f f i c e r fo r fo r e ig n r e l a t io n s *

N a g a r a s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a may mean the S a n d h iv ig r a h ik a s t a t io n e d

at the in p o r t a n t c i t i e s .

A number o f times more thati one s a n d h lv lg r a h ik a s

a re m entioned. D iv ea g a r p l a t e s of Murrtnuni r e f e r to two

 ^5

s a n d l i i v i g r a h i k a s v/hcre as t h e C han je s t o n e i n s c r i p t i o n of

S o m e sv a ra r e f e r s to t h r e e of them. It is easy to under­

stand t h e numb^er o f s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a s b e in g nnore than o n e .

Because a s t a t e h a s more t ha n one n eig h b o u r and a l l s h o u ld

be d ealt w ith c a r e f u l l y . H ence, there should be equal

number o f perso ns as s a n d h lv ig r a h ik a s to t h a t o f the

n e ig h b o u r in g s t a t e s .

The S a n d h lv ig r a h ik a s are o ft e n m entioned in the

d onation ch a rters to a ffir m that they have approved the

geneology o f th e d y n a s t y and the achievem ents of each

r u l e r m entioned i n Uie r e c o r d s , M it a k s a r a , a commentary

on Y ajn a v alk y a sm rti m a in ta in s the v ie w th at the ch a rter s

78
sh o uld b e d r a f t e d b y the s a n d h i v i g r a h i k a . T h is is

e v id e n t from the Lonad stone i n s c r i p t i o n o f A p a r a d it y a .

T h i s was d r a f t e d b y t h e S a n d h iv ig r a h ik a named m d h a v a .

P a tta n k u d i p l a t e s o f A v a s a ra I I were composed by

• • •

the H a g a r a s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a D e v a p a la . if n o t b y the

s an d liiv ig ra h ik a h im s e lf the p l a t e s were at l e a s t d r a ft e d

w ith h i s a p p r o v a l. Thus V ip r a Laxm idhara d r a f t e d the

Pa n h a le p l a t e s o f V ik ra m a d ity a w ith the approval o f the

S a n d h iv ig r a h ik a ,

— 79
10, (a) S arvadhv aksa : T h is d e s ig n a t io n occurs in the
I _
__ ^

S i l a h a r a r e c o r d s o n l y once, in the b e g in n in g o f t h e ir r u le .
— I

It is found in t h e K anheri cave i n s c r i p t i o n o f P u lla sak ti.

Sarvad^iyaksa l i t e r a l l y means a g e n e r a l s u p e r in te n d e n t
 26

(Saw ah'^dhyaksa). Hence, he may b e taken to b e the c h ie f

of the a d m in is t r a t iv e m achinery. (O f course l e s s than

the k i n g ) . Only one m in is te r b e s id e s Sarvadhyaksa is

known from the record m entioned above. T h is probably

I ^ ^

means that d urin g the e a rly phase o f the S i l a h a r a r u le

they had a small m in is tr y c o n s is t in g o f two o r three

I _ _
__

m in is t e r s . As the S ila h a r a s s e t t l e d in the la n d and

extended t h e ir p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e over a w id e r a rea / the

strength o f t h e ir aiinistry was r a i s e d .

10. (b) s a r v a d h ik a r i ; T h is p o r t f o l i o i s known from

the Bhai'idup p l a t e s of C h h i t t a r a j a . The same person i s

mentioned as Mahamatya in t h e B e r lin Museum p l a t e s o f

C h h it t a r a ja . Due to these examples i t seems probeJ^le

t h a t S a r v a d h ik a r i and Mahamatya were siTionyms. T h is can

f u r t h e r be supported from the r e fe r e n c e in A rthasashahra

—
about S a r v a d h y a k s a ' ,
PO

g
11, S rik a r a n a : He worked as an accounts k e e p e r and

d r a f t e r of the r o y a l c h a r t e r s . It i s d i f f i c u l t to say

much about t h is o f f i c e r in c o n t e x t o f the s i l a h a r a

a d m in is t r a t io n . Because he i s m entioned o n ly once in the

— «
Ranvad stone in s c r i p t i o n of Somesvara.

.\part from t h e departments mentioned above three

more departm ents of the a d m in is t r a t iv e system o f the

I ^ _
__

S ila h a r a s are known. However, there are no d i r e c t evid ences

 Z1

to comment on t h e i r e x a c t f u n c t io n s .

12, The departm ent o f comjuierce: The o i- ic e r in charge

/ — 82
of t h is department was c a l l e d S u lk a d h /a k s a . These were

the t o ll s u p e r in t e n d e n t s . Though there is no d ir e c t

mention o f th e se o f f i c e r s one can presume t h e i r p o s i t i o n .

King A v a s a ra I I gave exem ption from t h e t o l l s to c e r t a in

pO
merchants which means o t h e r w is e they were c o l l e c t e d and

a government o f f i c e e x is t e d fo r t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f i t .

Thana p l a t e s of Mumrr.uni r e fe r s to the o f f i c e r 'S a u l k ik a /

^^robably same as s u lk a d h y ak sa .
•

13, Departm ent of ju d ic ia ry : A n c ie n t In d ia n s t a t e s always

84
encouraged the lo c a l b o d ie s . These v/ere th e v i l l a g e

co u n cils. The lo c a l b o d ie s were a u t h o r is e d to try a ll the

85
lo c a l s u it s , T h is can b e seen through the donation

charters, when a v i l l a g e was donated the donee was g iv en

the r i g h t to c o l l e c t f in e s fo r the ten o f f e n c e s . W hich

means th at i f no t the donee then the fin e s were c o lle c te d

by the v i l l a g e c o u n c ils a f t e r t r y in g the s u i t s . Most o f

the c a ses would be t r i e d at l o c a l lev els. Only s e rio u s

ones were to be fo rw a rd ed to t h e h ig h e r c o u r t , in c a s e

o f the small kingdom l i k e th a t o f the S il a h a r a s there may

not have b e e n many l e v e l s o f the J u d i c i a l system. T|?e

h ig h e s t a u th o r it y b e in g the k i n g p r o b a b ly no o t h e r m in is te r

was ap p o inted as P ra d v iv a k or the c h i e f j u s t i c e .

 2S

14. The p o l ic e departm ent; The o n l / r e fe r e n c e to t h is

department from zhe records under re v ie w comes in the

J a n j i r a p la t e s of .^ p a r a jit . The o f f i c e r in charg e o f the

p o l i c e department c a l l e d c h a u ro d h arik a is m entioned in the

p l a t e s mentioned above. However, in absence o f any more

d a t a i t is d i f f i c u l t to comment on t h e f u n c t io n in g o f t h i s

departm ent.

so fa r we aave d is c u s s e d f i v e c o n s t it u e n t s o u t of

seven d e s c r ib e d in the SaptaAga th eo ry . The rem ain in g

two are Durga and I 'i t r a . About M it r a , it is a lre a d y

covered in the d is c u s s io n about the o f f i c e o f S a n d h iv ig r a h ik a .

N o th in g more can he s a id about t h is c o n s t it u e n t element as

there is no r e fe r e n c e to i t i n the r e c o r d s .

The r e fe r e n c e to Durga is very rare in the r e c o r d s .

However, tiie im portant p o in t is that i t i s not a b s e n t . In

the Kharepatan p l a t e s of R a t t a r a ja Durga is mentioned t w ic e .

• • ««

It s ta te s t h a t K in g Dhammiyara b u i l t the g r e a t fo r t o f

B allip a tta n a (M a h ad u r g a ). in the l i n e 59 of the same record

i t is m entioned t h a t the temple o f A vvesvara was in s i d e

the f o r t . I t v/as p ro b ab ly the same fo r t o f B a l l ip a t t a n

b u i l t by Dhammiyara.
I

B efore we c lo s e the d is c u s s io n on the m in is t r y and

the fu n c t io n in g of the s t a t e o n e more term needs to be

e x p la in e d v i z . The F a r is a d . Tw ice in the records o f the

 ;f9

• 86
S il a h a r a s the tenn P a r is a d or Parsad i s found . The term
« •

P a r is a d is very sig n ifica n t from the p o in t o f v ie w o f the

m

a d m in is t r a t io n . I t has a long h is t o r y going back to the

V e d ic p e r i o d . During the e a r l y p h a se i t was p ro b ab ly

formed o f c l a s s menters and was t r i b a l in n a t u r e , D r .S m r m a ,

how ever/ p o in t s o u t th at towards the e n d o f t h e v e d ic

p e r i o d the name rem ained the same, b u t i t s conotaticaa

S7
became d iffe r e n t '^ , I t took on th e c h a r a c t e r o f the body
RG
of le g a l ex p e rts . About the r e f e r e n c e to P a r i s a d in the
t ^ ^
S i l a h a r a records D r. M ir a sh i o p in e s t h a t i t was the body

o f le a r n e d Brahm ins who were to a s s i s t the k in g In the

89 • — —
m atters c o n cern in g law and m o r a lit y . The S i l a h a r a s seem

to have g iv e n l o t o f im portance to t h is b o d y . The change

s to n e i n s c r i p t i o n o f A p a r a d it y a r e co rd s the d o n a tio n o f an

o rch a rd g i v e n to the P a r is a d by the k in g . The second

r e fe r e n c e is a lso v ery s i g n i f i c a n t . In the c h in c h a n i p l a t e s

o f the Cham undaraja the P a r is a d i s a ls o m entioned a lo n g

♦ •
w ith o th er mentiers of the s o c i e t y who w ere info rm ed about

the d o n a t io n , cham undaraja was a fe u d a t o r y o f the

• •

Silah aras, which means th at n o t o n ly the Sila^haras b u t

t h e i r fe u d a t o r ie s a lso acknow ledged t h e im portance o f th e

P a r is a d .

30 fa r we have d is c u s s e d t h e s t a t e a d m in is t r a t iv e

m achinery a t the c e n t r a l l e v e l . T h a t b r in g s us n e x t to the

second l e v e l . P r o v in c ia l heads and t h e i r departm ents g e t

the m iddle p o s i t i o n in th r e e t i e r e d s t r u c t u r e . F i r s t b e in g
 JO

the king and h i s c o u n c il and the low est u n i t was the

villa g e .

A d m in is t r a t iv e d i v i s i o n s are mainly the i n t e r l i n k s

b etw een the kin g and h i s su bjects. The s t a t e fu n c t io n i s

a two way p r o c e s s . An id e a l k in g c o l l e c t s the revenue from

90
h is s u b je c t s and g iv e s them i n r etu rn help and p r o t e c t io n ,

B ut t h is i s n o t p o s s i b l e for him to do a l l b y h im s e l f .

Hence, he needs the c o u n c il of m in is t e r s . Even then i t i s

not s u ffic ie n t . T a k in g in t o c o n s id e r a t io n the remoteness

o f th e s t a t e b o u n d a r ie s many p r o v i n c i a l d i v i s i o n s are

fo r m u la te d .

I ___ ___

The p r o v i n c i a l d i v i s i o n s m entioned in S il a h a r a

records are as f o l l o w s :
I

(1 ) Desa (2) v is a y a (3) R astra (4 ) Mandala

• • • •
(5) isragara (6) Grama. Except fo r the Grama as the

low est a l l the o t h e r d i v i s i o n s are d i f f i c u l t t o p la c e in

descen din g o r a scen d in g o r d e r .

1, D esa : A c c o r d in g to D r. M ulay i t is a sm aller

d iv isio n than the v i s a y a . How ever# t h i s does n o t seem

«
I __ ^

to b e the c a s e in the S il a h a r a kingdom . The i n s c r ip t io n s

of the S il a h a r a s o f K olhapur refer to the whole o f Koftkan

— 92 '
as Mahadesh . oesa is r e f e r r e d to in the C h ip lu n p l a t e s

of M allik a rju n a . i t records th e h e r e d it a r y a p pointm ait

o f one Dandanayaka fo r P r a n a la k a d e s a , The same P r a n a la k a d e sa

• • •
was r e f e r r e d to as F ra n a la k a V is a y a in the P a n h a le p l a t e s
 31

o f V ik ra m a d it y a , w liic h dates e a rlie r than the Chiplun

p lates. V ik ra m a d it y a was appointed to g overn southern

p r o v in c e making P ranalaka the c a p it a l b y h i s fa t h e r

A p a r a j it T h is p r in c e p r o b a b ly governed the P ranalaka

* ^

d esa having P r a n a la k a V is a y a as a p a rt of i t . The records

• •
mention the p r o v i n c i a l heads in which the head o f the
I

'D e s a ' is nev e r m entioned. T h i s was pro b ab ly due to the

I

f a c t t h a t the Desa d iv i s i o n had an autonomous administra-.

t i v e system _ headed by some o f the im portant person from

th e royal h o u se , l i k e the crow n- prince. T h ^ a p l a t e s of

I

A r ik e s a r in r e f e r s to t h e reg io n ^ o u n d Pune as P un ak ad esa.

2. V is a y a : As already s ta t e d above ’\t i s d i f f i c u l t to

say whether V is a y a was b ig g e r than D esa or v i c e v e r s a .

E it h e r way the p o s it io n of v i s a y a as an a d m in is t r a t iv e u n i t

rem ains very im portan t. The i n s c r i p t i o n s of the S ila h a r a s

r e f e r to follo v/ing v i s a y a s :

Name R eferen ce C I I , V I, N o, -

1, A n ita p a lli 21

2, C h ik k h a la d a 5

3, Karakuta 20

4, Kadasada 29

5, K o r iy a la 13

5, M andaraja 15

7, M aharihara 7

8, Panada 4

9, P r a n ala k a 23
 32

1C . S a t s a s t h i or Sthanakiy a S a t s a s t h i 26
• « • » ..............................

11. Surparaka ,

12. V atsaraja 8

13. v a r e t ik a 14
«
\

It is in terestin g to note t h a t ou t o f fo u r t e e n ,

ten v is a y a s are from the T h a n a and R aig ad d i s t r i c t s o f

• • •
p r e s e n t M ah a ra sh tra . These are more f e r t i l e a re a s than
• «

those of R a t n a g ir i and s in d h u d u r g a . s e c o n d ly , out of

the ten in n o r t h Kortkan s i x are in the Thana d i s t r i c t

. *•
a d ja c e n t to the c a p i t a l c i t y o f T hana. A ll the V is a y a s
• •

were governed by the V is a y a p a t i s

— 94
3, Rastra : R a s tr a p a ti is r e f e r r e d to very o ft e n in t h e
• • • «

records under review , b u t no R a s tr a d iv isio n i s known.

#•

VThich means t h a t the R a s t r a p a t i in t h e records o f the

• •
I ^

S il a h a r a s c o u ld be h a v in g some d i f f e r e n t meaning than

what i s u s u a l l y meant. If the R a s tr a p a t i i s und ersto o d

— 95
in the sense o f R a s t r ik a th en t h a t makes them cultlva-

tors. These w e r e pro b ab ly the o r i g i n a l s e t t l e r s of th e

la n d who b r o u g h t i t under c u l t i v a t i o n for the f i r s t t i n e .

Thus the R a s t r a p a t is c o u ld be the r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f the

a g r i c u l t u r i s t community. The o n ly d i f f i c u l t y In a c c e p tin g

th is su g g estio n is that the V is a y a p a t i s , N a g arap atis

m entioned along w i t h g a s t r a p a t i s are d e f i n i t e l y i n d i c a t i v e

« •

o f V is a y a and "'ag a ra d iv i s i o n s r e s p e c t i v e l y . In t h a t

ca se i t becomes l o g i c a l th at the R a s t r a p a t i must be

••

i n d i c a t i v e o f R a stra d i v i s i o n . So long as th ere i s no

 33

r e fe r e n c e to R a s tr a d iv is io n known from the S il a h a r a

• •

p e r io d t h is would, remain a c o n t r o v e r s ia l i s s u e .

Dr. A lt e k a r speaks of Rastra b e in g a d i v i s i o n o f 3 to

•«
4 d is tric ts to ge th er v ^ i l e e x p l a i n i n g i t for th e

R astrak u ta r e c o r d s ^ ^ ,
•• •

4, F.andala: The e x act e x te n t o f t h i s d i v i s i o n cannot

#•
b e f i x e d with the h e lp of the S i l a h a r a r e c o r d s . King

J'^agarjuna is s a id to have conquered man/ m andalas ap art

•♦
98
from the whole o f Koftkan 140 0 . From the r e fe r e n c e in

the C h inch ani p l a t e s of Cam undaraja i t can b e g uessed th a t

• ••

the mandala was a sniall a re a r u le d b / the s u b o rd in a te e . g .

••
the Sai^iyanamandala was r u le d by C h ^ u n d a r a j a who p a id
•• ••
I _
__ _
__

homage to the S il a h a r a s of North Konkan. It a lso suggests

t h a t t h i s mandala a d m in is tr a tio n was an autonomous body

••

which acknowledged the supremacy of the S i l a h ^ a s ,

Q7
5* N a g ara: As i t has been a lr e a d y p o in t e d out# N a g arap atis

are o ft e n m entioned in the r e c o r d s , N agara means a tow nship.

Hence, N a g a r a p a t is become the heads o f the town- counclls.

N a g ara must be v e r y irrportant d i v i s i o n during the p e r io d

u n d er r e v ie w , b e cau se in the Pattankud i p la t e s of A vasara

V• • •

I I th ere i s a mention of N a g a r a s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a . The

N agaras may b e the p r o v in c ia l h eadq u arters e .g . the

P a n lech en ag a r r e fe r r e d to as the hea dq u arter o f the

P r a n ala k a d esa in the Panhale p l a t e s o f v ik r a m a d ity a .

 34

6. Grama: Grama was s m a lle s t b u t the nvDst Im portant u n i t

o f a d m in is t r a t io n a l l over the country. Ttils had almost

in d ep en d en t s t a t u s f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s . The bounda­

r i e s o f a v i l l a g e o r Grama were u s u a l l y the r i v e r s , h ills,

etc. w hich are alm ost u n c h a n g e a b le . The v i l l a g e a d m in is t­

r a t io n was g iv e n a l o t of in p o rt a n c e thro ugho ut the a n c ie n t

p erio d . Ttoucfi there is a change in the r u l i n g power o f

the s t a t e the v i l l a g e s rem ained u n a f f e c t e d . One, b e c a u s e

the g e o g ra p h ic a l b o u n d a rie s d id n o t change and second the

im portance of v i l l a g e c o u n c ils was r e c o g n ize d by the new

r u l e r as w e l l . The v i l l a g e s w ere headed by Gram apatis

99
who were l i k e fa t h e r and inother to the v i l l a g e p eo p le

“th ese v i l l a g e headmen had t h e i r own c o u n c ils o f adv iso rs^"^^.

Th ese c o u n c ils were sometimes c a l l e d as Sm arikas headed by

le a r n e d Brahm ins^'^^. The oth er members would b e Nayakas^® ^,

Thakurs^*^^ and j'ahattaras^*^'^. A g a sT stone i n s c r i p t i o n of

H a r ip a la d e v a r e fe r s to one v i l l a g e headman as 'vattaragrim a-

pramukha R is im h a ta r a

If the v i l l a g e s were b ig g e r in s i z e they were

d iv id e d in t o tw o d i v i s i o n s . Laghu, the sm aller and Brhad,

the b ig g e r .

rhus th e re is r e fe r e n c e to Laghu A d a n ik a and Brhad

• • «
A d a n ik a in the Thane p l a t e s o f Mummuni.
• * 9

I _
__ _
__

F e u d a to rie s o f the S l la h a r a s : For almost a l l the time o f

t __
t h e i r r u le the S il a h a r a s rem ained f e u d a t o r ie s to some or

o th er im p e r ia l pov/er. However, th at d id n o t stop them from

 35

h a v in g t h e ir own fe u d a t o r ie s . The s u b - in fe u d a t io n seems

to b e v ery s i g n i f i c a n t when the ex ten t of the kingdom o f

the 3 il a h a r a s i s taken in t o c o n s id e r a t io n . There are

r e fe r e n c e s to t h r e e f e u d a t o r ie s of th e S i l a h a r a s out o f

which one was p la c e d at a c r u c ia l p o s i t i o n . He was

Cam undaraja o f San'/ana. The R a s tr a k u ta s had p l a c e d AraJ?

• • •• •
g overno rs over the Samyana r e g io n ^'^^. These A rabs o ft e n
I _ ^

caused t ro u b le to the S i l a h a r a s , so much so t h a t they

h e lp e d the Kadarribas a g a in s t th e S il a h a r a s ^ '^ ^ . T h is forced

I

the S ila h a r a s to s u b ju g a te them. King /^ a n t a d e v a d e fe a t e d

them in an open battle^'^'^. The danger from A rabs was

sen sed even e a r l i e r . Hence, th ere was an appointm ent of

a fe u d a to r y over 3a:^yanamandala, This fe u d a t o r y p ro b ab ly

hdd a b lo o d r e l a t i o n with the S i l a h a r a s . Because,

Cam undaraja, the feu d ato ry , a ls o c a l l s h im s e lf to b e b o m

••

in the V id y a d h a r a Jim utavahana lin e a g e - same as the

I __ ^

S ilah aras.

The other r e fe r e n c e s to the fe u d a t o r ie s are also

s i g n i f i c a n t in t h e i r own a cco rd . The Ambarnath t e n ^ l e

In sc rip tio n lists the names o f the persons who were

r e s p o n s ib le for the com pletion o f the tem ple b u i l d i n g .

One fe u d a to r y named I'ahasamanta T a s iv a r a ja f ig u r e s as one

o f them. The o tner ^^ersons were o f f i c e r s l i k e Mahamatya,

M ahapradhan, Sandi:iivigrahika, etc. T h is le a v e s a scope

to t h in k t h a t the i;ahasamanta T a s i v a r a j a was also one o f the

 36

1 _ ^
o f f ic e bearers in the S i l a h a r a c o u r t . I t was a common

p r a c t i c e in a n c ie n t times that the f e u d a t o r ie s w i l l be

lO S
perfo rm in g c e r t a in a d m in is t r a t iv e fu n c t io n s , During

the r e ig n o f K in g .\nantadeva I I I the s u b o r d in a te s seem

to have enjo y ed a l o t o f freedom . D iv e a g a r sto n e i n s c r i p ­

t io n o f A nan tadeva I I I r e fe r s to a d o natio n o f a frult-

garden made by one Rama M a n d a lik a .

••

In the customary v e r se s o f the d o n a tio n ch a rte r s a

number of p e o p le are a d d ressed . In the c h a r t e r s o f A p a r a j i t

Samanta f i g u r e s as or:e o f them and there he i s ranked f i r s t *

I _
__ ^

O nly one r e c o r d o f the fe u d a t o r y o f the S i l a h a r a s is known

so fa r which i s d ated 37 years a ft e r tne l a s t known date o f

the S il a h a r a K in g .> parajit.

The S ta tu s of the 3 i l a h a r a s as f e u d a t o r i e s : F e u d a to rie s o f

the A n c ie n t I n d ia n s ta te s were in d ic a t e d b y the terms l i k e

— — * 109
M a n d a lik a , Samanta or H a n d a le sv a r a . The i n s t i t u t i o n o f
• • •
Samantas is r e f e r r e d to by alm ost a l l the te x t s on A n cien t
/
In d ia n p o l i t y . The term Samanta o r i g i n a l l y meant a n e ig h ­

b o u r in g c u l t iv a t o r in a v illa g e set up w hich l a t e r on came

to be i d e n t i f i e d as n e ig h b o u r in g sta4;es h a v in g s u b o r d in a te
lio —
status. The Samantas were having d i f f e r e n t g ra d es accor­

d in g to t h e ir status. Some o f them enjjoyed lot o f freedom

and in t e r n a l autonomy. A ll the Samantas were bound by an

agreement about c e r t a in t r ib u t e p a i d to the param ount power

and m ilit a r y a s ic t a n c e during the e x p e d it io n s and times o f

 37

c risis. The surorclinate r u l e r s were u s u a l l y the e a r l i e r

r u l e r s of the conquered la n d . W ith the acknowledgem ent

o f the supremacy o f the conqueror t h e / were a llo w e d to

c o n t in u e with t h e i r r u l e . T h is was a common p r a c t i c e a l l

I —

over I n d i a . In the A r t h a s a s t r a one sees the o b j e c t i v e

b e h in d i t ^ ^ ^ . ic a d v ises the conqueror n o t to fo rce h i s

own ways and b e l i e f s on the conquered p e o p l e . R ather he

was to adopt the lo c a l custom, mode o f l i f e and f a i t h and

l e t the p e o p le c o n t in u e w ith t h e ir own r e l i g i o u s and

re g io n a l fe stiv a ls. The b e s t way o f p r o t e c t in g the

I n t e r e s t of the people w ould b e to keep the r u l e i n t a c t

w hich they were used to i f it was no t t y r a n n i c a l . However,

t h i s may not b e p o s s i b l e a l l the tim e s. The s u b o rd in a te

c h iefs may b e o u t s id e r s to the la n d they r u l e d , e .g , the

S ilah aras. T h e 'S a m a n t i n s t i t u t i o n could b e b e n e f i c i a l to

the p e o p le in many w ays. D u rin g the tim es of n a tu r a l

c a l a m it ie s lik e floo ds and fam ines the samantas may be

d i s t r i b u t i n g reserv'ed food o r exempt peo ple from t a x e s .

They a lso may b e d ig g in g embankments, w ells, channels o f

V

irrig a tio n , constructing roadS/ public b u ild in g s, etc. In

s h o r t, might b e lo o k in g a f t e r the w e l f a r e o f the p e o p le

in many ways
112 .

I _
__ ^

Almost a l l o f the S i l a h a r a s assumed the feud atory

_
__ _
__ _
__ I

tit le s , e .g . Samant, l-'ahasamanta, M an d a le sv a r , etc. They

a ls o had a c q u ir e d feudatory usuages o f f i v e g r e a t sounds

I _ _
__

v iz. sri^ga , saf^kha, E h e r i, A yaghanta and Tamat. T hese

 3S

were c a l l e d the 'P a n c a m a h a s a b d a s H o w e v e r , the term

114
i s used in c e r t a in other sense a l s o . K alh a n a g iv e s an

e x p la n a t io n th a t these f iv e a re n o t the m usical instrum ents

b u t are the i n d i c a t i o n s of f i v e a d m in is t r a t iv e o f f i c e s .

They are -

1) K a h a p r a t ih a r a - Cham berlain

2) Mahas a n d h iv ig r a h i - M in i s t e r for war and peace

t I

3) J-'ahas v a s a la p i - commander o f th e ho rses

4) Hahabh a n d a q a r ik a - M in is t e r of t re a su ry

5) Mahasadhanabhaga - M in is t e r o f revenue and ta x a t io n .

Thus, a cco rd in g to K alh a n a any samanta who has the

m in is tr y c o n s is t in g o f these f i v e is e n t i t l e d to b e c a l l e d
t
‘ Sam adhigata Pancam ahasabda' . O ut o f the f iv e mentioned

above the K a h a p r a t ih a r a and M a h a sv a s a la p i are n o t known

from the records of the S i l a h a r a s . The M ahasadhanabhaga

is r e fe r r e d to as I'ahamatya or D rva. M ah a sa n d h iv ig ra h i

and Hahabhandagari'k.a are same. If one has to fo llo w the

••
I _
__ _
__

r u le of K alhana then the s i l a h a r a s do n o t seem to be e n t i t l e d

_ I

for the usuage o f the term 'sa m ad h ig a ta Fancam ahasabda'.

However, as B r , M arasim ham urthy^^^ has p o in te d out that

there was no u nanim ity among the contemitjorary sources

—I

r eg a rd in g the Pancarnahasabda c o n n o ta tio n . The term a lso

in d i c a t e s the use o f f iv e m usical sounds w hich changed

accordin g to t h e lo c a l needs and l i m i t a t io n s . Hence, in

I _
__ _
__

case o f the S il a h a r a reco rds i t sh o uld be taken in to

c o n s id e r a t io n v/ith the meaning of f iv e m usical instrum ents

m entioned above.
 39

The S il a h a r a s v^ere the o u t s id e r s to the land o f

Koftkan v/hen t h e / s t a r t e d t h e i r r u l e . Hence, th e ir ro le

becomes very s i g n i f i c a n t in the p o l i t i c a l and c u l t u r a l

life of the p e o p le o f Koftkan. The S il a h a r a s must have

•

promoted harm o n/ between the in d ig e n o u s r e g io n a l cu r re n t

and the c u lt u r a l fa c e t s from the Deccan which they the^'-

s e lv e s were members o f . T h is fa c t o r i s r e f l e c t e d through

I _
__ _
__

the s t o r ie s about the o r i g i n o f the S ila h a r a s mentioned

in the r e c o r d s . (These s t o r i e s are d is c u s s e d in the

I ^ ^
c h a p ter on r e l i g i o n and m y th o lo g y ). The S i l a h a r a s enjoy ed

lo t o f freedom and in t e r n a l autonomy thro ugho ut t h e i r r u l e .

They had t h e ir own s u b - f e u d a t o r i e s ^ a n d had t h e i r c o in ag e

as w e l l ^ ^ ”^. From t h e records we do not g e t any r e fe r e n c e

to t h e t r i b u t e s p a id b y the S il a h a r a s to the paramount

po w er. The conquests o f the S il a h a r a s beyond the Kortkan

•
r e g io n recorded in the i n s c r i p t i o n s may b e i n d i c a t i n g the
I _
__ ^

m i l i t a r v a s s is t a n c e p r o v id e d by the S ila h a r a s to t h e i r

m asters in the D eccan. However, in do sence of any fu r th e r

in fo rm a tio n it is d i f f i c u l t t o u n d er stan d the n a tu re of

r e l a t io n s h ip b etw een the S il a h a r a s and t h e ir o v e r lo r d s .

Towards the end of the r u l e the s il a h a r a s s t a r t e d

assum ing v e r y h ig h sounding im p e r ia l t i t l e s . such as

r :a h a ra ja d h ira j a, ::alcravarti, etc. The reason fo r the

s u z e r e in to a llo w the f e u d a t o r ie s take such h ig h sounding

 ■iO

Th / 3 5-^
t i t l e s would b e to V.eep them appeased and h ence lo y a l to

them. For the remote areas l i k e t h a t o f the KoAkan i t

would not be p o s s i b l e for the c e n t r a l a u t h o r it y to have

a d ir e c t r u le for a l l the tim e . S e c o n d ly , i t w ould be

im p o s s ib le to keep check ing the su b o rd in a te every now and

then. Hence, it was probably e a s i e r to l e t t h e fe u d a to r ie s

r u l e w ith f u l l in t e r n a l autonomy and l e t him b e than kful

to the paramount fo r a llo w in g him to do s o . However, t h is

c o u ld n o t \'^ork f o r a longer time in favour o f the o v erlo o d .

The feu d ato ry w o u l d always try to be in d e p e n d e n t . T h is

must have happened in case o f the S ila h a r a s as w ell*

In the e a r l i e r records the geneology o f the R a s t r a l^ t a s

• • •

is recorded, in fa c t the overthrow o f the R a s tr a k u ta s

•• •

by the G halukyas is recorded as a sad in c id e n c e . However,

from the Thana p l a t e s of A r ik e s a r i dated in 1017 a.D.

onwards th ere i s no mention to any o v e rlo rd s in the records

I _
__ ^

o f the S i l a h a r a s .

I _
__ ^

In case o f the S il a h a r a s of the southern b ranch,

they assumed o n ly the fe u d a t o r y t i t l e s . That too are a b sen t

from ti"ie PattankudJ. p la te s o f King A v a s a r . T h is absence

•• • *

i s v er y p e c u l i a r b u t remains u n e x p la in e d .

I ___ ^
The t i t l e s assumed by the S i l a h a r a s ;
 41

a) The t i t l e s in d ic a t iv e of the P o lit ic a l status:

R ef. C II, V I/ NO.

F eudato ry t i t l e s ;

1. M aha m a nda lesvara dh ip a ti 12

••
2. M a n d a lik a t r in e t r a 5

3, Mahasamanta 1
4, M ah a s^a n ta d h ip ati 5

5. Sam antasekhara 3
R ef, C II, V I, NO.
b ) T i t l e s i n d i c a t i v e o f v id y a d h a r a l i n e a g e :

1. S a h a ja v id y a d h a r a - A b o m v id y a d h a r a 13

2. T r ib h u v a n a n ila - An ornament 'n T la 'o f the three 12

w orlds

3. Jiinutavahananvayaprasuta - A s c io n o f the fam ily

o f Jernutavahana 12

4. Aiiavanila - The hero (n l l a ) of b a t t l e s 12

c) T itle s i n d i c a t i v e o f p l a c e nam es;

R ef. C II, V I, No.

1. K o A k an ava lla bh a - The lo r d o f }^Akan 3

2. K o A k an aca kra varti “ lo r d o f Kdftkan 32

I ^

3. N is a A k a la n k e s v a ra - F e a r le s s lo r d o f Laftka 16
I

4. T a g a ra p u rap aram esvara ) The lo r d o f the 5

)
5. T a g a ra p u r a v a r e s v a r a ) town of Tagara 7

6. P a s c im a s a m u d r a d h i p a t i - The lo r d o f the 5
W estern Ocean

Id e n tific a tio n of the p l a c e s ;

1. KoAkana - c o a s t a l d i s t r i c t s o f M aharashtra
«
2. L a ^k a - 'lortn Koi^kan (see the c h a p te r on h i s t o r i c a l
g eography)
 42

3. ragarapura - Ter in Osmancibad d i s t r i c t o f M aharastra

4, Pascim asam undra - A r a b ia n s e a .

d) The title s i n d i c a t i v e o f r e l i g i o u s in f l u e n c e
R e f .C I I ,V I , NO.

1. A ri- v ira- patana Kedara - S i v a c a u sin g th e d o w nfall

o f h o s t i l e -warriors 16
K edara = S iv a

2. Dipti- m artanda- = A sun of Splend our 5

• •

M artanda= Surya = the sun-god.

•#

3. Ganda->Jarayana - v is n u among h ero es 5

•• ••
Mar ay ana - v is n u
« ••

4. Fratapa- m artanda - A sun of v a lo u r 7

I'artan da - Surya
«•

5. silara- m artanda - The sun o f the S i l a r a fa m ily 14

9*

M artanda - sorya
••

6. V i r a p urand ara - In d r a among heroes 16

P urandara = In d r a

7. K a n d a l i k a t r i n e t r a - S iv a among M a n d a lik a s 5
I

T r in e t r a - S iv a

8. Gandakandaroa - c u p id among heroes 7

Kandarpa - i.adana - a s e m id e v ia e b e in g - c u p id

9. R a jag an dakand arga - C u p id in t h e form o f royal hero 6

K andarpa - Madana - c u p id

10, Ra y a-p i t amah a - Brahma among k in g s 8

Pitam aha - Erahnia
 43'

e) The t i t l e s in d ic a tiv e of id e a ls from the epiC /

p u r^ic and B udd hist l i t e r a t u r e . .c 31 /31

1, BirudaAka-riama. Rama = the hero o f Ramayana 5

Rama among t i t l e h o ld e r s ,

2, Dai tya~ ripu- dalan a-Damodara. 17

Damodara = i:,rsna - hero f ig u r e from Mahabharat

•••
V a r i t a h l e krsna in frdy to ylng demonlike fo e s ,
»• •

3, V ir a c a r it a - F h a r a t a v a t a r a - An in c a r n a t io n o f the 16
h e r o ic d escendant of
Bharat

Bharat - A rju n - one o f th e hero fig u r e s from

Mahabharat

4, icodandasahasrarjuna - K in g S a h a s ra r ju n a by h i s bow 13
•«

s a h a s r a r ju n a - w a rr io r d e s c r ib e d in the P u r ^ a s in

con nection o f the Parasuram a Myth

5 , N arendra l-Tagarjuna - N a g a r ju n a among k in g s . 13

ilagarjuna - a B u d d h ist p h ilo s o p h e r .

6, M ij a b h u ja vikra m ad ity a - vik ra m ad ity a by h is o w n

v a lo u r .
v ik ra m ad ity a - a P u r a n ic h e r o .
♦

R e f. C II, V I, No,

f) T i t l e s i n d i c a t i v e of human v ir t u e s

1. Ganda-ruddha podhi- Rescuer o f those who a re 5

captured by w o r r ie r s .

2. :\Ianni Samudra 5
.\n ocean o f v ir t u e s

3. F u s ig a n ju v a t a 5
One who i s a f r a i d o f fa ls e h o o d
4. JhampadacBrya 5
C lev er in s t r ik in g fe a r
 44

g) The t i t l e s in d ic a tiv e of m ilita ry s k i l l s an?3

a chievem ents. C II, V I, No.

1 . v illa v id e ft g a 5

c lo v e r in t h e use o f the bow

2. .\hita-Kalanala ^

P ir e o f d e s t r u c t io n to h i s enem ies.
r
3. A p a ra- d ig - v a d h u tila k a 7
*
A fore- head mark o f the, w e s t ^ n ouarter.

4. san iv ara v ija y a 1

V ic t o r io u s even on S atu r d a y s

5. Raya- caturanga- jaya- catura - C le v e r in v a n q u is h in g

the four-men\L'ered army o f kin gs 16

6. S a h a s a c a k r a v a r t i - The c h a k r a v a r t in in adven tures 12

h) The b o a s t f u l t it le s
R ef. C II, V I, No.

1 . Abhimanamahodai3hi - A g r e a t ocean ofp rid e 5

2. V im a la g a la g a n d a - A hero with a s p o t le s s n eck 5

3, G andaraganda - a hero o f heroes 5

•• ••

4 , Gandavaiigara - G o ld among heroes 5

••

5, Damara-meghadaiTibara - a mass o f c lo u d s o b s c u r in g 14
• ♦
in b a t t l e the su n - lik e king

6. Ripum undam alankrt - The self- chosen

♦• • •
c o n so rt o f the 15

■/as'jmali-3vaya.'Wara-Earth adorned v.dth the g a r l a n d

of the cut- o ff h ea d s o f enem ies.
 45

7. T a r u n ih r d a 7 a - a r :r s t im a n t r a k s a r a - As^ in c a n t a t io n 16
• • •• #
a t t r a c t in g the h e a rt s o f young women.

8. Saurvam adagandhasendura - A scent elep h a n t w ith the 16

ru t o f v a lo u r

9. P r a t i r a j a p r a j a g a r a - He who causes s le e p l e s s n e s s to 16
h o s t ile p rin ces.

10. Mahodadhim alaganda - The h ero o f the g r e a t ocean 6

— I

11. K a lig a la n k u s a - A goad for the neck o f the kali- Age 6

12. K ala g a la g a n d a - a conqueror o f m ountains. 7

 46

REFERSNCES

1. Su k ra n iti, 1 .5 , A , 3 ., XV, 1 ,7 2

2. A. S . Alte^car, S ta te And Government

In A n c ie n t India# p . 49

3. I b i d ., p . 48.

4. C II, V I, NO. 19,

5. A, S. A ltekar, O p. c i t . , p . 4 8,

6. C II, V I, p. X IV .

7. Ib id , NO. 19.

8« M .S . M ate, P ra cin B h a r a t iy a K ala, p p .9 1 ,9 2 .

9. Ha’-h, X I I . 59- 116.

10. A p arark a tX k a , 1 .2 .8 7 .

11. C II, V I, p. IX X V II.

12. Ib id , p .l xxi

13. Ib id , No. 8
14. D e v a h u ti, iiarsa, p . 2 30

15. C II, V I, MO. 32

16. A 3, V I . 1.

17. Y a jn a v a lk y a s m r t i, X I I I ,3 5 3

18. C II, ^/I, NO. 1 2

19. Ib id .

20. A . 3. A ltekar, O p .c i t ., p . 386

21. C II, V I/ NO. 5

22. J2S I, X IIT , p . 129.

23. M .S . Mate, op. cit.

 t7

24, K .P . Jayaswal, A n c ie n t In d ia n P o l i t y ,
P art 1 1 , p . 16

25, A. S. Alte'^^ar, op. c i t ., p . 88

26, A. 3. Altexar ..And R.c. M ajum dar/vakataka
Gupta, Age, p .3

27, A . S. A ltekar, op. c i t . , p . 87

28, C II/ V I, No. 61.

29, Ibid , No. 16

30, 31, X X X II, p . ^.7.

31, C II, V I, No. 14

32, Ib id , No. 22

33, K .P . Jay as w a l, o p .c i t .. Part I , p . 133

34, R .K . M u k e r ji, Asoka/ p p . 3-4,

35, C II, V I, p. :cvii.

36, Itid , NO. 1 2

37, D.G. S ir c a r , In d ia n E p ig r a p h ic a l G l o s s a r y , p . 387,

38, D e v a h u ti, op. c i t ., p ,1 9 5

3 9, C II, V I, No. 1 4 .

40, J:;]SI. X L V I I I , p ,5 4
I

41, Sulcraniti, l l ,7 .

42, Hat'h X I II - 4 2 6

43, iVo.1 .3 .

44, S u k ra n iti, 1 1 .7 0

45, r-ianusmrti, V I 1 . 6 1 .

46, AS, 1 .1 5 .
4 7, Nitivakyamrt, X . 71-72

48. D .C . S irca r, op. c i t ./ p . 17,

49. Ib id .

50. A. S. A ltekar, op, c it . ^ p . 167.

51. Ib id , p . 173.

52. su k ran iti, II. 103- 5.

53. C II, III, No. 27.

54. C II, V I, No, 12,

55. D .C , S irc a r, op. c l t ., p ,5 0 *

56. C II, V I, No. 1 2,

57. D .c : S ircar, op. c it .

58. C II, V I, No. 19,

59. D. C , Sircar, op. c it .

60. C II, V I, No. 19,

61. D .C . S irc a r, op. c i t ., p . 125.

62. C II, V I, No. 4 0.

63. Ib id , No. 19.

64. A S , I I . 2 8 .6 .

65. D .C . Sircar, op, c i t ,, p . 266.

66 . Ib id , p. 270.

67. A .S . A ltekar, op, c i t ,, p .l 2 1 n ,

68 . D .C . S irc a r, op, c i t , , p . 254.

69. S u k r a n iti, 1 1 .8 9

70. C II, V I, No. 20.

71. D .C . Sirc a r, op. c i t . , p . 2 9 5 .

 49

95, S.3, Joshi, I'a rh a ti sa/Tiskrti, p . 2 1.

0

96, A .S . A lt e k a r , op, cit., p«2l2,

97, C II, V I/ NO , 9,

98, Ib id , NO, 7,

99, S u k r a n it i I I , 343.

100, C II, V I, p. 31,

101, Ib id , No. 1 6.

102, Ib id , No. 22.

103, Ib id , NO. 21,

104, Ib id , NO. 25.

105, E l, X X X II, p .4 7 ,

106, '3 1 , V I, p ,x v i .

107, Ib id , NO, 19,

108, I HQ7 X I I , p ,4 8 9 .

109, A .S . A ltekar, op, c i t ./ p ,3 0 3 .

110, D e v a h u t i, op . c i t . , p ,1 6 3 .

111, AS, X I I I , 5,

112, S .A . K o d ia l / C u ltu r a l H is t o r y o f The Chalukyas

o f Eadami, (u n p u b lis h e d t h e s i s ) / p «5 5 «

1^3, M ahadevshastri J o s h i (e d ), B h a r a tiy a

Sartiskrti K o sa, V , p ,2 9 2 ,

114. R a ja t a r a n g in i, iv. 140-143.

115. G . Ram akrishna ( e d ) ,s t u d ie s In I n d i a n C u l t u r e / p ,247,

116. C II, V I, NO. 1 2 .

117. JRAS, 1900, p ,1 1 8 .

 50

72. A. S. A ltekar, op. c i t . / p . 295,

73. C II, V I, w o. 29.

74. Ib id , N o. 17.

75. Ib id , NO. 9.

76. Ib id , No. 40.

77. h ,S . A ltekar, op . c i t ., p . 123.

78. M it a k s a r a ,X I I I .320,
•

79. D .C . Sirca r, op. c it. pp, 3 0 2 ,3 0 3 .

80. A S .I I .9,

81. D.c:. S irc a r, op. c i t ./ p ,3 1 8 ,

82. S I, X IX , p .7 1 ,

83. C II, V I, NO. 40.

84. A .S . A ltek ar, op. c i t ., p ,1 4 0 ,

S5, Ib id .

86 . C II, V I, NO. 1 2, NO, 2 2.

87. R .s . Sharma, A sp ects o f P o l i t i c a l Id e a s

A nd I n s t i t u t i o n s , p . 130,

88 . Ib id .

89. C II, V I, p ,1 0 8 n 2 .

90. Baudhayan Dharm asutra, 1 ,1 0 ,6 ,

91. Sumati M ulay, H i s t o r i c a l Geography And

c u l t u r a l Ethnography o f Deccan, p . 2 9 ,

92. C II, V I, No. 43,

93. Ib id , p . X V II

94. Ib id , NO. 9.
 51

H I S T O a C A L GEOGRAPHY AND CULTURAL

ETHNOGRAPHY

Sectio n I

H is t o r ic a l Geography; Here we in t e n d t o p r e s e n t

a toponomical study b a s e d on the data a v a i l a b l e from the

i n s c r i p t i o n s under review . Toponymy i s the s c ie n c e o f

place-names. The study of place-names fo llo w s c e r t a in

b a s ic p r i n c i p l e s . They are as fo llo w s ^ ;

1. There i s no p la c e name w ith out a m eaning.

2. G enerally, the s tr u c t u r e of the place-names can

b e d e s c r ib e d as s u f f i x e s and p r e f i x e s .

3. Por a true ejq^lanation, the o ld e s t a u t h e n t ic forms

must be examined together w ith d i a l e c t , p h o n e tic s

and the h i s t o r i c a l documents o f the r e g io n .

The place-names fou nd from the records under r e v ie w

are s t u d ie d keep in g these p r i n c i p l e s in m ind. The study

c l a s s i f i e d the names in t o two major c a t e g o r ie s . The names

h a v in g n a tu re a f f i n i t y and the names h aving c u lt u r e a f f i n i t y .

I) The names showing n a tu re a f f i n i t y :

In Some o f the place-names the p h y s ic a l fe a tu r e s

n e a r the settlem en t are fo u n d to b e in f l u e n c in g the name.

Thus the settlem ents near the woods r e c e iv e v a r io u s names

denoting the k in d o f v e g it a t l o n o r the fa u n a p r e s e n t in

those ju n g le s . Tho g e o lo g ic a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s a l s o g et
 0^

r e f l e c t e d in the place-nanies p a t t e r n s , b e c a u s e o f which the

place-names d en o tin g the h i l l s , creeks, m arshes, r iv e r- sid e

are v e r y commonly fou nd. V arieties of trees, flo w e r s ,

g r a s s a lso f i g u r e in place- nam es. The place-nam es i n d i c a ­

t i v e o f n a t u r a l phenomenon found from th e i n s c r i p t i o n s o f

I __ ___

th e Silttharas are c l a s s i f i e d under fo llo w in g h e a d in g s :

i) The place-names i n d i c a t i v e o f fa u n a .

ii) The place-names i n d i c a t i v e of f l o r a .

iii) The place-names i n d i c a t i v e o f g e o lo g ic a l

p e c u lia ritie s.

(i) The place-names i n d i c a t i v e o f fa u n a ;

P la c e Name Referen ce ( C I I , V o l . V I , No J

1 . K a k a d e v a p a lli 8
Kaka - crow

2. Mor 20
Mor - Peacock

3. * Naqarnba 8
4. ★ Nagum 22
5. * Naqpur 19

* Nag = S erp en t

6. Sam b arpalli 8
Sambar = a ti-pe o f d eer
 53

(li) The p l a c e names i n d i c a t i v e of f l o r a :

P la c e name R e f e r e n c e ( C I I V o l .V I N o _)

1, K a r o n jo n i -K a r a n ja 24
Ponaamia oinnata
2, ^ K h a ir adi -- --- 23

3, ^ K h a ir aman 18

* K h a ir - A c a c ia catechu

4, Magamba 8
Aniba - M a g n ife r a i n d i c a

5, iNJiiTiba 15

Mimb A z a d ir a c h t a i n d i c a

6, Pugamba 8
7, R an jali 24

R a n j a l i -Ranjan - C lem atis t r il o b a

8, S a la n ak 6

S a il or Sal = Faddy-/ ric e

• •

9, T a ls u r 23

Tal - Tad - Borassus f l a b e l l i f e r

Suru - C a s u a rin a e q u i s e t i f o l i a

10. Turubhamra 27

Amra - Amba

11. umbar v a l i 14
Umbar - F ic u s qlom erata

12. V a4av a l i 14
Vad - F ic u s b e n q h a le n s is

13. Vakh o li 4
Vakh - Korphad - Aloe v e r a
 54

(iii) The place-names i n d i c a t i v e o f g e o lo g ic a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s !

P la ce Name R eferen ce( C I I /V o l ,V I ,N o ._ )

1, Chemmelevakhadi 6
Khadi - Creek
«

2, Ch lk h k h y a lla o a l l l k a 2

Ghikhal - muddy, marshy p la c e

3, D lvea ga r 10

+ Agar - la n d n ea r the s e a or salt-pan

4, K a r a daoda 61

Dand - S a n d / shore

5, K r s n a g ir i 1
G i r i - h il l /m o u n t a in

6, La
■ I v an
I 11eta t % 7

7, Lopavataka 29
0

La v a n a /L o n a - salt
I

8, Sangamesv ar 5

Sangam - c o n flu en ce o f two r iv e r s

9, v e l a s l v agar 10

Agar

II. The p l a c e names i n d i c a t i v e o f c u lt u r a l in flu e n c e :

.\part from n a tu ra l su rro u n din gs the p l a c e names

a ls o r e f l e c t c u l t u r a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s , c u lt u r e In c lu d e s

m ainly the human in t e r fe r e n c e in the n a t u r a l s e t t i n g .

In t h is r e s p e c t the p la c e names showing r e l i g i o u s in flu ~

ence and l i n g u i s t i c in flu e n c e are im portan t, u s u a lly

t h e i r number i s a lso h ig h . The p l a c e names showing

 55

r e l i g i o u s in f l u e n c e found from the records u n d er review

a re c l a s s i f i e d according to the s e c ts they i n d i c a t e . In

a d d it io n to th at there are a few p la c e names s p e c i a l l y

m entioned as s a cred p la c e s b y t h e s u f f i x ' t i r t h a '.

F o llo w in g is a l i s t o f p la c e names i n d i c a t i v e o f r e l i g i o u s
I __ __
in f l u e n c e known from the s H a h a r a records.

P la c e Names R e f e r e n c e (C l I , V o l ,V I ,N o _ )

.
I

1 Sangamesvar
_I I
is v a r - s a iv a

2 . K £ §oag iri

r:rsna - V a is n a v a
••• ••
3. Bhutaba l i 14

4. K u n ja y a li 13

Bhuta, Munja are s p i r i t s

Magpur 19

6. * Hagum 22
* Mag - snake worship

7. I'arutksetra 23

Marut - w ind god

8 . J:andavali t ir t h 34

T ir t h - s acred p l a c e .

I t is v e r / i n t e r e s t in g to note t h a t the place-names

in d i c a t i n g r e l i g i o u s in f l u e n c e s a r e c o n p a r a t iv e ly few ,

s t i l l they r e f l e c t both the s o p h is t ic a t e d and f o l k c u l t s .

Thus along with the Gods K rsna, S iv a and i^arut the s p i r i t s

 56

r h u t a and ^!unja make t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e s . The name B h u ta b a li

is very p e c u lia r . It is compound o r c l u s t e r o f two w ords.

B h u ta + t a l i . 'B h u t a ' means a g host or a s p i r i t . 'B a l i *

means the s a c r i f i c e o f f e r e d in the name o f a s p i r i t , which

means the name 'B h u t a b a l i* may b e i n d i c a t i v e o f a p r a c t ic e

o f o f f e r i n g anim al s a c r i f i c e in the name o f s p i r i t s to p l e a s e

them. The name llunjavail i s a ls o p ro b ab ly an I n d i c a t i o n of

a s u p e rs titio n . I t i s b e lie v e d that i f a Brahm in boy d ie s

. I

w h il e he i s in Brahm acaryasram i . e . a f t e r h is Upanayana b u t

b e f o r e V iv a h a then he becomes a g h o s t. T h is g h o s t i s c a l l e d

M u n ja . m p r e s e n t 3<oftkan the v i l l a g e r s u s u a l l y p o in t o u t

to some o l d t r e e (m ostly P ip a l or Banyan t r e e ) which i s

h a u n t e d b y the s p i r i t o f M unja . Thus the h i s t o r y o f t h i s

s u p e r s t it io n can b e t r a c e d b a c k r ig h t upto h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d

w ith the p l a c e name '^^unja v a il

The p l a c e names h a v in g 'N ag* as t h e i r p r e f i x may

e i t h e r b e i n d i c a t i v e of snake w orship w hich I s common a l l

o v e r I n d i a or they a lso c o u ld b e d ir e c t i n g to the e a r ly

h a b i t a n t s o f t h is r e g i o n . The e a r l y p e o p le o f KoAkan were

2
a ls o c a l l e d as N 5gas . T h is c o u ld b e due to t h e rem oteness

o f the h a b i t a t i o n a l a re a . T h i s was a normal f e a t u r e f o r

A n c ie n t I n d i a t h a t the p e o p le in the fa r o f f h i l l s and

ju n g l e s were c a i l e d t h e Nagas and t h e i r la n d was c a l l e d

'M a g a l o k a ' . Thus the names N ag ap ur, Nagamba, etc. become

s u b j e c t fo r more r e se a r c h from t h e e t h n o l o g ic a l p o i n t o f

vi e w ^ .
 57

About the sa c r e d p la c e s m entioned in t h e epig raphs

n o th in g new can be s a id , ex cep t fo r the name M aru tk setra ,

The V edic Aryas were t h r i l l e d to e x p e r ie n c e the stren g th

o f the winds and in the acknowledgement o f I t they d e i f i e d

t h i s n a tu ra l phenomenon as Gods M arutgana. The p la c e

i d e n t i f i e d w ith T '.aru tk se tra' which i s m entioned in t h e

S i l a h a r a records is a p l a c e on seashore where th e w in d s ,

e s p e c i a l l y the monsoon w inds h i t very s tr o n g ly and g iv e

an ench a n tin g e x p e r ie n c e (see the m ap). The name seems

most a p p ro p ria te for the p l a c e . The name a lso i n d ic a t e s th e

s p re a d of Aryan i n f l u e n c e r ig h t upto the w estern coa st.

The c o n flu e n c e o f two r i v e r s is one more n a tu ra l

phenomenon which h as im pressed the s e n s i t i v e m ind s. Almost

a l l the r iv e r c o n flu e n c e s in I n d i a are c o n s id e r e d to be

the sacred p l a c e s .

t
G enerally, lo r d S iv a i s a s s o c ia t e d w ith such p l a c e s .
I

Sangamesvar r e fe r r e d to in the i n s c r i p t i o n s o f the

Silah aras in d ic ates that the p r a c t ic e o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a

I

S a i v i t e temple n ear the c o n flu e n c e o f two r iv e r s was also

c u r r e n t d uring the p e r io d under r e v ie w . The 'sangam '

m entioned here i s the c o n flu e n c e o f th e r i v e r s s a s t r i and

V an d ri.
 dS

■'ahal h a ra t l i s t s Surparaka as one o f the sacred

p laces on the w e s t e r n co a s t. T h is p la c e i s also m entioned

in the records o f the S i l a h a r a s ^ . Hov.»ever, i t is not

m entioned as a sacred p la c e to any o f these rec o r d s .

I
W h ile d is c u s s in g the p l a c e names r e f l e c t i n g the

c u lt u r a l i n f l u e n c e i t is e s s e n t i a l to d is c u s s the v er y naune

o f the S il a h a r a s domain i . e . the Koftkan. The name 'K o n ka n'

• •
i s probal'ly d e r iv e d from the Tamil word 'Konkanam ' which

means 'a t the c o r n e r '. T h is may b e so b ecau se th e c o a s ta l

s t r ip named as Ko?i>:an is cornered by the w estern ghats and

the A ra b ia n s e a . According to t r a d i t i o n there are seven

Koftkanas(saptakoAkan^) s t r e tc h e d from the M alabar c o a s t to

0 •
Ehadoch. These seven d iv i s i o n s are K e r a l a , Tulubha#

G o ra sk ra , KoAkan, I'eratha, V arah at and B a r b a r a . The KDftkan

« • • • •
fo r the p r e s e n t s t u d ie s was e a r l i e r known as A p aran ta .

T h is name occurs in a number o f l i t e r a r y and i n s c r i p t i o n a l

sources. Ifcwever, in oone o f the i n s c r i p t i o n s under review

the word A paranta is m entioned, which means by the b e g in n in g

of the 8 th ce n tu r y A. D. the name A p a r ^ t a had gone

cofTpletely out o f vogue and s in c e then i t i s c a l l e d as

Konkan.

rhe skandapuran mentions the d iv i s i o n s o f Koftkan

• •
• —
b e in g Koftkan,Laghu Koftkan and Surparaka com prised of the

number of v i l l a g e s 6 3 ,0 0 0 , 1 4 2 2 0 0 0 and 1 0 , 0 0 0 r e s p e c t iv e l y ^ .

The in s c r i p t i o n s of the C alu k y a s r e f e r to i t h aving 1 4 0 0

v illa g es^, which remains the ca se for the inscriptions of

 59

the S ila h a r a s ® . 'Puri' i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d to as the c a p i t a l

o f KDAkan^. A b o u t th e e x a c t I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Puri t h ere

are c o n t r o v e r s ie s . I t was c e r t a i n l y somewhere on the

c o a s t o f Morth KoAkan. Most p r o b a b ly i t was in Thana

d i s t r i c t n e a r Sooara, b e c a u s e a cco rd in g to t h e B u d d h is t

so urces s o p ^ a was the a n c ie n t c a p i t a l o f A p a r a n t a .

A p aran ta i s I d e n t i f i e d as N o rth KoAkan. The c a p i t a l o f

I _
__ _
__

KoAkan was P u r i . The s i l a h a r a s had t h e i r r u l e ov er KoAkan

• •

which in c lu d e d Puri w it h in its lim its . The c a p i t a l o f t h e

S il^a ras was a t ThanaT H ence, eith er 'Puri might have

merged in t o Thana or i f i t h ad r e t a in e d i t s i d e n t i t y i t
*

must have b e e n in the c lo s e v i c i n i t y . The p ro b lem o f the

exact id e n t ific a t io n of 'P u r l ' becomes d i f f i c u l t due to the

v ery name of the p l a c e , usually 'P u r i ' is u s e d as a

s u f f i x r a t h e r than the p l a c e name In i t s e l f . Thus, the

•P u r i* o f Konkan can b e I d e n t i f i e d w ith many v i l l a g e s on

the co ast h a v in g 'P u r l* as I t s s u ffix.

One more r e fe r e n c e w hich i s I n d i c a t i v e o f the

te rrito ria l d i v i s i o n known frx)m the S l l a h a r a re c o r d s which

g iv e s r i s e to c o n t r o v e r s ie s r e g a r d in g i t s e x a c t i d e n t i ­

fic a tio n is 'L a n k a '. The S i l a h a r a s used to c a l l them selves

as the u n c h a lle n g e d lords o f Lanka 'N i s a A k a l a n k e s v a r a ' .

Dr. M ir a sh i takes i t to mean the v ic t o r y of the S ila h a r a s

over the r u l e r s o f Goa, where he I d e n t i f i e s 'L a n k a ' w ith

p a r t s of Goa s t a t e ^ ^ . To s u b s t a n t ia t e h i s argument he

f u r t h e r p o in t s out t h a t Goa was a ls o known as ' S lm h a la d v lp a '

 bO

which is the other name of L a n k a . However, we propose

a n o th e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p la c e 'L a n k a * , we f e e l

'Lank a* must be i d e n t i f i e d w ith N o rth Koftkan. The reason

b e in g the Kadatnba Icing J a y a k e s h i I I claim s h i s v ic t o r y

I —11 '
o v er L ankes. i .e . the lo rd o f Lanka . J a y a k e s in was

a r u l e r from GOa i t s e l f . I f one id e n t ifie s Lanka w ith Goa

i t becomes d i f f i c u l t to u n d e r sta n d the achievem ent of

J a y a k e s h i. However i f Lanka i s i d e n t i f i e d as no rth KoAkan

then i t means t h a t the Kadarribas had v i c t o r y o v er t h e

S il a h a r a s and t'lat was t r u e . Itie i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Lanka

w ith North Konkan can f u r t h e r be supported b y the ev id en ce

o f fo lk - lo re o f t h e r e g io n . The fisherm en on t h i s co ast

b e l i e v e t h a t they are the drum beaters of the k in g o f the

___ 2 —
demons v i z . Ravana v;hose kingdom was Lanka . Thus Lanka

can b e i d e n t i f i e d as the N o rth Konkan. The o n ly problem

in a c c e p tin g such analogy i s t h a t the e p ic in f l u e n c e i s

v isib le throughout the co u ntry. Almost e v e r y second

im portant v i l l a g e i s a s s o c ia t e d w ith the m ythologies o f

M ahabharat and Ramayana- L ik e w is e there are a number of

p l a c e s in I n d i a v ^ ic h are c o n s id e r e d to be t h e m y tho log ical

kingdom o f L a n k a .

Place-names and the a d m in is t r a t iv e d i v i s i o n s ;

In c a s e of the place-names which are th e names o f

some k i n d o f a d m in is t r a t iv e d i v i s i o n the d i v i s i o n marker

fo llo w s the p l a c e name In d e p e n d e n t ly . However, sometimes

 bl

one a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d iv i s i o n marker is a tta c h e d to the name

as s u f f i x and one more fo llo w s th at in d e p e n d e n t ly e . g .

M aharih ara v i s a y a . Here Mahar was probably t h e o r i g in a l

noun, ahar was the s u f f i x e d d iv i s i o n marker. '^ a r a ' was

a sm all u n i t o f a d m in is tr a tio n known from the Satavahana

records. Probably t h e same d i v i s i o n was exten ded in t o a

b ig g e r u n i t d u rin g the Chalukya p e r i o d or th e 'S i l a h a r a

p e r io d . Then i t became a V is a y a . Itius the e a r l i e r d iv i s i o n

marker became the s u f f i x o f the e a r l i e r prope r noun and

the new d iv i s i o n marker fo llo w e d th at compound. The

a d m in is t r a t iv e d iv i s i o n markers known from the records under

• —
re v ie w are (i) V is a y a (ii) Desa (iii) Grama (i v ) M andal.
• ••

Sometimes i f the v i l l a g e s were b ig g e r in s i z e then

those were d iv id e d in t o two u n it ® , one p r o b a b ly o f a u su al

s i z e and one of a sm aller s i z e . Those two then were i n d i­

c a t e d by the p r e f i x e s Laghu and B rh a d . In the Thana p la t e s

of Kummuni one v i l l a g e i s mentioned h a v in g th e se p r e f i x e s

v iz. Laghuadanika and E r h a d a d a n ik a .

• • • • •

Place-names w ith num erical s u f f i x e s ;

some o f the p la c e names have num erical s u f f i x e s

a ttach e d to them. Such p la c e names have b een v a r io u s l y

in t e r p r e t e d . A c c o r d in g to sone sch o lars the fig u r e s s u f f ­

i x i n g the p la c e names i n d i c a t e the revenue c o l l e c t io n from

the a re a , some su gg est th at these are the number of v i l l a g e s

 62

or the nurnber of in h a b it a n t s o r the number o f e s t a t e s ^ ^ .

The fig u r e s are a lso s a id to b e o f the number o f land

h o ld in g s^'^. prom the r e c o r d s u n d er r e v ie w ortly two place-

names are fo u n d h a v in g the num erica l s u f f i x i n g . Those are

(1 ) ^rparaka 2000^^ (ii) K a r iy a l a 1 2 ^ ^ . The d i f f e r e n c e

between these two f ig u r e s i s so much t h a t i t i s d iffic u lt

to a ccept any one e x p la n a t io n which would b e a p p l ic a b l e

to b o th from among the ones m entioned a b o v e. One more

p u z z l i n g fa c t abo ut these two names is t h a t , b o th are

m entioned as y i s a y a s . Hence, one tends to a c c e p t

Dr. A lte k a r 's ^"^ o p in io n t h a t the usage o f the num erical

a p p e l l a t io n s may have d i f f e r e d from p r o v in c e to p r o v in c e

and century by c e n t u r y . An i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e o f the

num erical s u f f i x e s o b served by D r. Mangalam i s t h a t t h i s

i s a southern phenomenon, m a in ly found in the reco rds of

the Badami c h a l u k /a s , Rastrakutas, K a la c h u r is and a few

• • •

o t h e r dvTiasties from the D eccan and K a rn a ta k a ^® , Thus one

«

can say t h a t the place-names w ith n u m erica l f ig u r e s

a tta c h e d to them knovm from the S l l a h a r a r e c o r d s r e f l e c t

the southern in f l u e n c e in the a d m in is t r a t iv e system o f t h e

I _
__ ^

S i l a h a r a s o f KoAkan.

There is one more nurrerlcal e x p r e s s io n a t t a c h e d to

some of the v is a y a s known from the reco rds u n d er r e v ie w .

, •

That is satsasti
• • • • •
( 66 ). ;>Jhat does this s i x t y s i x mean i s n o t

c l e a r from any o f the r e c o r d s . A t c e r t a in p o in t o f time

 B3

th e s e c o u ld be the d i v i s i o n s o f 66 v illa g e s. L a t e r on

when the same d i v i s i o n s were ex te n d e d i n t o the v i s a y a

d i v i s i o n s the e a r l i e r s u f f i x 66 became a p a r t o f the

p r o p e r noun. 'Thus one g e t s the names M a h a r lh a r a s a t s a s t i

vlsay a, 3u r p a r a k a s a t s a s t l V is a y a ,s t h a n a k a b h y a n t a r a s a t s a s t l
« • • • • • • • • • • #

v isay a, etc.
•

The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the place-names a c c o r d in g to th e

su ffixes;

The place-names can be c l a s s i f i e d u n d er d i f f e r e n t

c a t e g o r ie s a c c o r d in g t,o t h e i r s u f f i x e s and sometimes

accordin g to the p r e f i x e s as w e l l . T he s tu d y o f place-

names s u f f i x e s u s u a l l y h e lp in u n d e r s t a n d in g t h e r e g io n a l

p ecu lia rities. The f o l l o w in g t a b le g iv e s the c l a s s i f i ­

c a t io n of the place-name s u f f i x e s Id en tifia b le from the
I _
__ ^

S ilah ara records.

The s u f f i x NO. o f O'

1. P a ll i/P a l i/P a l a /P a l l l k a 13

2. V a l i /o l i /E a l i A 'a l l i 10
3. U r /P u r /P u r i 09

4. v a d a /v a t a k a /v a d l 04
• • •
5. P a tt a n a 03

6. C h o ll 03

7. N a d /L a d 02
• • '
8. Agar CX2

9. T a t a /T a l i 02
 B4

10. Ahara

11. Kachcha

12. Danda 01
«•

(See the ch a rts in the end o f t h i s Sed6or\),

The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f the place-name s u f f i x e s

in d i c a t e s the so uthern p a t t e r n b e i n g more p o p u la r in

KoAkan d uring th e p e r io d under r e v ie w . The number of

place-names h a v in q the s u f f i x e s as P a l l i and V a l l i w ith

th eir v a ria tio n s are more i n number a s compared to o th e r

su ffixes. Even th e s u f f i x e s N a d , vad, ur and P a tta n show

• •
the southern i n f l u e n c e .

The s u f f i x e s showing the no rth I n d i a n a f f i n i t y l i k e

P u ri, nagara. Grama, etc. a r e found r a r e l y . However, some

of them are very in t e r e s t in g e . g . K achcha. Dr. s a n k a l ia

has shovm the s i m i l a r i t y o f the place-name s u f f i x e s in the

19
southern G u ja r a t aad Koftkan . He g iv e s the exan p les l i k e

Pada. Can Kachcha l e one more o f such common s u f f i x e s ?

20 ' — _
' V e n d a r ik a c h c h a ' from t h e reco rd s o f th e S il a h a r a s

reminds of Brgukachch, the famous p o r t on t h e G u ja r a t C o a st,

However, b a s e d on only one e v id e n c e i t i s very d i f f i c u l t

to make a g e n e r a l is e d s t a t e m e n t .
 L I S T OF P L A C E N A M E S F O R T H E M A P

(Serial n u m b e r s a c c o r d i n g to the n u m b e r s on the map)

1. Samyana 21. Arribarnath

2* Sopara” 22. Kollvali

3. v ir a r 23. Ooirblvall

4. Ran jail 24. Vanganl

5. Vatar 25. Thana

6. Adane 26. Talavail

7. Chikhaldongari 27. Doinblvall

8. Khanivade . 28. Mulund

9. Ran j oil 29. Borivali

10. L o n a d* 30, K^dlvall

11. Chavlndra 31. Dahlsar
12. Padagha 32. Bhandup
13. Bhadan 33. Nagao
14. Nagib 34. Chanje
15. Chlncholl 35. c^ari^uri
16. Kunde 36. Tiware
17. Murhe 37. Karj a t
18. Katal 38. Vadavali
•
19. Kollvali 39. Asal

20. Pogao 40, umroll

 b6

41. B h u ta b a li 55. vadval

• •
42. Ekasal 56. k a r le

43. Nagao 57. P^dare

44. P a le 58. ?an hale- K aJl

#

45. Poynad 59, K heradl

•

46. Nandgao 60. K a r a n jo n l

•
47. Murud 61. K ln ja ll

48. Danda 62. K in ja le

«• •
49. M ajgao 63. Kh^epatan

50. C h ik h a lga o 64. Hodavadl

• ♦
51. K o r la l 65. V e n g u rle

52. V ih u l e 66. Gavane

•

53. Barm oli 67. Asur

•

54. Velas 68. usap

 b7

Place-narnes having S u f f i x - P a l l i / P a l I l k a /

P a l i/F a l l a

Place-name Id e n t ific a tio n Referen ce

C X I ,V I ,N O .

1. Chikhlchyalla- Pallika C h ik h a lg a o n in Kalyan 1

T a lu k

2. M ancakapalli P a le- A lib a g T a lu k 4

3. Kak adaV ah al 1 a-p al 11 ka u n id e n tifie d 8

4. S am b a rp a llik a u n id e n tifie d 8
5. T alav allp allik a T a l a v a il in Thane T a lu k 8
6. T o k a b a la p a llik a U n id e n tifie d 8
7. K a d h e v a lip a lllk a K a n d lv a li - a suburb of
BO mb ay-

8. iT ppallapallika u n id e n tifie d 14

9. F atap alli AtTibamath (?) in Kalyan 17

T a lu k

10. K o l a p a l l ik a Kolm andale in Murud T alu k 61

11. M a n ja s a p a lll u n id e n tifie d 36

12. A n ita o a lla U n id e n tifie d 21

 b8

P la c e .isimes h a v in g the s u f f i x - V a l l / V a l l l /

b a l i/O l l /V a l a

Place-name Id e n t ific a tio n R eference

C II, V I NO,

1, B hutab ali B h u ta v a ll In 14

T a lu k

2, G o ra p av ail u n id en tified 9

3, M ahavali Mahaval n ear K u r la 26

suburb o f Bombay

4, M andavall M andavl In vasal T a lu k 34

••

5, M un ja v a il u n id e n tifie d 13

6, sltabali u n id e n tifie d 8

7, V a d a v a li V a d a v a li i n 20

T alu k

8, V ak h o li K o le t i in A l l b a g T a lu k 4

9, umbarvall Umroll in 14
T aluk

10, D hav ala D hav ala in 13

Y T a lu k
 B9

Place-names h a v in g s u f f i x - U r /P u r /P u r i

Place-name Iden tl f ic a tio n R eferen ce

C I I /V I # N O ,

1, Brahmapuri U n id e n tifie d 36

2. Chandrapur Chandor in Goa 5

3. Gunapur U n id e n tifie d 7

4, Junhupur U n id e n ti f i e d 4

5, M agpur Nagao in A l ib a g T a lu k 19

6, Nour U n id e n tifie d 9

7 . p u r i /S h r i p u r i U n id e n tifie d 1

8. T a la s u r U n id e n tifie d 18
 /o

riace-names having s u f f ix - V a d /V a t a k /V a d l

Place-name Id en tifica tio n R eferen ce

C I I /V I ,M O .

1. Anevadi U n id en tified 18
• •

2. Khanuvad K hanivade n e a r B o r i v a l i 14

suburb o f Bombay

3. Lonavatak Lonad in Bhiwandi T a lu k 29

• •
4. P a n iv a d Pandare in M hasala T a lu k 15

rioce-names having s u f f i x P a tta n a

Place-name Id e n tific a tio n

____________________ R e feren ce

C I I ,V I , NO.

1. B a l l ip a t t a n a Kharepatan in 41
T a lu k

2. Safiiyanpattana S a n ja n in the Dahanu 5

T alu k

3. S th a n a k iy a p a t ta n a Thane - the d i s t r i c t head- 31

q u a rt e r o f the Thane
d is tric t.

Place-names h a v in g s u f f i x N a d /L a d

Place-name Id e n tific a tio n R e feren ce

C I I ,V I ,N o .
1, C h ik h k h a la d C hikhalgao in Murud T a lu k 5

2. Panad Poynad in A l ib a g T a lu k 4
 n

Place-names h a v in g s u ffix - C h o li

Place-name Id e n tific a tio n R e feren ce

C II, V I, NO.

1. K a lib a l a y a c h o l i K o liv a li in Bhiw andi T a lu k 8

2. M anecholi u n id e n tifie d 5

3. V ij n a c h o l i C h in c h o li in Bhiv/andi ll
T aluk

M is c e lla n e o u s - The s u f f i x e s are u n d e r l in e d

Place-names Id e n tific a tio n R e fe re n c e

C II, V I, No.

1. D ip a kagar D iv e a g a r i n S h riv ard h a n 16

T alu k

2. V e l a s i v a g ar V e la s in s h r iv a r d h a n T a lu k 10

3. Lavan et a t Lonad in B h iw an di T alu k 7

4. vor I t a l i V a d a v a l in S h riv ardhan 16

T alu k

5. H a h a r ih a r I“lurhe in Bhiw andi T a lu k

6. Karadand Dande in Murud T aluk

7. Maj jf g r ^ a Majgaon in Murud T a lu k 5

8. Ven d ari kach ch a O n i d e n t i f i ed 14

 72

section II

C u lt u r a l Ethnography ;

in t h is s e c t io n the study o f the p e r s o n a l names

fou nd from the S il a h a r a reco rds i s p r e s e n t e d . The name

o f a person g e n e r a l l y r e f l e c t s his c u lt u r a l Identity.
In a country l i k e I n d i a which i s m u l t il in g u a l such stucfy

s h o u ld prove v e r y u s e f u l . T h is in turn would help in

s tu d y in g the m ig r a tio n s o f the peo ple i f th e names did

n o t seem to b e n a t iv e in c h a r a c t e r . For t h e h i s t o r i c a l

i n v e s t ig a t io n t h i s k in d o f a n a l y s is w o u ld p r o v id e some

c lu e s r e g a r d in g the socio-economic l i f e .

The records und er r e v ie w y i e l d personal names o f

the r u le r s and other members o f the r o y a l house# m in is t e r s

and some o th e r im portant members o f the contem porary society#

the donees and the w it n e s s e s o f the d o n a t io n s . T h is

c l e a r l y p o in t s out to a f a c t that the names o f the peo ple

from the low er c la s s e s of the s o c ie t y are n o t known from

the r e c o r d s ,

1, The p e r s o n a l names o f the Brahmin donees

From among the a v a i l a b l e names mciximum info rm atio n

is a v a i l a b l e about the Brahmin d o n e e s . The d e t a i l s about

the p a r e n ta g e , l in e a g e (G o t r a ), l e a r n in g (s a k h a ), p la c e

of o r i g in o f the Brahmin donees are c a r e f u l l y r e c o r d e d .

 73

h i s h e lp s in knov;inq the p r e f e r e n c e g iv e n to c e r t a ln

c l a s s of Brahmins h a i l i n g from c e r t a in r e g i o n . I t seems

the Rgvedi Brahm ins from the K arhad r e g io n were g iv en the

• •
p r e fe r e n c e b y the S i l a h a r a s , By analog y the Brahmins

m igra tin g from Karhad became K arhade Brahm ins. Today,

• •
a c t u a lly t h e r e is a c la s s o f Brahm ins i n Koftkan c a l l e d

as Karhade Erahm ins. F u rth er i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t about th e s e

Erahm ins is t h a t they a l l are R gvedi Brahmin s . -It pro|3a bly

I

means th at d u r in g the S i l a h a r a p e r io d th e re was a la r g e

s c a le m igratio n o f the Rgvedi Brahmins from K ar h ad to

• •
KoAkan who s e t t l e d there w ith a new c la s s i d e n t i t y as the

Karhade Erahmins p r o b a b ly m arking a d if f e r e n c e from the

n a t iv e Brahmins who are c a l l e d as 'K o A k a n a s t h a s ' today.

A number of p e r s o n a l name suffiL x es o f t h e Brahmin

donees found from the reco rds have become fa m ily t i t l e s

to da y , (see the c h a r t ) . The p e r so n a l names o f the Brahmin

donees can b r o a d ly b e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two g ro ups:

1) The names ;^hich are S a n sk rt

2) The names which appear to b e non- sanskrt from

t h e i r form in the r e c o r d s .

The S an sk rt names, a l l o f them^ a re i n d i c a t i v e o f r e l ig io u s

in f l u e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t f a i t h s . T he c h a r t s in t h e en d o f

t h i s ch a p ter l i s t them a ll under d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s .

 /4

2. The p e r s o n a l names o f the r u le r s and Q u e e n s ;

rhe p e r s o n a l names from t h e roy al house a ls o can b e

c la ssifie d a ccordin g to the l i n g u i s t i c i d e n t i t y and f u r t h e r

a cco rd in g to th e s e c t e r ia n i n f l u e n c e s . An i n t e r e s t i n g

f e a t u r e about th ese names i s t h a t almost a l l of the names

from the southern branch appear to be non- sanskrt showing

the south I n d i a n a f f i n i t y . Prom the N o rth Koftkan b ranch

the names o f the e a r l i e r r u le r s u p t o t h e 11th century A .D .

show the southern non- sanskrt a f f i n i t y . The n a nes o f the

k in g s a f t e r Mumrnuni are the s a n s k r t names. T h is p r o b a b ly

• •
I __

was due to t h e f a c t th at the S i l a h a r a s were o r i g i n a l l y from

the Kannad sp e a k in g a r e a . From th ere they m igrated to the

r eg io n where the language was more s a n s k r t i s e d . Due to t h is

I _
__

m igra tio n the S i l a h a r a s a lso must have adopted th e lo c a l

culture, hence the la n g u ag e.

3. The p e r s o n a l names o f the m i n i s t e r s ;

The study o f the p erso nal names o f the m in is te r s

r e v e a l an i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t r e g a r d in g the r o le o f lo c a l

c h i e f s in t h e s t a t e a d m in is t r a t io n , upto t h e c lo s e of

11th century A .D . the m in is t e r s were e s s e n t i a l l y from the

h ig h e r V a r n a , mostly the B rahm ins. The names o f the

m in is te r s upto 1 1 th century are In most o f th e c a s e s e n d in g

w ith 'A y y a ' s u f f i x v/hich i n d i c a t e s the h ig h e r V a r n a o f t h a t

♦
person (Ayya = A r y a ) . However, from the b e g in n in g o f the

12th century A .D . the names are fo u n d w ith d i f f e r e n t k in d

 75

of su ffixe s. MOW they are T hakurs, Frabhus, Nayakas, etc.

These p ro b ab ly rep re s e n t the lo c a l a g r i c u l t u r i s t community.

B ecau se, today these names are very corrmon anrong the

c u l t iv a t o r s o f K&Akan. T h is change in names p ro b a b ly su gg est

a change in the s o c io - p o lit ic a l s t a t u s o f th e lo c a l c h ie fs *

From about the 12th century they c o u ld p ush a s id e the e a r l i e r

a d m in is tr a to rs from t h e Brahmin c l a s s and took t h e ir p o s i t io n

in a d m in is t r a t io n . T h is a ls o p ro b a b ly i n d i c a t e s the weaken-
t _ _
in g o f the s i l a h a r a k in gs th at they were fo r c e d to In c lu d e

the lo ca l c h i e f s o f the a g r i c u l t a r i s t c l a s s in th e roy al

co u n cil.
 78

p e r s o n a l names o f the Brahmin donees

in d i c a t i v e o f r e l i g i o u s i n f l u e n c e
1
v a is n a v S a iv a Brahma

1
1 . Ananta 1. D h aresv a ra 1. Brahmadeva
1
2. Chakrapani 2. Kanakesvara 2. Brahmanayaka
•

3. Damodar 3. Rudra
1
4. GOVin da 4. Somesvar

5 . G o p ati (K rsna?) 5. soma

•••
6. H arideva 6. G anapatl
•

7. J a n "^d a n 7. Is v a r a
I
8. Kesav 8. V id y ad h ara

9. Laxmidhar 9. M ad huvalaiy a
(Mahadeva?)

10 . Madhav

11. ^Iarayan
12 . I

S r ip a t i

13. T riv ik ra m

14. V isnu

15. Vasudeva

Serpant worship P la n e t ti?orship A s c e t ic c u l t

1. N agadevaiya 1. D iv ak ar 1. R is ip a iy a

2. Nagamaiya 2. ^ r y a 2. S id h d h a p aiy a

3. Nagu 3. V e l a d it y a

4 . Nau (Magu?)
 47

The l i s t o f the Gotras w ith r e s p e c t iv e d e t a i l s

r e g a r d in g the V e d ic t r a d i t i o n . The numbers I n
the b r a c k e t i n d i c a t e the number o f occujpences.

Gotra Veda Shakha

1. A tr e y a (6) Rgveda B ahvrca

• •

2. B h a r a d v a ja (4 ) Rgveda (2 ), Sama V eda Bahvrch

• •

(1 ) K r s n a - Y a j u r v e d a d ) Gotrhlla
%
• • •

Talttlrlya
3, E h arg rv a (1) Rgveda Bahvrca
• •

4. G argya (2 ) Rgveda \2) Bahvrca

• •

5, Jamadagnya (2) Rgveda (2 ) B ahvrca

• •

6, Jam adagnya- V atsa( 6 ) Rgveda (6) B ahvrca

• •

7. Kapi (1) Rgvda (1 ) Bahvrca

•

8, K a u s h ik a (l ) Rgveda (1 ) B ahvrca
• •
9, Kasyapa ( 8) Rgveda (8 ) Bahvrca
• •

10. Lokaksa (1) Not m entioned n o t nnentioned

11. Parasara (2) Y a ju rv e d a (1 ) iX)t m entioned

Samaveda (1) Chhandogya

12. San ^ly a (1 ) Samaveda (1) Kauthuma

13, Upamanyu (l ) Rgveda (l ) Bahvrca

• •

14* V a s is t h a (l) Rgveda (1 ) Bahvrca

• • «

I S .V a t s a (1 ) Rgveda (l) Bahvrca

• •
t
16. V arseya (l) S u k la y a ju r v e d a (l) Madhyandin
 38

P erso nal name s u f f i x e s o f the Brahmin

donees with t h e i r m o d em eq u iv a la n c e s

1. A g n ih o tr i - A g n ih o tr i

2. A carya - A carya

3. Bhatta - Bhat
••
4. Bhattavardhab - Patvardhan (?)
•• • ’
5. D ixit - D ix it

6. D v iv ed i - n o t jound in KoAkan today

7. Deva - Deva

8. Devadhar - Devadhar

9. G r h it s a h a s r a - G haisas

10, Niiyak - Nayak or M aik

11, P a n d it - P a n d it
•• •«

12. P u ro h it - P u r o h it
t

13. Upadhyay - Upadhye

14. upasani - u pasani

1 5, Y ^ n i k - Not v ery common in KoAkan today

 79

l-'ersonal Ilaraes from the ro y al fa m ily

Sarnskrt names Non-Sarnskrt names

North Konkan Branch North Konkan Branch

1. A p a r a j it 1. C hh ad v a idev a

2. A rik esa ri 2. C h h it t a r a ja

3. Anantadeva 3. G o g g ir a ja

4. A n a n ta p a la 4. Zanza

5. Apararka 5. Munimuni
•

6. A p ar ad ity a 6. Pullasak tl

7. H a r ip a la d e v a 7. Vappuvanna

8. Kapardi 8. Vaj j ada

•

9. L ilav ati (quean)

10. M a i1i kar j un

11. N ag arjun

12. Padmai (queen)

13. Padm aladevi (queen)

1
14. Somesvara

South Konkan Branch south Konkan Branch

1. A di tyavarman 1. A iy a p a r a ja

2. Bhima 2. A v a s a ra
_ 1
3. I s v a r a 3 . Annana (P r in c e s s )

4. Dhammiyar

5. R a t t a r a ja
••

6. S a n a p u lla

/ •? I

\
 80

Personal names of the o f f i c i a l s r e f l e c t in g

the r e l i g i o u s i n f l u e n c e (s a n s k r t )

V a is n a v 3aiva P la n e t serpent
Worship worship

1. A nantugi 1. '.:anzasiva 1 , A d it y a - V a m a 1. Qovenak

(nak - nag)

2. A nan tapai 2. i:aliadevaiya 2. Aditya-Varman 2, Mainak

1
3. Ananta 3. Padm asiva 3. B haskar 3 . N a g a la iy a

4. G o v in d a 4. Rudra 4. D in a k a ra 4 . N a g an aiy a
I

5. K e s a v a la iy a 5. Somaiya 5. Divakar 5 . Nagavarman

I

6. Kesava 6. Soma 6, Prabhakar 6. Nagpal

1
7. Laxm idhar 7. V il a n d a s i v a 7. surya 7. Nagai
•
1
8. Madhav 8. V e d a s iv a 8. N ag ugi
1

9. N a r a y a n a iy a 9. ’/yom asiva 9. Nau (Nagu?)

•
t
LO. S r id h a r 10. Vasugi
(v a s u k i? )
11. v isn u g u p ta

12. V isnukanha

E p ic in f l u e n c e A s c e t ic t r a d it io n

1. A r ju n 1, A g a sti
2. Laxman 2. Jo g a p a iy a
•
3. Laxman a iy a 3* Jo up a iy a

4. Parasarama 4. J o g a la iy a

5. Ram* 5. R s ib h a t ta

6. R is i ( ft'St ?^

(* a feu d ato ry )
 81

'aon-::amsl<:rt Names

Erahmin done 3 s M in is t e r s O thers*

1. Am adevai’/ a 1. Ammanaiya 1. Annamaiya

• •«

2. ChadavGva 2. Ahavam alla 2. C helapaiya

3. C h it t a p a i^ a 3, Ehabhana 3. Changadeva
•
4. D addapaiya 4. B h a ir ju 4. Chakkaiya

5. Duggaiya 5. Ghhitam aiya 5. Chhitum alya

6. D ig v a iy a 6. D ad da p a iy a 6. C h a llg a

7. Dhalana 7. Dadaprabhu 7. D e la iy a
•
* — .
O Kesayya 8, Dhanama 8. Devali
•
9. K okopandit
••
9. zanzam aiya 8. Govanaiya
•
10. Kolam 10. Mamalaiya 10, Kakkala

11. Kotam 11. M anaiya 11. Kudukula

• «
12. N ann apaiya 12. N a up aiya 12. Lokkal
••
13. Nodamaiya 1 3 , Nabhat 13. Mamalaiya
• •
14. Ramba 14, S a n g a la iy a 14. Mai a iy a

15. Saudapaiya 15. S o d h d h a la iy a 15. Mahalu

• •
16. Sudanaiya 16. sodhava 16.
• •
17. S o d h a laiy a 17, Saham alla 17. P a t t iy a n a l
•
18. Sankamaiya 18. T a siv a ra ja 18. sThapaiya

19. T ik k a p a iy a 19. T ik k a p a iy a 19. Uva

20 . v iv a l a iy a 20. T aija 20 . Uddama

21. Vavanai ya 21. V asap a iy a 21. V ih ad a

• •
22. V ev ala 22. V a r d h ip a iy a 22. V ew alaiy a
 82

Brahmin donees M in is t e r s O th ers*

2 3. V a p a i'/a 2 3 . V a u p a iy a 23, v ijjan ara ja

•

24. v e l a iy a 24. v it h a p a iy a 24, V etapaiy a

•

25. v it h t h a p a iy a 25, v a v a la iy a 2 5, V eva

• •

2 6 . v a k a v a iy a 26. V a j ja d a
•

2 7 , V a s a id a

28. vahlm

29. Vesu

3 0 . V rih im a

31. zanpada
•

*T h e se in c lu d e (1 ) the names of the fa t h e r s o f th e donees

and m in is t e r s , (2) the w itn e ss e s (3) the s c r ib e s (4 )
fe u d a t o r ie s .
 83

REFERENCES

1. PLAl^IS, X V I, p . 6.

2. i r a v a t i K arve, JUE, II, Part I , p . 133,

3. J E 3 I, X III, ;j .l 2 9 .

4. C II, V I, No. 14.

5. s a h y a d r ik h a n d a , I I . 1.
••

6. Ekandapuran, 3 9, 127.

7. S I, 0 .1 7 .

8. G II, V I, No. 7.

9. E .r . C o w e ll, Jatakas, iv , p . 86 ,
* — — • _
10. V .V . M ir a s h i, S ila h a r a Rajavamsaca
I t i h a s Ani K o riv L e k h , p . ( 5 ) .
m

11. JEBRAS, IX , 0 ,2 6 6 .

12. R .E . Enthoven, T rib es A n d C astes of

Bombay Precedency, i, p ,9 .

13. PIMC, 1978, P art I I , p. 4 8.

14. PLA:'S, X V I, p p . 7-8.

15. C II, V I, NO. 24.

16. Ib id , NO. 13.

17. A .S . A lt e k a r , R astrak utas And T h e ir Tim eS/ p ,1 4 5 ,

• •
18. PIHC, 1978, Part I , p . 48 ,

19. H .D . s a n k a l ia , s t u d ie s In H is t o r y Of G u ja r a t , p ,1 7 8 .

20. C II, V I, No. 14.

 S4

BCCNOMIC CONDITIONS

The i n s c r i p t i o n s o f the S il a h a r a s are m ainly i n the

form of d onatio n charters. In such c h a r t e r s irrportance is

g iv e n more to the d e t a i l s about th e achievem ent o f the donor

k in g a n d the q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f the donee. Itie g eo g ra p h ic a l

l o c a t io n of the donated area i s a l s o no ted c a r e f u l l y to

a v o id a n / d is p u t e s about the b o u n d a r ie s i n futu re. The names

o f the then o f f i c e b e a r e r s w ith t h e i r d e s ig n a t io n s are

reco rded as w it n e s s e s to the d o n a t io n s . G en e r a lly # the above '

m entioned p a tt e r n was fo llo w ed b y a l l the r e c o r d s . I n t h is

p a t t e r n though the e n p h a s is i s on the d e t a i l s o f the d o n a t io n ,

i t a ls o in c lu d e s a l o t of in fo rm a tio n about the socio-economic

life o f the then contemporary p e o p l e .

The in fo rm a tio n g a in e d about the econom ic a c t i v i t y ^

d u r in g the p e r io d under r e v ie w from the i n s c r i p t i o n s can b e

c l a s s i f i e d under tlie f o l l o w in g h e a d s :

1. The la n d revenue and oth er taxes

2. Trade o r g a n iz a t io n s - g u il d s

3. D e p o s its

4. G rafts, small i n d u s t r i e s and o t h e r p r o fe s s io n s

5. Im portant t ra d e c e n t r e s - p o r t - towns

6. Currency

7. Land g rants - natu re o f land d o n a t io n s .

 85

1, The land r e v e n u e ; Throughout the I n d i a n h is t o r y

a g r i c u l t u r e has r e g a in e d the main source of economy fo r

the p eo p le and fo r the s t a t e s . A n c ie n t In d ia n p o l i t i c a l

t h in k e r s have form ulated s p e c i f i c r u le s about the revenue

co lle ctio n and the r u le r s are a d v is e d to f o l l o w them

s tric tly ^. The r u le r s were warned a g a in s t the op p ressio n

2
of the s u b je c t s w ith the b u rd en of revenue . G e n e r a lly /

the r a t e of the s t a t e revenue sugg ested by the a n c ie n t

In d i a n t e x t s was l / 6 th o f the t o t a l p r o d u c e . H e n ce, the

k in g was a ls o c a l l e d as sadbhaga^ (one who g ets the l / 6th

s h a r e ). In c a se s of emergency the kin g was a llo w e d to

c o l l e c t 1 / 4 th or even more^. The R a str ak u ta s were colie-

•• •

c t in g 33 p e r c e n t o f the produce from the wet l a n d ^ . The

1 ^ ^

fe u d a t o r ie s lik e those o f the S il a h a r a s could be c o l l e c ­

t in g l i t t l e more than the im p e r ia l r u l e r s so as to meet

w ith the amount n eed ed fo r p a y in g the a n n u a l t r ib u t e s to

the param ount, e .g . In the Gahadwala in s c r ip t io n ® there

comes a r e fe r e n c e to an u nu sual tax, c a l l e d as Turuskadanda.

• • ••
T h is c o u l d b e the tax c o l l e c t e d to pa y the t r ib u t e s to the
I _ _ _

Turk in v a d e r s . From the i n s c r i p t i o n s of the s i l a h a r a s we

do not g et any in fo rm a tio n about the r a t e o f la n d revenue

d u rin g th at p e r i o d .

A c c o r d in g to Mahabharat"^ the land r e v e n u e was

c o l l e c t e d in the form o f g r a in s and th at was to be c o l l e ­

cted at the h a rv e st tim e ^. The reco rds o f the S ila h a r a s

 86

show that at l e a s t sometimes i t was c o lle c t e d both in cash

and k in d , p r o b a b l / l e f t at the convenience o f the farm er.

Thus, in the P r in c e of W ales Musetun p la t e s o£ Mutnmuni the

revenue c o l l e c t io n o f the donated area is s a i d to b e a few

measures o f r i c e (Mutakas) and some c o in s (Drammas), The

m
same i n s c r i p t i o n mentions the t o t a l revenue o f a p a r t of

the donated area b e in g 1 5 0 0 Drammas,

The a v erag e la n d p r o d u c t iv it y r a t i o i s very low in

ItoAkan r e g io n . Most of the so uthern KDrtkan i s not su ita b le

• •

fo r c u l t i v a t i o n due to the s a h y a d r i h i l l s and marshy patches

due to the la r g e numiber of sm all c r e e k s . Ohly the narrow

str e tc h e s n ea r the sea are s u i t a b l e fo r paddy c u l t iv a t io n *

9 • » .
These lands were c a l l e d K h a jja n a s during th e S ila h a r a

p erio d . The K h a jja n s are v e r y f e r t i l e b u t due to the depen­

dency on the monsoons the crops from the K h a jja n a s are

always in s e c u r e . T h is is the c o n d it io n today and there is

no e v id en ce to show the betterm en t of the c o n d it io n s

d u rin g the S il a h a r a p e r io d , in fa c t there i s n o t a s in g l e

I ^ ^

r e fe r e n c e from the S ila h a r a records p ro v in g th at th ese

k in g s took i n i t i a t i v e in c a r r y in g ou t the i r r i g a t i o n a l works,

prom the above obseirvations i t seems p r o b a b le t h a t the

income d e riv e d from the la n d revenue by the S i l a h a r a s must

no t be very s i g n i f i c a n t .
 87

ether taxes; c u s t o .: d u e s : Th o ugh the la n d o f Koflkao does

not y ie ld the crop in p l e n t y i t was r e s o u r c e f u l due to the

trade c a r r ie d th r o u g h the innportant p a r t s lik e Chaul,

Sopara, Thana, K a ly a n , etc. Koftkan is known for it s p o rts
• • •
r ig h t from the Satavahana period^*^. The custom dues

c o l l e c t e d a t th e s e p o rts must have b een an im portant source

o f income to t h e s t a te s h a v in g supremacy over the land of

KoAkan. The Kharepatan p l a t e s o f A nan tadeva a nd the p la t e s

of R a t t a r a ja from t h e same p la c e mention the c o l l e c t io n o f

••

th ese dues. P r o b a b ly , the r a t e o f dues per v e s s e l v a r ie d

a ccordin g to the p la c e s from where the s h ip s a r r iv e d . Thus,

the Kharepatan p l a t e s o f R a t t a r ^ a mention the c o l l e c t io n
• «•
o f 1 S u v a m a g a d y a n a p e r ship coming from f o r e ig n lands
• •

(D v ip a n tar a ) and 1 oharana per ship coming from neighbour-

in g po rts as a d o n a tio n to t h e t e n p le o f A v v esv a ra.

whether t h i s c o l l e c t io n was in a d d it io n to what was norm ally

c o lle c t e d or t h a t v/as t h e normal r a t e o f c o l l e c t i o n i s not

c le a r from the r ec o r d . The p l a t e s o f Anantadeva record the

exemption g iv en in t h e cess to some merchants c o l l e c t e d for

the in g r e s s and egress o f the s a i l o r s , i n d i c a t i n g that

o t h e r w ise i t was a lso c o l l e c t e d a t th e ports# The e x a c t

n a tu re o f t h i s c o l l e c t i o n rem ains u n e x p l a in e d . T o l l s and

O ctro i; Though the o c t r o i c o l l e c t io n i s not r e f e r r e d to

it is i n d i r e c t l y m entioned o n ce in t h e S i l a h a r a r e c o r d s .

In the p r in c e o f '7ales Museum p l a t e s o f G hhadvaideva the

 88

o f f i c e r in c h a rq e o f the o c t r o i dues v i z . the s a u lk ik a

i s m entio n ed. All. t h e im portan t t r a d e r o u tes from the

Deccan v;ere l i n k e d to the p o r t s through the S i l a h a r a

territo ry . The c o n s t a n t move o f the cara v a n s in and o u t

o f the Koftkan must have y i e l d e d a good amount o f t o l l

• »
< _________ 11
c o l l e c t i o n to t h e S ilah aras, A c c o r d in g to the sm rtls

the payment o fthese dues was u s u a l l y in k i n d , however,

do
the i n s c r i p t i o n s s u g g e s t t h a t the t r a d e r s c o u ld a l s o ^ i t
12
in c o in s

The s p e c i f i c taxes; 1, B hag a bh o ga k a ra ^^: Bhagabhoga i s

a fiscal e x p r e s s io n in v ^ ic h Bhaga means k i n g 's s h ar e of

the p r o d u c e, e .g . Levanabhaga, U dakabhaga m entioned I n the

«
' 14
Arthasastra . From the accounts o f M egasthenes the k in g

u s e d to demand th e b hag a in a d d i t i o n to th e la n d - tr ib u te

as the u lt im a t e owner of the l a n d .^ ^ Bhoga means p e r i o d i ­

ca l s u p p lie s made by the te n a n ts to the k i n g . In g e n e r a l

b hagabho ga i n d i c a t e s the r o y a l dues o f d i f f e r e n t k l n d s ^ ^ ,

17
(2 ) P a r ik a r a - (u p a r ik a r a ) P a r ik a r a means m ino r t a x e s or
X3
taxes r e a l i z a b l e from ten p o ra ry t en a n ts .

3) udranga
1 9: Udranga i s p r o b a b ly same as T am il ‘uttara’

m eaning f i x e d t a x e s a cco rd in g to Dr. Sirca r . Both U dranga

and P a r ik a r a do no t seera to be im portan t t a x e s as th e re is

no s p e c i f i c m ention to those in the r e c o r d s .

21 • — —
4) Denaka and Padanaka ; The S i l a h a r a r eco rd s mention
• • *

t h e s e two as the s t a t e d u e s . D en a k a can be a s s o c ia t e d with

the M arathi word 'D ene* w hich means due or d e b t . Hence#

 89

Q r. M ira sh i has intier'pret.ed the word Denaka as the tax fo r

the en terta in m en t o f the to u r in g o f f i c e r s and Padanaka

• •

22
c o u ld be the cess fo r t h e ir accommodation . A s im ila r

tax i s knov;n from the reco rds of t h e Yadavas. There i t was

— 23
c a l l e d as v y a v a s th a d a n d a and Prayanadanda
•• • ••

'Jith the Denaka s u f f i x th ere i s one more tax laiown

' — — 24
from the r e c o r d s oz the S i l a h a r a s v i z . G rhadenaka . It
• •
was the house t a x . The re c o r d s a l s o m a itio n f u r t h e r t h a t

i t was c o l l e c t e d e i t h e r in 'Dramma' cr in 'G a d y a n a ' c o in s .

The P r in c e of V7ales i-iuseum p l a t e s o f Mumnuni even records

the r a t e of t h i s c o l l e c t io n as 1 Gadyana p e r ho use,

«

The t a x on b e t e l n u t p l a n t s ; T h ere are s p e c i f i c r e fe r e n c e s

o f the taxes l e v i e d on the b e t e l n u t p l a n t s . The rem itted

r a t e o f tax on these p la n t s was 4 or 3 Drammas p e r 100

25
plants . B e te ln u t appears to be an im portant p r o d u c t.

O b v io u s ly the s t a t e must be r e c e i v i n g good amount o f tax

from i t . P a tta n k u d i p l a t e s o f King Avasar reco rds an

•• • •

annual g i f t o f 4 lalch of b e t e l n u t s to the K in g from the

m erchants. I t is d iffic u lt to b e l i e v e that t h e royal

h o u seh o ld consumed th at much amount of nuts f o r the dom estic

use. Perhaps these nuts had a good market v a l u e . Hence,

in s t e a d o f g i v i n g some c o in s the merchants p r e f e r r e d to p a r t

v/ith some share in the p r o d u c e . The Konkan c o a s t is most

su ita b le for the b e t e l n u t p l a n t a t i o n . I t is a cash cr o p .

 90

It must ’ e a goo:'" 5jource o f e a r n in g both to the s ta te and

the p la n t a t io n ov/nors. in M arathi a compound i s used

w hich p o in ts out the inpo rtance of b e t e ln u t further. The

compound is Paisa-adl:a. P a is a means a coin in p a r t ic u l a r

and mone/ in g e n e r a l. Adka is the same as A d ik a in Kannada

w hich means b e t e l n u t . I t seems p o s s ib l e from t h i s e x p ress­

ion t h a t the b e t e l n u t also could be h a v in g a small exchange

v a lu e , l ik e the co u rie- sh ell h a d . The g i f t of 4 lakh

b e t e ln u t mentioned above could be im portant from t h is

p o in t of v iew . Hov;ever, so long as the e x a c t n a tu re o f the

exchange possible w it h b e t e ln u t i s not known, any fu r th e r

s p e c u la tio n is not p o s s i b l e . '

coconut is another cash~crop from PCoAkan region.

Perhaps that was the cash crop during the historical time
as w ell. The K sa h a r a ta ruler Nahapana d o natin g coconut
• •
p la n t s v/as p ro b ab ly in r e c o g n it io n o f t h e i r commercial
26 V < _ _
v a lu e . S u r p r is in g ly the records o f the S ila h a r a s are

t o t a l l '/ s i l e n t ai-.out the commercial s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the

coconut p l a n t a t i o n . The o h ly r e fe r e n c e to coconut i s found

in the Ranvad stone i n s c r i p t i o n of somesvara and Kharepatan

• • •

p l a t e s of R a t t a r a ja . Soth these r e f e r e n c e i n d i c a t e the

••

use of coconut as a r it u a l o b j e c t .

Taxes on oth er p l a n t s : P la n t s lik e K a r a n ja , Panas,

#
— — 27
Amba were also t ax ed . The mango orchards were d onated,

hence exempted fro;-,i the t a x e s . (R a n ja li stone in s c r i p t i o n

 91

of H a r i o a l a d e v a - .^rnraksetra). Lik e w ise , o th e r trees

u sed for tim ber o r fo r f u e l were a l s o taxed. Parts of

southern Kofikan a re w ell fo r e s t e d even a f t e r a century

of d e f o r e s t r a t io n . During the h i s t o r i c a l tim e i t must

h ave been cov ered almost a l l o v e r. A num]:er o f p l a n t

products, ju n g le products c o u ld have been p o s s i b l e , Ttie

p ro d u cts l i k e honey must have b ro ught ta x e s to the s t a t e .

Income d e riv e d from the p a s t u r e la n d i s recorded in many

28
i n s c r i p t i o n s under r e v ie w .

F in e s ! Very o f t e n t h e donee got the r ig h t o f c o l l e c t i n g

I_
__ _

fin e s a g a in s t ten o f f e n c e s . (D a s a p a r a d h a ). O th e r w ise the

s t a t e c o lle c t e d the f i n e s . In the Cambay grant o f

R a s tr a k u ta G ov inda i v the term occurs as a k in d o f income

• • •

29 •— —
a c cru e in g from the v i l l a g e , D asaparadha in its adm ini­

s t r a t i v e sense means j u d i c i a l fin es. Thus j u s t i c e was one

of the r e c o g n ize d source o f revenue and as such co u ld b e

a l ie n a t e d to fa v o u r it e g r a n t e e s ^ ^ . According to B .C .

Majumdar th e f i n e in c lu d e s the c o lle c t io n a g a in s t t h e

a d u l t e r a t io n , assau lt, defam atio n and o f f e n c e s r e l a t i n g to

v illa g e roads and v;ater r e s e r v o i r s ^ ^ . The o f f i c e r in

charge o f the c o l l s c t io n o f f i n e s is known as D asa p ara d h ik as

“ 3 2 I
from the L a l a rec o r d s From the reco rd s o f the S ila h a r a s
•

the c o lle c t io n o f these f i n e s ^ ^ is known but t h e r e are no

d e t a i l s about the t r i a l s o r the r a t e o f f i n e or the

o ffic e rs in c h a r g e r e la t e d to the f i n e s .
 92

E x p e n d itu re for the s t a t e ; As compared to the inform ation

about the sources o f income to the s ta te th e in fo rm a tio n

r e g a r d in g the item s o f e x p e n d itu r e fo r the s t a t e i s very

34 ’
le s s . a c c o r d in g to A l t e k a r S u k r a is the o n ly w r i t e r who

g iv e s d e f i n i t e id e a of the p e r c e n t a g e o f the s t a t e income

devoted to d i f f e r e n t it e m s ^ ^ . From t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s under

re v ie w one h a r d ly gets any in fo rm a tio n about the e x p e n d itu r e

I _
__ ^

of the S ila h a r a treasury. Hov/ever, c e r t a in g e n e r a l p r i n ­

c ip l e s can be und ersto o d w ith t h e h e lo o f the d is t r i b u t i o n

I

g iv en by S ukra. A c c o r d in g to t h is text 50 p e r c e n t o f the

s t a t e income was d ir e c t e d towards the d e f e n c e ^ ^ . The

S il a h a r a records r e f e r to number o f wars fo u g h t a g a in s t t h e

n e ig h b o u r in g powers l i k e the Kadambas. Hence/ t h e S ila h a r a s

must be sp end ing a la rg e amount on the e x p e n d it u r e o f war and

a llie d a ctiv ities to i t . The S il a h a r a s p r o b a b ly had to spend

more for the p r o t e c t io n o f the p o rt s b e c a u s e t h a t w ould be

the main a t t r a c t io n for the i n v a d e r s . The S il a h a r a s are no t

known to h is t o r y as ?:eing a strong m il it a r y power. However#

it is v e r y im portant to note t h a t they m a in ta in e d t h e ir h o ld

ov er an area l i k e chat o f im portan t p o rts fo r a p e r io d o f

four c e n t u r ie s or more.

Rest o f the e x p e n d itu r e s a lso must b e under the

37
departm ents v/hich c o lle c t e d tax es . The k in g s were remembered
 93

for the o a tro n a g e they exten ded towards a rts and l e a r n i n g .

In t h is r e s p e c t the Si-laharas a ls o have good c r e d i t to t h e ir

names. rtie famous s an sk rt p o e t Soddhala r e c e iv e d patronage

• ••

at the cou rt o f the S i l a h a r a s ,

The Arribarnath teniple w hich was c o n p le te d d u r in g t h e

_3 0
r e ig n o f k in g Hunrauni s e r v e s as a b e s t example o f patroni-
I _ ^
z a t io n given to a r c h it e c t u r e and s c u lp t u r e b y t h e S i l a h a r a s .

(A d e t a i l e d note on t h is temple is in c lu d e d in the ch a p ter

on r e l i g i o n ) . .^ a r a r k a t X k a , a commentary on Y ajnavalkya- sm rtl

b e a r s the testim ony of encouragem ent r e c e iv e d by t h e l e a r n in g

I ^ ^

a c t i v i t y d u rin g the S i l a h a r a p e r i o d . The e x p e n d it u r e s under

t h e se heads are taken to b e the ev id en c es o f the mark o f

p r o s p e r it y b ec au s e a s t a t e c o u ld a f f o r d to spend on such

u n p r o d u c tiv e works v/hen the b a s i c needs are f u l f i l l e d * Thus,

the above exam ples in d i c a t e t h a t the whole o f e l e v e it h cen ty r y

i .e . frora the r e i g n o f C h h i t t a r a j a to the r e ig n o f A p a r a d it y a la

was a p e r i o d of p r o s p e r it y o f the S i l a h a r a r u l e when

monumental works in v a r io u s f i e l d s were pro d u ced.

The e x p e n d it u r e under the h eads l i k e c h a r i t y and

d o n a tio n s are known from a number o f records which are

d o n a tio n c h a r t e r s . The m in is t e r s are m entioned In almost

all the records hence the e x p e n d itu r e fo r t h e ir s a l a r i e s can

he g u ess ed . The k in g s must be r e c e iv in g a p a r t o f the s t a t e

income for tiieir personal e x p e n d it u r e . The o t h e r heads

I

m entioned b y t h e s u k r a n it i are Kosa (r e s e r v e d fu n d ) and

 94

Prakrtayah (o e o p le ). T h e s e must b e a p a rt of s t a t e expen-

d it u r e fo r the S ili'naras as w e l l . Hcwever/ th e r e c o r d s o f

t h e S il a h a r a s h a r d ly make any mention o f p u b l i c works l i k e

co n s t r u c tin g dams ot i r r i g a t i o n a l c h a n n e ls , etc. Hence/

i t i s d i f f i c u l t to raake any p o s i t i v e statem ent r e g a r d in g

the e x p e n d itu r e under the head of 'P r a k r t a y a h * .

2. Trade O r g a n is a t io n G u i l d s ; Throughout I n d i a trade and

i n d u s t r i a l g u il d s were a common fe a tu r e o f economic l i f e

s in c e very e a r l y tim es. R e feren ces to such o r g a n iz a t io n

fu n c t io n in g d u r in g the Satavahana p e r io d are found in the

39
in sc rip tio n s . ii g u ild is b a s i c a l l y an e x p r e s s io n o f
o r g a n iz e d economic a c tiv ity . Men of d i f f e r e n t p r o fe s s io n s

and trades came together to form groups w ith d e f i n i t e r u le s

and r e g u la t io n s to g uide them. T h ey s t a r t e d out e s s e n t i a l l y

as economic u n it s to look a f t e r trade and commerce. The

I _
__ _
__

g u i l d s were norm ally r e fe r r e d to as S r e n i, Puga, Gana, Kuta#

•
etc. Any o f these common terms do not occur in the

i n s c r i p t i o n s o f the 'S i l a h a r a s . In t h e Bhadan p la te s o f

A p arajit 'g u i l d ' is r e fe r r e d to by an unusual term v i z .

•N a g a r a *. M ir a s h i suggests t h a t t h i s 'M agara* is same as

40
Kannad 'N a k a r a ' which means a g u i l d . A ccording to D i x i t ,

' ' ’a g a r a ' i s town or tovm assem bly in g e n e r a l, b ut i t a l s o

4 1
r e f e r s to the merchants and merchant g u il d s . D ixitar
I
take s i t to mean sane l ik e t h a t o f North I n d i a n S re n i and

'.Taigama and fu r t h e r n o in ts out th at i t was a common fea tu re

 95

A2
of economic l i f e o : south I n d i a . Rao d e f in e s i t to be

a group o f merchants or an assem bly o f r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s of

'' 3 *
the merchant conmunxty .

The g u i l d s were engaged in v a r io u s fu n c t io n s b u t

t h e i r main i n t e r e s t was to promote econom ic a c t i v i t y

through mutual h e l p . These o r g a n iz a t i o n s accum ulated

l o t o f w e a lth and ca:ne to b e ha v in g s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i o n

in s o c ia l and economic l i f e . The term Hamyamana-nagara

I ___ ^

o ft e n m entioned in the S il a h a r a r eco rd s proves to b e one

of the b e s t examples o f i t . Hamyamana means A r t i s a n in

K ann ad a. 'N a g a r a ' sa-:e as 'N a k a r a ' means a g u i l d in the

same langu ag e t h a t v/e have a lr e a d y s e e n . W hich means t h a t

the term Hamyamana-nagar means the g u i l d o f a r t i s a n s . These

Hamyamana-nagaras are m entioned along with the s t a t e

o ffic ia ls and im portant members o f the s o c ie t y (P a u r a s) to

whom the c o n d it io n s of donatio n were made known s p e c i f i c a l l y ^ ^ ,

T h i s in d ic a t e s the h ig h e r s t a t u s g a in e d by the g u i l d s of

a r t i s a n s in KoAkan d u rin g the S i l a h a r a p e r i o d .

m

The g u ild s d u r in g t h i s p e r io d even a c ted as the

t r u s t e e s to r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h i s f a c t I s knovin

from the Bhadan p l a t e s of A p a r a j i t . A d o n a tio n o f the

v i l l a g e Phadana given to the God L o n a d ity a by k in g A p a r a j i t

was r e c e iv e d by tiie g u i l d from p l a c e Gunapura on b e h a l f o f

the tem ple. T h is r e fe r e n c e a ls o i n d i c a t e s the s t a t u s and

the t r u s t earned by the g u i l d s d u r in g the p e r io d under r e v ie w .

 96

From the above mentioned d o natio n a part was to be used for

the r e p a ir s and ren o v atio n ( Jirn o d d h a r- rsn o v atio n ) o f the

m

tem ple. The g u i l d r e c e iv in g the donation on b e h a l f o f the

temple c o u ld be the g u i l d o f s>cilled workers h aving the

knowledge o f temple c o n s t r u c t io n . The same rec o r d fu r th e r

i n d i c a t e s the r e s p e c t a b le p o s i t i o n o f the members o f th a t

g u ild . It says that the donatio n was made by p o u r in g water

(as a mark o f donatio n act) on t h e hands o f g u i l d menrbers

by t h e icing. The merii ers were from d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s .

One was a brahm in, two were V a is y a s and one from the p o p u lar

v illa g e assenibly.

3. D e p o sits; D onations g iv e n in t h e form of f i x e d d e p o s its

were not uncommon during the a n c ie n t p e r i o d . The k in h e r i

cave i n s c r i p t i o n s the S il a h a r a p e r io d r e c o r d the d o n a tio n s

made to the B udd hist Sai^gha in t h e form o f A k s a y n lv l. (The

d eta ils of it are p r e s e n te d in c h a r t :^o. 1 in t h e same

c h a p t e r ). 'A k s a y a ' means something which i s n e v e r f i n i s h e d ,

'M i v i ' is same as '.l i d h i ' meaning a d e p o s it . Thus

'A k s a y a n i v i ' is a permanent endowment. D ip a k r a n ja n Das takes

i t to mean, the f i x e d c a p it a l out o f the i n t e r e s t (V rddhi)

on which a p a r t i c u l a r expense i s made' . T h ese d ep o sits

were handed over to t h e g u ild s where those would be p r o t e c te d

l i k e w ife and c h ild r e n '^^ . The K anheri cave i n s c r i p t i o n of

Fapardi I I f u r t h e r r e fe r s to a p r o v is io n t h a t the donee

(i .e . Gaumin A v ig h n a k a r in t h is c a se ) would keep c o l l e c t in g

 97

the in t e r e s t t i l l he l iv e s and a f t e r h is death the monastery

would s t a r t r e c e iv in g th e i n t e r e s t ,

accept fo r the i n s c r i p t i o n s at K an h eri there i s no

o th er r e fe r e n c e to f i x e d d e p o s it s during the S il a h a r a p e r i o d .

T h is proba'-ly r e f l e c t s one fa c t th at the p r a c t i c e o f g iv in g

d onatio ns in the form of f i x e d d e p o s its was inore common among

the Buddhist follov/ers than the Brahmanic fo llo w e r s . The

E rahm anical i n s t i t u t i o n s d u rin g the p e r io d under r ev iew

r e c e iv e d m ainly the la n d d o n a t io n s ,

4, C rafts, P r o fe s s io n s and Small i n d u s t r i e s ;

As i t i s already m entioned e a r l i e r 'Hamyamana'

in d ic a t in g a rtisa n s is r e fe r r e d to very o ft e n in the i n s c r ip ­

t io n s . But th at does not s p e c i f y t h e ir p a r t i c u l a r s k i l l s ,

I _
__

The craftsm en and p r o f e s s i o n a l s known from the S ila h a r a

records are l i s t e d 'relow;

1) V asak ara - Eamboo w eaving. The a rt of EaiTiboo weaving

was known from very a n c ie n t tim e. By the Satavahana p e r io d

A ^

the Bamboo weavers were w ell o r g a n iz e d in the g u il d s .

V a s a k ^ a is mentioned o n ly in one i n s c r i p t i o n , i .e . C ln tr a

Stone in s c r i p t i o n o : x^paraditya I . He was a s s o c ia te d with

I

the ten p le o f goddess Jogesw ari m entioned in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n .

2) T ailik a - O il pressor. These were a ls o c a l l e d T ila p is h a k a

in a n c ie n t t im e s ^ ^ . O i l s from d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s o f seeds

were used fo r v a r io u s purposes till recen t tim es, K aran ja

 98

t r e e s are v e r • o ften m entioned in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s of the

S il a h a r a s . Prom K a r a n ja seeds non- edible o i l i s e x tr a c te d

which is used as lu b r ic a n t and fo r c e r t a in medicinal-use-

in p r e se n t day KioAkan. same could be the ca se in the

S il a h a r a p e r io d as w e l l . T a i l i k a i s mentioned in

the K harepatan p l a t e s o f R a t t a r a ja , once anain a s s o c ia te d

• • ••
w ith tem ple. The r a i l i k a s a s s o c ia t e d with the tertples must

i e p r o v id in g o i l to the temples m ainly for the lam ps,

I

E s p e c ia l l y in the la iv a temple i t i s a coiTimon p r a c t ic e o f

c e le b r a t in g larrp-festival (D ip o tsav a ) .

3) M alakara; G ardener. M alakara l i t e r a l l y means g ar lan d -

maker. iiov;ever, in g en eral i t means the person w h o looks

a f t e r the g a r d en s, p lu ck s the flo w e rs and makes the g a r la n d s

and f l o r a l d e c o r a t io n s , in the C in t r a stone in s c r i p t i o n o f

A p a r a d ity a i he is r e fe r r e d to as Mali and in the Kharepatan

•

p l a t e s of R a t t a r a ja h e i s c a l l e d M ala ka ra . In both the cases

••

they are a s s o c ia t e d v /i t h t h e terrple. O f f e r in g o f the flowers

is one o f the main o f f e r in g s to the G o d . (A n g a b h o g a ). Hence,

to have a constant supply o f flo w ers fo r d a i l y worship and

fo r making f l o r a l d ec o r atio n s on c e r t a i n s u s p ic io u s o c c a s io n s

it was p ro b ab ly thought b e t t e r that the temple would have

i t s own g arden and a n appointm ent of a g ard en er to m aintain

it. R eferen ce to such garden is found in the Kharepatan

p l a t e s of Rattaraja, r a la k a r a s as p r o f e s s i o n a l f l o r i s t are
••
49
r e fe r r e d to in t h e in s c r ip t io n s o f the e a r l i e r p erio d as w ell •
 99

4) Kuin^ha’:ara - potter. P o ttery making has a long h is t o r y

s t a r t in g from p r e h is t o r ic age. D urin g the Satavahana p e r io d

these were o r g a n is e d in a g u i l d which was c a l l e d

'K u l a r i k a S r e n i ' . A’ out the re fe re n c e to the p o tt e r s in t h e

in s c r i p t i o n s D ip a k ra n ja n Das observes that those are v e r y

rare^^. once again the r e fe r e n c e to Kurribhakara tomes from

the two in s c r i p t i o n s man t io n e d atove v i z . The C ln tr a Stone

in s c r i p t i o n of A p a r a d ity a I and the K harepatan p l a t e s of

• •

R attraja. The Kumlhakaras a s s o c ia te d v/ith the tertples must

•«
be p r o v id in g pots and e a rth ern lamps fo r the tem ples. The

e a r t h e r lanps are s t i l l used in t h e temples# e s p e c i a l l y when

the whole o f temple i s d eco rated with lamps on sp e c ia l

o c c a s io n s .

5) Raj a k a : Dyer. He i s mentioned onli' once in the

Kharepatan p la t e s of R a t t a r a ja . He was a lso a s s o c ia t e d with

• • ••
the tem ple. However, v/riat work he would };e d o in g fo r the

temple is d i f f i c u l t to s a y . In p resen t co n text dyer does

n o t form a p a rt of t ie temple a s s o c ia t e s . Only thing i s that

i t g iv e s us an info rm atio n th at these craftsm en a lso were

t _ _
a p a r t o f the s o c ie t y during the S ila h a r a p e r io d and t h e ir

serv'ices were r e q u ire d by the temples as v/ell,

6) B h u tt e v a l; A person who ro a sts the corn.

••
He i s r e fe r r e d

to in the c i n t r a 3tone i n s c r ip t io n o f A p a r a d it y a I , as we

g et refe re n c e s to corn d e a le r s here i s a r e fe r e n c e to the

corn r o a s t e r . He was a s s o c ia t e d with t h e temple. what

 100

pu r p o s e he v/ould '-e s erv in g for the temple i s no t known.

Prob ably he w ould be p r o v id in g r o a sted corn fo r the temple

feasts, o r for the gu ests in t h e t e n p le .

Til 7 3 5 ^
A ll the above m entioned p r o f e s s i o n a l s were a s s o c ia t e d

w ith the t e n p l e . They r e c e iv e d some s a n c t io n s from the state#

in r e tu r n they were to s e r v e the god and the p e o p le who are

im portan t members o f the temple i n s t i t u t i o n s . Thus the M a li,

— I
h h u t t e v a l, I'Oimbhakara who were a s s o c ia t e d w ith the Jo g e sw a ri
••

temple mentioned in the C in t r a sto n e i n s c r i p t i o n were

exempted from the house t a x . Or the p o t t e r s , o il- p r e s s o r /

dyer m entioned in the K harepatan p l a t e s of R a t t a r a j a r e c e iv e d

• •
a p l a c e to s e t t l e i t h e v i c i n i t y o f the tem ple cortplex.

Though the r e f e r e n c e s to t h e s e p icfessio nals a re coming in

c o n te x t v;ith the t e n p le i n s t i t u t i o n s one toows t h a t they were

a p a r t of s o c ia l life even o t h e r w is e . The p o t t e r y , the

s e r v ic e s o f the d yer, o r the o il- p r e s s o r were r e q u i r e d b y a l l .

Hence, w e c a n s a f e l y u n d e r sta n d them as the im portan t profe-

'_ _ a'nd
s s io n s d u rin g the S il a h a r a p e r io d yas a p a r t o f econom ic l i f e .

:\part from t ’ne s i x m entioned above two more are known

from the t\^?o r e c o r d s a lrea d y m ention ed. Those a re the

professionals n e c e s s a r i l y a s s o c ia t e d w ith the t e n p le i n s t i t u ­

tio n s . However, as t’ne t e n p le a c t i v i t i e s v.'ere a p a r t o f

so cia l l ife so are these two p r o f e s s i o n a l s f u n c t i o n i n g as a

p a r t o f s o c ie t y . They are as g iv en b e lo w .
 101

7) P u jari: ternple a-iest. The C in t r a stone I n s c r i p t i o n

refers to him as ' L i n g a - p u j a r i ' - in d i c a t i n g the worship

o f S iv a in the p h a l l i c form. The p u j a r i must be ea rn in g

some rem uneration fo r h i s s e r v ic e to the t e n p l e . The above

s a i d i n s c r i p t i o n 'nakes mention o f the exenrption g iv en to

him in the house-ta>c. In p r e s e n t day temple system some

of the P u j a r i s r e c e iv e the o f f e r i n g s made i n the name o f

god and in some cases the P u j a r i owns a p i e c e o f la n d in

retui-ns of h i s s e r v ic e to g od. May b e the same systems

e x i s t e d in the h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d ,

8) D a r ik a - tetiple p r o s t i t u t e s . These are r e f e r r e d to in

th e Kharepatan p l a t e s of R a t t a r a j a . They w ere to dance and

• • •• •
sin g in t h e tem ple as a p a rt o f the temple r i t u a l .

(R a n g a b h o g a ). in return to their s e r v ic e th ey r e c e iv e d some

rem uneration from d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s, e .g . from th e s t a t e or

from the p r iv a t e donors, etc.

9) jy o tish i - astro log er. The C a n je stone inscrjpption o f

A p a r a d it y a j r e fe r s to one more p r o fe s s io n v i z . the

a stro logers. K a u t il y a m entions the jy o t i s h i as a court

person. Ilis s a la r y i s m entioned as 1000 s i l v e r c o in s by

the sa:ae v/ork"" . .-.part from those employed in t h e cou rt

there must have heen a s t r o lo g e r s as members o f s o c ie t y g i v i n g

p eo p le in fo rm a tio n a.’:out the a u sp ic io u s in a u s p i c i o u s

o c c a s io n s , eclip ses and t h e ir a t s t r a c t e f f e c t s on human l i f e ,

p r e p a r in g horoscope for the new-borns and many more. This

 !02

must have ; . e e n v e r " im portant p r o fe s s io n in A n c ie n t times

when p eo p le b e l ie v e d rrore in the s u p ern atu ral po w ers,

10) The 3 r e s t h i - lerchants. These are o f t e i mentioned

• •
I ^ ^

in the records of the S ila h a r a s and i t seems t h e / were

co n sid e r e d as the r e s p e c t a b le c i t i z e n s . They o ft e n r ec eiv ed

favours from the }cings. Thus the Kharepatan p l a t e s o f

.'-jiantadeva rec o r d the exemption g iv e n to the two merchants,

_
__ I ^ I

Phabhan I'resthi a;.-' ;hanama S r e s t h i , in t h e custom dues on

*• • • ••
t h e ir v e s s e l s a r r iv in g from th e p o r t s of S th anak, Nagapura#

etc. The most im portant t h in g to be noted here i s t h a t one

■ _ _ I
o f the Sresthisnam ed D hanam asresthi was the m in is t e r o f
•• • • •

f o r e ig n a f f a i r s in the s i l a h a r a a d m in is t r a t io n . One more

r e fe r e n c e to the p o s it io n o f S re sth is is - a lre a d y mentioned

e a r l i e r as the t r u s t e e of the temple o f God L o n a d it y a ,

I

T hese S r e s t h is must ;:e the r i c h e s t c la s s o f the s o c ie t y ,

•«
I

In t h e P a tta n k u d i -:;lates of A v a s a ra I I S r e s t h is are mentioned

•• • • ••
o ffe rin g 40 D in a r s to the k in g as a p a r t o f P a d a p u ja

(S a lu t e at the f e e t of H is M ajesty) and f u r t h e r they prom ised

to o f f e r 4 lakh o f h e t e ln u t s every year to the k i n g ,

11) The M antrins - tl'ie m in is t e r s . These w e r e also the

p r o f e s s io n a l s kno\^^l from the r e c o r d s . As the s t a t e was

there so were t h e s ta te o f f i c i a l s . The s t a t e o f f i c i a l s
I _ ^

d u rin g the S il a h a r a p e r io d r e c e iv e d the s a la r y at f i x e d

i n t e r v a l s or th ey were g iv en lands in s t e a d is not known from

the r e c o r d s .
 !03

3o:re o f the small s c a l e i n d u s t r ie s known from the

S i l a h a r a reco rds have been a lr e a d y m entioned w h ile d is c u ­

ssin g the p r o f e s s i o n a l s , e . g . p o t t e r y m aking, bamboo w eaving,

etc. In c a s e of o il- p re ss in g n o t on ly t h e o il- p r e s s o r s b u t

even one o il- m ill i s m entioned. The C in c a n i p l a t e s o f

Cam undaraja r eco rd s the donatio n o f an o il- m ill to the temple

••
o f goddess B h a g a v a t i, Two more i n d u s t r ie s ap art from th e

ones mentioned above are i n d i r e c t l y mentioned in two o f the

S il a h a r a r e c o r d s . Those are asgiven b e l o w ;-

1) Salt-making ; rhe Thana d i s t r i c t of p r e se n t KoAkan is

•
famous fo r p ro d u ctio n o f s a l t from the sea w a ter. That also
I _
__ _
__

seems to \e the case d u rin g the s i l a h a r a p e r i o d . Three

I ___ ^

r e fe r e n c e s from the S il a h a r a reco rds in d i c a t e the salt-making

in Koftkan during the p e r io d under r e v ie w . 1. La v an eta ta ^^

• * •
“
* 5 4 35
2. L a v a n a c a r ik a (la v a n a = s a l t ) 3. Lon av atak a (Lona -
• • • • •

l.avana). A part frof:i these there a r e r e fe r e n c e s to the

creeks"'^ v/hich must have been h e lp fu l in making the salt- pans.

Even the name o f God Lo n ad ity a m entioned in the Bhadan p la t e s

m

of A p a r a j it a lso may ’ e due to the salt- pans in the surroun­

d in g a r e a .

A ccording to K a u t il y a the whole p ro cess of making the

s a l t should be s t r i c t l y under the s t a t e control^"^. Probably

no p r iv a t e ownerehip of s a lt pans was a llo w e d . T hus, K a u t ily a

sp e c ifie s th at only the Brahm ins, the a s c e t ic s and the poor

CO
labo urers were allov;ed to produce s a l t only fo r them selves
 104

::'nQt was the c o n d it i noc salt-making b u s in e s s d u rin g th e

S i l a h a r a p e r io d cannot be commented upon v.'ith t h e d ata in

hand. Only t h in g t ’a at can be s a f e l y s aid i s t h a t the p e o p le

in KoAkan were p ro d ucing s a l t from th e sea- water from much

b e f o r e t'ne tim e of the S i l a h a r a s . T h a t 's why the names l i k e

L a v a n e ta ta occur in these r e c o r d s ,
• •

2. Productio n o f i n t o x ic a t in g d rin k ; Pro d u ctio n o f i n t o x i­

c a t in g d r in k s was in p r a c t i c e and proi^ably i t was s t r i c t l y

u n d er the s t a t e c o n tr o l during the S ila h a r a p e r i o d . T h is i s

su g g ested on the b a s i s o f one r e fe r e n c e in the B h o ig h ar p l a t e s

o f C h h ittara ju . Jhile donating a p lo t of land i t i s s p e c i f i e d

th a t the p la n t s from which in t o x i c a t i n g d r in k i s produced

(S u r a ) w i l l fee owned by the s t a t e even i f they are in the

donated a rea. The Thane p l a t e s o f Kummuni mention the

'K a d h u k a v r k s a ' whidi were p ro b ab ly the same as 'Mahua* trees

• •

from the flo w ers of -.;hich liq u o r is p r o d u c e d . S i m i l a r l y there

a r e ^ r e fe r e n c e s to T a l a palms from which also a k in d of intoxi-

59 —
e a t in g d rin k i s for rented (T a ^ )

I _ _

5. Some o f the Irnijortant towns known from the S il a h a r a r e c o r d s .

1, Surpara]:a; I d e n t i f i e d as p r e s e n t :\Iala-Sopara in the

__ I ___

V a s a i talulc o f Thana d i s t r i c t . Surparaka was knov^ as the

ro y al soat of power and a g rea t c e n t r e o f commerce during

the life - tim e o f Gautam Buddha^®. M ah ib h ara t mentions i t in

zhe A d y a t i r t h a v a l i . The t r a d in g corfmunity from sopara i s known

 105

f r o m the I'anheri cave i n s c r i p t i o n s ^ ^ . .-.Iberunis account,

te stifie s its i ^ o r t a n t p o s it io n as a commercial centre

in the 11th century The I n s c r i p t i o n s under review

refer to i t as a p o r t ^^ and the h e a d q u a r te r of a Visaya^"^/

v iz. the ' SurDaral<asatsasthi ' ,

2. S r i Sth a n a k a :
_ _ _ I I
I d e n t i f i e d as the main town o f Thana
^
' — — 65
d is tric t. I t was the c a p i t a l c it y o f the o il a h a r a s ,

a p o r t ^^ and a provi.'icial headquarter^"^. T h i s township

i s near a b i g cree): l ecause o f which t h i s must h a v e b een

a safe p o rt. The v e s s e l s co u ld be bro ught I n s i d e from

the main sea. Even today n e a r p r e s e n t Thana c i t y on

the K a lv a creek-shore there a re sm all j e t t i e s p o p u la r ly

known as Ilith band arj a sa:lt- port), Reti- bandar (sand- port)

As these names in d ic a t e sand for the c o n s t r u c t io n p u rp o ses

and s a l t produced in the salt- pans n ea r the creek must b e

ex p o rted through th ese p o r t s .

3. B allip a tta n : rallip attan is ide n tiir ied w ith p r e s e n t

K harepatan in R a t n a g ir i d is t r ic t . B a l l i p a t t a n seems to
• •

l e a g r e a t commercial centre and an ancientj.port^® from

the records o f kin q Aaantadeva and R a t t a r a j a . m the

••
Kharepatan p l a t e s o f na n tad ev a two 'aerc'.'iants a re r e f e ­

rred to who r e c e iv e d exemption in custom d u t ie s when t h e ir

s h ip s a r r iv e d at other p o rts l i k e sthanak , N agapura and

Su rp ara ka. A c c o r d in g to M ira sh i t h i s fav o u r th ey must

have r e c e iv e d as a reward fo r t h e i r help r e c e iv e d by king

.-jiantadeva in t h e f i g h t a g a in s t the Kadarnl'as o f Goa.

 106

.o keep a watch on t h e activ ities o f the i-'adarnbas and r e s i s t

t h e ir a ttack in the south i t s e l f E a l l i p a t t a n p r o b a b ly func­

t io n e d as a m i l i t a r y i ase as w e l l . Because of th is reason

K in g Dhanmiyar o f the southern branch b u i l t a g r e a t fo r t

(r'ahadurga) at E a l l i p a t t a n and made i t h i s c a p i t a l .

4. P r a n a la k a : Panhale p l a t e s o f V ik ra m a d it y a mention th is

p l a c e name as P r a n a la k a v i ^ a / a where as C h ip lu n sto ne

_ _ t
i n s c r i p t i o n o f i 'a l l i k a r j u n a m entions i t as P r a n a la k a D e sa .

Both these p la c e s are i d e n t i f i e d w ith p r e s e n t P a n h a le k a ji

in R a t n a g ir i d is tric t. E a rlie r i t was a v is a y a d i v i s i o n .

I

AS i t s im portance in c r e a s e d i t was made a d e s a . The C h ip lu n

stone i n s c r i p t i o n records an appointm ent o f a D andanayaka

•♦
I ^

fo r t h is desa d i v i s i o n . P a n h a le- k aji is also n e a r a c r e e k

a d j o in in g sea- shore. rroba):.ly there c o u ld also b e a p o rt

nearby. There are a group o f a n c ie n t caves in the h i l l s

n ear the c r e e k . Such caves nea r the creek are a ls o found

at other p la c e s in Konkan. e .g . Kuda c a v e s, Arriboli c a v e s, etc.

• •
The caves near the creek p r o v id e d an i n l a n d r e s t in g p l a c e

which was s a fe due to t h e ir l o c a t i o n . S e c o n d ly , there the

merchants c o u ld dw ell in the company o f monks and s p en t t h e i r

tim e p e a c e f u l l y . I'hus Panhale a ls o could I e p l a c e which

•

was o ft e n v i s i t e d by the merchants and t r a d e r s g o in g fo r

sea-voyage and t i e p la c e f l o u r i s h e d as commercial c e n t r e .

There are a fcvi more p l a c e s man t io n e d i n the

in s c rip tio n s as t^'ie o r o v in c ia l h ea d q u arters b u t t h e i r

 !07

commercial im portance cannot be known from the reco rds

under r e v ie w . A chart in c lu d e d in the chapter on p o l it y

lists the names o f a ll the V is a y a s m entioned i n the

records. Those are also the names o f im portant towns,

i^owever, excep t for t h e ir names h a r d ly any o t h e r inform a­

tio n i s availalole,

'R a ja m a r g a s ' or the r o y a l roads are fr e q u e n t ly

m entioned in tlie r e c o r d s . These must be im portan t trade

ro u tes join;|^ng the p o rts with I n l a n d towns, e .g . the

Rajam arga r e f e r r e d to in the Bhandup p l a t e s o f C h h it t a r a ja

«•
i s proba]:ly the sai(\3 which con nects Thana w ith Bombay, Or the

Rajam arga m entioned in the J a n j i r a p l a t e s , set I I of

.'q^arajit is same as the road which connects Chaul w ith

Bombay and roona v i a Poynad, the p l a c e r e f e r r e d to as

■anad in the i n s c r i p t i o n ,
• •
I _

C u rr en c y ; 3o fa r on ly one coin o f S i l a h a r a s I s

reported. I t was a coin s tr u c k by the north KoAkan

' — — — 70
S i l a h a r a k in g C h i t t a r a j a . Due to t h i s f a c t i t becomes

v ery d i f f i c u l t to s a / anything co n crete arout the coin ag e

I _
__ _
__

o f the 3ilah a ras. l!ov;ever, the s o l i t a r y ev id en ce of the

coin o f C h h i t t a r a j a has i t s own im portance in the h is t o r y

1 ___ ^ I ^ _ _

o f the S i l a h a r a s . 3 ila h a r a s were a l w a /s a feu d ato ry pow er.

T h e ir kingdom was very small and that too no t r i c h in

resources. In t h is con text the r ig h t of m in tin g c o in s

I ^ ^

e x e r c is e d by a t l e a s t one S i l a h a r a r u le r becomes v e r y

im portan t. The most pro sp ero us p e r io d i n t h e h is t o r y of the

 J.OS

s il a h a r a s was the o e r io d when C h i t t a r a j a , K a g a r ju n a and

• ummuni, these t iroo Lirothers r u le d in s u c c e s s io n . This

v/as the p e r io d whe;"- poet sodhdhala received patronage

• •
* — _ 71
in the S ila h a r a cou rt . T h is was also the p e r i o d when
— 72
the fanxjus ten p le o f A m bam ath was c o n stru cted . D uring

t h is p e r io d the Silaliara k in g s made m a g n ific e n t land-

do natio ns to more chan 20 b ra h m in s . C h h it t a r a ja brought

the age o f p r o s p e r it y v/hich was m ain ta in ed b y h i s two

b ro th er s v/no succeeded him v i z . N ag arjun a and Mummuni.

•

From the in s c r ip t io n o f the S iT a h a ra s some c o in s

which w ere in c ir d u l a t io n d uring the p e r io d under r e v ie w

are known. Those are given b e lo w :

. 7-3 I _
1} Drammas : From the e a r l i e s t r e c o r d s o f the S il a h a r a s

i.e . the K anheri cave i n s c r i p t i o n s t i l l t h e reco rd s o f the

d e c lin e p e r io d e. 7. I-arel stone in s c r ip t io n of A p a r a d it y a

t
II, Saka 1108 Dra^rnas are m entioned. Dramma, the word

d e r iv e d from the G r e e k Drachma, was a s il v e r c o in e q u iv a le n t

74
to 1 / 6 th of g o ld 'Tiska , Drammas p ro b ab ly in d ic a t e d a .

tax. Thus in the Thana p l a t e s o f Mum.muni the house tax

is r e fe r r e d to as Grhadramma, (Grha- h o u s e ) . The records

• •
also mention a rare ty'pe of Dramma, c a lle d Po rutni Dramma
75.
A c c o r d in g to f'ir a sh i these v/ere the Ksatrapa coins
«

m isunderstood as .' a r t h ia n c o in s and were thus c a l l e d as

7-oruthi-drammas
76. (lo r u th i - P a r t h i a n ). T hese were
77
s i l v e r coins equivale.'-t to 8 Drammas
 109

2) D in a r a : D in a r a v;as a g o ld c o in . I t was eq ua l to 16
7 8 ___

silv er 'R u p a k a s ' during the G upta p e r io d D in a r probably-

had some p r e s t i g e v a lu e a l s o . King A v a s a r a I I was o f f e r e d

40 D in a r a by tv;o merchants as an act of e x p r e s s in g honor
— — — 7Q _ < _ —
(P ad a p u ja ) . R e fe re n c e to D in a r a in the S i l a h a r a record

dated to the c lo s e of tenth century (9 8 8 A . D . ) i s very-

sig n ific a n t. Because in the North I n d i a the c o in was in

c irc u latio n during che period of KUshanas and GuptaS/ b u t

• •
a ft e r that i t went out of vo gue. Pro b a bly , i t was in use
♦ —

in KoAkan during the S il a h a r a p e r io d o n ly for v er y s p e c ia l

u se l i k e th a t one mentioned e a r l i e r . T h is i s fu r t h e r

supported by the 3act t h a t D in a r s are m entioned o n ly once

and the r e fe r e n c e i s o f a s p e c ia l g i f t .

3) D harana: D harana is m entioned o n ly once in the records

• •

under review . It is in t h e K harepatan p l a t e s o f R a t t a r a j a .

•
s i r c a r d e s c r ib e s i t as a s i l v e r c o in o f a v a lu e equal to
_ 80 _ _
1 /2 o f a Gadyana . However, from the M iarep atan p l a t e s
• • •
of R a t ta r a ja i t shov/s that D harana was a lso a g o ld coin
• • ••
and was m entioned as ' Suvam adharana' (S u v a rn a = g o l d ) ,
• • •
T h is coin v/as a lso mentioned o n ly o n ce.

Gadyana: Accordi.ig to L i l a v a t i / i t , was a g o ld coin o f

^1 — —
the w eighc 48 R a t t i s ' . From the Kharepatan p l a t e s of
« •
R a t t a r a ja ' suvarna- Gadyana' is known and th at i s the o n ly
• • • •
r e fe r e n c e to gadyana in the reco rds under r e v ie w .
 no
Though not "ad^^ana b u t a v a r i a t i o n in the form of
•irumaragadiyanaka' is recorded in the Thane p l a t e s o f

riirnmuni. T h is term is in t e r p r e t e d by rtlrashl in tv/o ways.

A c c o r d in g to one viev/ of h i s i t was a g i f t or n a za r a n a

82
prince .
—
of a G a d /a n a coin c o lle c t e d on the b ir t h of a

(Kumara) or he also suggests t h a t t h i s vjas a t a x c o lle c t e d

fo r the m aintenance and ed ucation of the 'K u m a r a ', the

/
S3 /
crown p r in c e . i.
iI

The ICumaragadyanaka is an unusual term. It is ■

0
I __ __
mentioned on ly once in the s i l a h a r a reco rd s i . e . in the

Thana p l a t e s o f M uaauni. A p art f r o m t h is r e c o r d t h e term

• •

Kumaragadyanaka oc-:urs in some of the i n s c r i p t i o n s of the

— — £4 —
Gahadw alas . Tho other ta x e s m entioned in the Gaahawal

in s c r i p t i o n s are ohagarhogakara, P r a v a n ik a r a , Jatakara,

G o k ara , Turus I'adanda and M ira n y a . The s u f f i x 'K a r a '

• •• •

i n d ic a t e s tax. T h ere fo re, all the terms h a v in g 'K ara*

su ffix l i s t e d above are c e r t a i n l y the t a x e s , r e g u la r or

o c c a s io n a l . 'D a n d a ' means f i n e or p e n a l t y . Turuskadanda
• • ••
is i n t e r p r e t e d as the f o r c e d c o l l e c t i o n to m e e t w i t h t h e

t r i b u t e p a i d to the T u r k i n v a d e r s o r to c o m p e n s a t e the

e x p e n d it u r e s o f war a g a in s t the T u r k a ^ ^ . As the s u f f i x

'K a r a ' is a ls e n t v;ith H ir a n y a and Kum aragadyanaka, those

• •
do not s e e m to ’
-e re g u la r ta x e s, H ira n y a was a g o ld coin
86

Likev/ise Kum aragad/anaka a ls o must be a c o i n . The

in sc rip tio n s in v/hich the word Kumaragadyanaka occurs a r e

the 'Y U v a r a ja ' records. The donor c a l l s h im s e lf a

■\’Xivaraja' or 'i :a h a r a j a p u t r a '. From these r ecords i t appears

 HI

th at the Gahadwala kin gs p ro b ab ly shared t h e ir r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

v;ith the crown p r in c e . Kumaragadyanaka c o in s mentioned In

the records r e f e r r e d to e a r l i e r c o u ld be the gadyana c o in s

is s u e d by t h e ir 'Y u v a ra ja * ru lers, A s im ila r In t e r p r e t a t io n

is a p p lic a b le to the term Kumaragadyana r e fe r r e d to in the

Thana p l a t e s o f Mumtriuni.

I ___ ^

In case o f the S il a h a r a records the term occurs o n ly

in one record of king I-Tummuni who r u le d in su c c ess io n o f

h i s two e ld e r brotiiers c h i t t a r a j a and N a g a r ju n a . T h is was

a c r u c ia l p e r io d in the s i l a h a r a h is t o r y when three b ro th ers

succeeded the thrown one a f t e r the o t h e r . A fter the death

o f Mumrnuni i . e . the t h ir d b r o t h e r there was a d is p u t e about

the s u ccessio n in which A nan tadeva, son o f N a g a r ju n a was

87
s u c c e s s fu l . It i s obviou s t h a t the d is p u t e must be between

I'urrrpuni's son and son o f N a g a r ju n a . D u rin g the l i f e time

tDf Mummuni he p ro b a b ly d e c la r e d his son as YUvaraja l , e *

the fu t u r e k in g . The Kumaragadyanaka c o in s m entioned In the

rhana p la te s o f KUTi::uni c o u ld be the is s u e s in the name o f

t h i s crown- prince. So fa r no coin i s found w hich can be

i d e n t i f i e d as Kumaragadyanaka. Hence/ whoJe of the

I
d is c u s s io n about t h is coin m entioned in the S ila h a r a record

remains at the le v e l of s p e c u la t io n ,

5) v is o v a ; In the C hanje stone in s c r i p t i o n o f Someswara

the V is o v a c o in s are m entioned. T h i s seems to be a coin

Op
more in use d urin g the m edieval p e r io d . I t was a co in

e q u iv a le n t to l / 20th o f a dramma.
 ,112

7) Land Grants; The l a n d - g r a n t s k n o w n f r o m t h e S l l a h a r a

I

r e c o r d s can b e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s . (All are

p r e s e n t e d in a t a b u l a r f o r m t o w a r d s the e n d o f t h i s chapter).

1. D o n a t i o n s of fiel d s (Ksetras)

2. D o n a t i o n o f v i l l a g e o r v i l l a g e s (Grama)

3. D o n a t i o n of o r c h a r d s (Aramaka)

The l a n d d o n a t i o n w a s c o n s i d e r e d as an a c t of
8 9
achieving high merit . A l m o s t all th e a n c i e n t Indi a n

s c r i p t u r e s e u l o g i e s th i s act. The M a h a b h a r a t g o e s to the

*
e x t e n t t h a t i f a k i n g is g u i l t y o f c o n q u e r i n g th e earth«

h e g e t s t h i s s i n w a s h e d of f b y p e r f o r m i n g s a c r i f i c e a nd
90
b y bestowing upon Brahmins land and cows . The

c h a r t e r s r e c o r d i n g the land d o n a t i o n s m a d e b y th e r u l e r s

to Brahmins, t e m p l e s o r o t h e r r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s ar e

f o u n d f r o m all o v e r t h e country. Th e p r i v i l e g e s r e c e i v e d

b y the d o n e e s a r e aiso a l m o s t ^ s a m e in all p a r t s o f the

c o u n t ry . T h e p r i v e l e g e s r e c e i v e d b y the d o n e e and s o m e

o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g th e d o n a t i o n k n o w n f r o m the

S i l a h a r a r e c o r d s a r e l i s t e d belo w .
_ 91 •
1, SamastJarajabhogasahita * T h e c o l l e c t i o n of

r e v e n u e s a n d t a x e s of all kinds. T h i s i n c l u d e s the

92
r e v e n u e c o l l e c t i o n in the f o r m o f g r a i n s a n d c o i n s ,
93 94
house-tax (Grhadenaka) # the rent of pasture l a n d ( T m a ) ,
• • ••
—— 95
t a x e s on f l o r a ( S a v r k s a malakula) , t he ta x for the us e
 .113

Of w a t e r f r o m t a n k s ( p a niyapodhaka)^^. Sometimes even

• •
— 97 98
the tSLxes sre specified lllce Bhagabhoga , udraAga §
99
PariTcara ,‘
etc,

2, Sadandadai5.paradha:^^ Collection of fines against

t e n offences.

3, Dh^apradh^adosasamavita^^^: T h e r i g h t o f keep-

i n g t h e w e a l t h g a i n e d f r o m the trea s u r e - t r o v e s , sometimes

102
this r i g h t w a s r e s e r v e d by t h e s t a t e

4, putrapautradyanvayopabhogya^^^: The d o n e e was to

e n j o y t h e d o n a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e t i m e and a f t e r h i m

b y h i s sons, g r a n d s o n s a n d so on,

5, The f u t u r e k i n g s f r o m t h e s a m e d y n a s t y o r fro m

o t h e r d y n a s t y w e r e w a r n e d a g a i n s t t h e sin o f d i s t u r b i n g

t h e donation^*^^,

6, T h e d o n e e was n o t to t a k e t h e b u r d e n o f entertain-*

i n g the roy a l o f f i c e r s o n tour, ( D enaka a n d P a danaka)^^^,

• • •
a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r i n the c o n t e x t of taxes.

7, T h e d o n a t e d a r e a was m a d e free f r o m the « i t r y o f

Catas and bhatas (the soldiers) 'Acata b h a t a - p r a v e s y a *

• « • • •

T h e r e s t r i c t i o n f r o m the d o n e e s sid e w o u l d b e that

h e w a s n o t to d i s t u r b the a l r e a d y d o n a t e d area^®*^, e v e n i f

it falls w i t h i n the b o u n d a r y o f n e w p o s s e s s i o n .
 14

The m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e d o n a t i o n of a

v i l l a g e a n d d o n a t i o n of a p l o t o f l a n d wa s in c o n n e c ­

t i o n w i t h the c o l l e c t i o n of s t a t e dues, in c a s e of

the d o n a t i o n of a f i e l d (ksetra) t he s t a t e w a s l o s i n g

o n l y a s m a l l p a r t o f r e v e n u e g a i n e d f r o m agricu l t u r e #

w h e r e as i n c a s e of a v i l l a g e d o n a t i o n t h e s t a t e h a n d s -

o v e r the r i g h t o f c o l l e c t i o n o f all d u e s to t h e donee.

T hi s a l m o s t m e a n s t h e t r a n s f e r of s t a t e authority.

T h e d o n a t i o n of o r c h a r d s wa s a c o n m o n p r a c t i c e

d u r i n g the p e r i o d u n d e r review. Mango-groves were

donated w h i c h y i e l d g o o d c r o p in Koftkan, in c a s e o f

t h e d o n a t i o n o f an o r c h a r d w h e t h e r the d o n e e %#as t o p a y

the t a x a n d h a v e the p r o p r i e t o r y r i g h t s o r h e w a s n o t to

p a y the t axes is n o t c l e a r f r o m t h e records.

E x e n p t l o n f r o m a p a r t of the state d u e s o r r e d u c ­

t i o n in the r a t e of t a x e s w a s a l s o a kdLnd o f e x p r e s s i o n

o f t h e s t a t e favour. R e d u c t i o n In the r a t e o f t a x e s on

a r i c a n u t p l a n t s is r e c o r d e d in t w o e p i g r a p h s . At one

p l a c e i t was r e d u c e d to 3 Draramas^®^ p e r 100 p l a n t s a n d

a t o t h e r p l a c e i t w a s r e d u c e d to 4 Draramas^^*^ p e r 100

p l a n ts .

8, w e i g h t s and Measures* About the weights and

m e a s u r e s t h e r e is h a r d l y any i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e f r o m
I ^ ^

S i l a h a r a r ecords. T w o m e a s u r e s of g r a i n a r e k n o w n f r o m
 115

the T h a n a p l a t e s of Mummuni.
• •
1) K h a n d i k i ^ ^ ^ - 8 0 0 to 10 0 0 s e e r s
• •

2) m t a k a s ^ ^ ^ - Muda# a m e a s u r e o f c a p a c i t y e q u a l to
• •
1 0 0 / 1 2 4 m a u n d s o r a bulloclc*s load.

About la n d measures th e re i s n o r e f e r e n c e at all.

A terra d e n o t i n g l a n d - h o l d i n g u s e d v e r / o f t e n i n the

records under review was Vrtti.^^^ 'vrtti* w a s an e x t ^ t

• •
114
o f l a n d s u f f i c i e n t to s u p p o r t f a m i l y o f o n e B r a h m i n ,

T h is, however, d o e s n o t g i v e a n y f i g u r e to u n d e r s t a n d

t h e a r e a of the h olding.

The f i e l d s w e r e i n d i c a t e d b y th e s u f f i x 'Ksetra*
I ^

f r o m w h i c h the w o r d 'Set' is d e r i v e d in Ma r a t h i , Most

o f the n a m e s o f t h e K # e t r a s are obscure. O n l y a f e w are

i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e p r o d u c e t h e y yielded. Following list

is t h e n a m e s of t h e f i e l d s k n o w n f r o m th e r e c o r d s u n d e r

review. P r o m so m e of t h e n a m e s it seems t h a t t h e y w e r e

t h e c r o w n l a n d s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s u f f i x Ra.^kiya meaning

• that o w n e d b y t h e king*.
*
1. Abhinavadevachchebha
2. Ardiapada

3. Agarvedhi
0

4. Adhavaila

5. Bhabhonda
••
6. Bhambanivaha
 118

7, Brahmavadaya

8, chanevati/chanevedhi
• • •
( P r o b a b l y p r o d u c i n g g r a m s - d i a n e « gr a m s )

9, Choli

10, Deiyala/Rajakiya Delyala

I
11 • G h a n teev ara
•#

12 , jam buvati

13, Jaluvondha

14, Kavadachchi

15, K ani

16, Kachcha/Rajakiyakhandakachcha

17, Khanu

18, Khanuvala/Khanuvada

19, K o n a v o u m dh a
#

20, Konchaurondha
••
21, Khojjavala

22, Kolihlraka

23, Kotharavedhl
• •
24, Kuntila

25, Kurnbhivati

26, Kusumblka

27, Kusuntiholi/Rajaklyakusumbholi

28, Madhuka

29, Manl
 !17

30, Mazilvava

31, Nara

32, Nihura

33, Nanevip

34, Neha

35, Pandha

36, Plmpalvap

37, Pittparlka

38, Saliyap ( p r o d u cing paddy. Sail « paddy)

39, Slmhaladvip

40, Talvati
• •
41, Tandulahali (producing paddy. T a n d u l a « padd y )
•• ••

42, Torani

43, Thapada
t
44, iTttesrava

45, vada

46, vingana

47, V^adi

48, Varasaunda

49, veharigao

50, vihale

♦Most of t h e s e n a m e s are from the

Thana p l a t e s o f Munmunl,
 118

diart I

D o n a t i o n s g i v e n to t h e B u d d h i s t m o n a s t e r ^ t KSnheri

Donor Kind of Donation p u r p o s e of D o n a t i o n Reference

CII,VI,NO^

Amatya 3 Aksaynlvis 1. R e p a i r s o f t h e 1

Visnugupta T o t a l a m o u n t 200 Vihara

drammas 2, c l o t h i n g o f t h e

monks

3* P u r c h a s e o f

Books.

Gaumin 1 A k s a y n i v i of 1. CCHistructlon o f 2

Avighnakar 100 Draminas meditaticoi r o o m s

2, R a i m e n t o f t h e

monks.

Veva 100 Drammas 1. C o n s t r u c t i o n o f 3

meditation rooms

2. C l o t h i n g a n d

o t h e r g i f t s to

monks.
 .tl9

c h a r t II

D onation o f v i l l a g e s g iv e n to the Brahm ins (Grihta)

N a m e of t h e Additional Information Reference

donated village CII,VI,No

1, P a l i c h c h a - D o n a t e d w i t h all s t a t e d u e s

Uchchika

2, 3 v i l l a g e s 8

a) c h a v in a r a -do-

b) T o k a b a l a p a l -
lika

c) A u l a k i y a

3, K u n i j a v a l i The state dues amounted 13

to 300 D r a m m a s

4, 6 v i l l a g e s in a d d i t i o n to r e v e n u e i n 14
amount of Drammas
a) Ekasal
1. g r a h a d r a m m a p e r h o u s e
b) B h u t a b a l i
and 1 Kumaraga dy ana ka was
c) V a d a v a l i to b e c o l l e c t e d .
•

d) A S a l g r a m a

e) Untbarvall

f) o b s c u r e n a m e

5, K i - i c h c h a S tate d u e s a m o u n t e d to 15
1500 Drammas

6, K h a i r a m a n D e n a k a a n d P a d a n a k a wa s 18
e x e m pted.

7. V a d a v a l i G r h a d r a m m a s a r e menticaied 20
N a m e of the Additional information Reference
d<«ated village CII,VI,No_

8, K h a ir a d i Together with the orchards 23

euid t a x o n h o u s e s a n d trees.

9, A n e v a d i A d o n a t i o n tnade b y 25
Mahapradhana

10, L o n a v a t a k a A l o n g w i t h all s t a t e dues 29

# •

11. B r a h m a p u r i A hamlet of a village 36

12, Sat u l i A l o n g w i t h edl s t a t e dues 63

13, 3 v i l l a g e s 3 more donations were 41

a. K U s m i n d i addition from
o t h e r v illages.
b. A s a n v i r

c. v a d a n g u l a

Total nu m b e r of villages d o n at ed to Brahmins during the

p e r i o d u n d e r r e v i e w )cnown f r o m t h e r e c o r d s « 22,
 121

chart I I I

D onation o f p lo t s o f la n d g i v w to Brahmins (K s e tr a )

Nurhber o f f i e l d s w ith t h e i r names R e fe re n c e

i f m entioned CII#VI,No^

1, 3fields 4

2, 1vodanibhattaksetra 9
• •• •

3, 1Abhinavadevachchebha 11

4, 21 f i e l d s - 1) A d h a v a i l a 14

2) C h a n e v a t i 3) D e i y a l a

4) J a l u v a n d h a 5) K a c h c h a

6) K a v a d o c h c h i 7) Kh anu

8) K b t h t h a r a v e d h i 9) K u s u m b h o l i
• •

10) M a d h u k a 11) M a n i

12) M a z i l v a v a 13) N i h u r a

14) Pitiparika 15) P o n d h a

••
16) S a l i y a p a 17) T h ^ a d a

18) T o r a n T 19) u t t e s r a v a

20) v a u l p a n d h a 21) v a d a

5, 1 f i e l d 20

6, 1 G a o ksetra 30

7, 3 f i e l d s 38

8, 1 vaiganiksetra 42
T o t a l n u m b e r of f i e l d s d o n a t e d to B r a h m i n s k n o w n f r o m t h e
r e c o r d s o f t h e S i l a h a r a s » 32,
 122

chart rv

Deflation o f Orchards g iv e n to the Brahmins (Aramaka)

Number o f O rch a rds R e fe r e n c e

CII,VI,NO

1. 1 5

2. 3 - o u t of w h i c h o n e w a s 22
mango grove

3. 1 - c l o s e n e s s to s e a is 24
mentioned.

4. 1 26

5. 1 34

6. 1 37

7. 1Komthalesthana vatika 39

8. 1Aricanut orchard 42

T h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f o r c h a r d s d o n a t e d to t e B r a h m i n s
k n o w n f r o m the r e c o r d s o f t h e S i l ^ ^ a s = 10,
 123

Chart V

Exerrptions g i v e n in t h e s t a t e d u e s to t h e B r a h m i n s

Kind of Exenptlcxi Reference

CII,VI,NO_

1. 2 0 flranrnas e x e m p t e d fro m t h e t a x 10
on the o rc ha rd donated b y
Dandanayak
••

2. E x e n p t i o n f r o m the Denaka/ 16

P a d a n a k a dues.
• «

3. E x e n p t i o n i n the c u s t o m d u e s a n d 19
c e s s t h a t m a y b e l e v i e d f o r the
i n g r e s s a n d e g r e s s of the sailo r s .
I
4. 13 h o u s e s c o n n e c t e d w i t h J o g e s v a r i 21
t e n p l e w e r e e x e m p t e d f rora the
h o u s e tax,

5. E x e m p t i o n in housetax/ p r o b a b l y
s o m e e x e m p t i o n in tax on
a r i c a n u t trees.

6. C o conut, b r e a d fruit, C h a m p a k 61
and mango trees exempted from
tax.

7. C e r t a i n m e a s u r e s of f o o d g r a i n s 14
e x e n p t e d f r o m s a l e s tax a t
T h ^ a coming from the villages
m e n t i o n e d in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n .
 124

Chart VI

Donations given to the temples

Tetiple (Deity) K in d o f dOTiation Reference

ClI,VI/No_

1, L o n a d i t y a A village 7
#

2, Bhaiyappesvar A field 11

3. G o d d e s s B h a g a v a t l An oilmill 12

4. v y o m e s v a r A field 30

5, s o m n a t h ( s a u r a s t r a ) 2 B Drammas per year 31

6, v a id y a n a t h 24 D r a m m a s p e r y e a r 32

7, L a x m i n a r a y a n fruit garden 34
I

8, u t t e s v a r a 1 f r u i t gardtfi, 39
10 visova/
162 P o r u t h i d r a m m a s

9, A v v e s v a r 3 villages 41
 125

REFERENCES

1. AS/ II. 1. 16

2. Mabh, XII. 87-99

3. Bauc3hayana D h a r m a s u t r a , 1 . 10

4. Man u s m r t i , X. 118-119.

5. A. S. A i t ekaT/ R a s h t r a k u t a A n d itieir T i m e s # p * 3 2 ,

6. El, XIV, p . 103

7. Mabh, XII, 119.17.

8. M a n u s m r t i VIII, 307.
#
9. CII, VI, NO . 20

10. lA, XLVII, p. 70.

11. Manusmrti, V I I . 131.

12. El, I, NO. 16.

13. CII, VI, No. 5.

14. AS, 11.12.

15. D i p a k r a n j a n Das, E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y Of T h e Deccan, p*22,

16. D.c. Sircar, Indian E p l g r a p h l c a l G l o s s a r y , p«48«

17. CII, VI, NO. 6.

18. D.C. Sircar, op, clt, p,406.

19 . CII, VI, No, 6.

20. D.C. Sircar, op. clt., p . 407.

21. CII, VI, NO. 16.

22. CII, VI, p.l08n.

23. lA, XIV, / p . 318.

 126

24, CII, VI, NO. 26.

25, CII, VI, No. 26 A n d NO. 61.

26, El, V I I I ? p. 82.

27, CII, VI, NO. 61.

28, Ibid# No. 8.

29, U.N. Ghoshal, C o n t r i b u t i o n s T o ihe H i s t o r y

of t h e H i n d u R e v e n u e system, P . 219.

30, B. Prasad. T h e S t a t e in A n c i e n t India, p . 303,

31, JBBRAS, II, P . 53n.

32, R.c. Majum d a r , H i s t o r y Of Bengal, p,285.

33, CII, VI, No. 6

34, A.L. Basham, w o n d e r Ttiat W a s India, p.111.

35, A.S. Altekar, state AndGovernment

In A n c i e n t India, p,288.

36, Sukraniti, I. 3 1 6-317,

37, Ibid

38, CII, VI, No. 17.

39, Lfiders' l i s t 1133, 1137,

40, CII, VI, NO. 7.

41, G.s. Dixit, L o c a l Self o o v e m m e n t of M e d i e v a l

K a r n a t a k a , p . 16,

42, V . R . R , Dlxitar, H i n d u A d m i n i s t r a t i v e
in s t i t u t i o n s , p « 3 6 3 ,

43, JARS, XXX, p . 121.

 127

4<. ClI, VI, So. 12.

45. D i p a k r a n j a n Das, o p . c i t . , p * 4 2

46. CII, VI, No, 1.

47. Lflders list, 1 1 6 5-1180.

48. I b i d 1137.

49. Ibid, 1151.

50. Ibid, 1137.

51. D i p a k r a n j a n Das, op. cit., p ,l8i.

52. AS, IX, 4.

53. CII, VI, N o . 7.

54. Ibid, NO. 4.

55. Ibid, No. 29.

56. Ibid, N O . • 6.

57. AS, II. 12-33

58. Ibid.

59. CII, VI, N O . 23,

60. 2. B. cowell, Jatakas, IV, p , 8 6 ,

61. j. Bu r g e s s , ASWI, V, p , 7 8 ,

62. B.C. Law, A l b e r u n i ' s K n o w l e d g e o f In d i a n

G e o g r a p h y , p . 14,

63. CII, VI, NO. 19.

64. Ibid, No. 14

65. I n d i a n Cu l t u r e , XI, p , 6 l ,

66. CII, VI, N O . 19.

67. Ibid, N O . 9.
 128

68. Ibid, NO. 40.

69. Ibid, NO. 41.

70. JRAS, 1900, p . 118.

71. CII, VI, p. 1 x v i i i

72. Ibid, NO. 17.

73, • Ibid, NO. 1.

74 . D.c. Sircar, op, cit., p . 100;

75. CXI, Ylt p. 1 xvi

76. Ibid, p. 1 x v i

77. Ibid.
78. D.c. Sircar, op. c i t . , 97.

79. CII, VI, NO. 40.

80. D.C, Sircar, op. cit. p . 91.

81. JNSI, VII, p. 20f.

82. CII, VI, P. Ivi

83. Ibid, p. 107.

84. El, XIV, p . 103.

85. C.V. Vaidya, Hindu Bharataca

86. Ibid.

87. CII, VI, NO. 19

88. S.G. Tu l p u l e , Pracin, M a r a t h i

89. CII, VI, No. 5

90. Mabh, V a n a p a r v a , 93*

91. CII, VI, No, 20

 ,129

92. Ibid, NO. 14.

93. Ibid, NO. 26.

94. Ibid, NO. 5.

95. Ibid.

96. Ibid, NO. 4.

97. Ibid, NO. 6.

98. Ibid, NO. 5.

99. Ibid,

100. Ibid,

101. Ibid, NO. 7.

102. Ibid, NO. 6.

103. Ibid, NO. 7

104, Ibid, NO. 16.

105. Ibid.

106. Ibid, NO. 20.

107. Ibid.

108. Ibid, NO. 24.

109. Ibid, NO. 26.

110. Ibid, NO. 61.

111. Ibid, NO. 14.

112. Ibid.
r
113. Ibid, NO. 38.

114. D.C. Sircar, op. c i t . , p . 381

 130

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

The s y s t e m o f social d i v i s i o n s in the f o r m o f c a s t e s

is an e x t r a o r d i n a r y p h e n o m e n o n o f I n dian C u l t u r e ^ . A caste

is an i d e n t i t y o f a p e r s o n in t h e society. It s t a n d s for

h i s profession, d w e l l i n g place, customs, rituals, in s h o r t

a t o t a l w a y o f living. The p e r i o d under review was a

p e r i o d v*en the p r o c e s s of f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c a s t e s h a v i n g
2
a rigid, c o m p a c t f o r m was s till g o i n g o n , E a r l i e r the

s y s t e m w as a f o u r f o l d d i v i s i o n o f t h e society* The four

divisions were called V a m a s and they were supposed to have

e m e r g e d f r o m t h e b o d y of the S u p r e m e - m a n ^ . T h e d i v i s i o n was

p u r e l y h e i r a r c h i c a l h a v i n g t h e B r a h m i n s a t t h e top a n d the

s u d r a s a t the b o t t o m , prom the records under revi e w the

r e f e r e n c e to t h e B r a h m i n s is v e r y frequent. The rulers

w e r e s u p p o s e d to b e Ksatrlyas, h e n c e the r e f e r e n c e t o t h e

K s a trlyas. B u t it is v e r y rare. The Vaisyas are mainly

th e traders. T h e y are r e f e r r e d to as the s r e s t h i s in t h e

••
r e c o r d s con c e r n e d . Thus, the u p p e r t hree V a r n a a a r e raenti-

o n e d in t h e r e c o r d s of t h e Sllaharaa. T h e o n l y V a m a %«hich

is n o t m e n t i o n e d in t h e r e c o r d s e v e n o n c e i s the s u d r a

vama. The s u d r a s m u s t b e t h e r e a n d their e x i s t e n c e c a n b e

g u e s s e d o n the b a s i s of i n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e e.g* the sculptors.

In t h e I n s c r i p t i o n s u n d e r r e v i e w t h e r e are r e f e r e n c e s

r e g a r d i n g t he t e n p l e b u i l d i n g acti v i t y . Usually, the

 131

t e m p l e s u s e d to b e d e c o r a t e d w i t h b e a u t i f u l s c u l p t u r e s as

is e v i d e n t f r o m the Afiibamath temple. The s c u l p t o r s w e r e

•_ _ -V- 4
f r o m t h e s u d r a Varna, a c c o r d i n g to Y a j m a l k y a . Apart

f r o m t h e s e f our F a m a s t h e r e h a d b e e n n u m e r o u s c a s t e s
I ^ _

e v o l v e d b y the t i m e o f t h e S i laharas. Mainly these castes

w e r e b a s e d o n the p r o f e s s i o n s , we get references to

f o l l o w i n g c a s t e s f r o m t h e S i l a h a r a r e c ords.

Inscriptional name P r e s e n t €aste n a m e in

KoAkan
•
1. Kumbhakara^ Kumbhar

2. Malakara^ Mall
•
3, Tailika*^ Tell

4* Raj a ka® Rangarl

_ 9
5. Vasakara Burud

6. Kayasthas^^ Kayas tha-Prabhu

O u t o f t h e aiiove list the f i r s t f i v e h a v e b e e n

d i s c u s s e d in e a r l i e r chapters, o n e c o n o m y a n d r e l i g i o u s

conditions. R e g a r d i n g Kayasthas/ t h e r e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n

c o n f u s i o n as to t h e i r origin, sonus d e s c r i b e t h e m as t h e

K sat r i y a s , o t h e r s a s c r i b e their o r i g i n to a B r a h m i n a n d
• 11
s u d r a cottvbinatlon . soddhala, t h e c o u r t p o e t o f K i n g s
••
C h h i t t a r a j a , N a g a r j u n a s a n d Mutnmunl w a s a Kayastha.

A c c o r d i n g to h i s w o r k the K a y a s t h a s a r e S i v a g a n a s ^ ^ .

w h a t e v e r m a y b e t h e i r origin, the I^yasthas were certainly

 T32

t h e mentoers of t h e e l i t e class* Ihey were closely asso>

el a te d with the court activities. B e i n g the o f f i c i a l

c o n p o s e r s o r t h e w r i t e r s of t h e c o u r t c h a r t e r s t h e y n u s t

b e e x p e c t e d to b e w e l l v e r s e d w i t h b o t h t h e l a n g u a g e a n d

w i t h the administrative procedures. The examples o f

s o d d h a l a o r u d d a m a (uddama w a s the w r i t e r o f K h a r e p a t a n
• « ♦•
p lates of Rattaraja) indicate their expertize in composing
• •

saAskrt verses and prose. This could b e possible mainly

d u e t o a r i g o r o u s t r a i n i n g in t h e s u b j e c t s li>ae Metrics,

r h e t o r i c s a n d g r a m m a r ^ l v e n to them, Sotne o f t h e K a y a s t h a s ,

w e r e a lso r e f e r r e d to as P a n d i t s i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r sc*iolarly
• •

achievements^ ^ ,

A s i t h a s b e e n a l r e a d y p o i n t e d out, t h e r e c o r d s

y i e l d m a x i m u m i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t o n e c a s t i,e. the Brahmins.

T h e r e a s o n for t h i s is v e r y s i mple. Most of the records

un der review are the records o f the donations made t o ’

Qrahmins. Hence/ detailed information regarding the

B r a h m i n d o n e e s is r e c o r d e d in t h e s e c h a r t e r s . Itiese

d e t a i l s a r e c l a s s i f i e d and p r e s e n t e d in t a b u l a r for«#

in t h e c h a p t e r o n H i s t o r i c a l g e o g r a p h y a n d C u l t u r a l

ethnography. A b o u t the d u t i e s of t h e B r a h m i n s t h e d i s c u ­

s s i o n w o u l d b e f o u n d in the c h a p t e r o n r e l i g i o u s c o n d itions.

Here, w e h a v e t a k e n up a r e v i e w r e g a r d i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f
 133

t h e B r a h m i n s in the s o c i a l f r a m e w o r k k n o w n f r o m the S l l a h a r a

records. F ol lo wi ng are a few generalised observations:

1. R i g v e d i B r a h m i n s g a i n e d the p r i m e i n p o r t a n c e . Ihe

B r a h m i n s w e r e s u p p o s e d to b e w e l l v e r s e d i n t h e k n o w l e d g e

o f Vedas. T h e V e d a s are four, o u t o f w h i c h the R g v e d q is

the f i r s t and the m o s t inpo r t a n t . Traditionally certain

f a m i l i e s w e r e g i v e n the r i g h t o f r e c i t a t i o n o f t h i s Veda.

They were called and even today are call ed the Rgvedl

Brahmins. From the records u n d e r review it seems that

these Brahmins were given the preference of receiving the

donations. M a x i m u m n u m b e r o f B r a h m i n s w h o r e c e i v e d t he

r o y a l d o n a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e silaiiara p e r i o d and t h e one s

w h i c h are r e c o r d e d a r e the R g v e d l Braihmins the y

•

a r e nx>stly f r o m K a r a d r e gion. T o d a y amo n g t h e M a h a r a s h t r i a n

B r a h m i n s K a r a d e B r a h m i n s is a s u b - c a s t e a n d t h e y a r e all

R g v e d l s - w h i c h Bieans m o s t l y t h e p r e s e n t K a r h a d e B r a h m i n s
• •
are the predecessors of those Rgvedl Brahmins who migrated
V
i n t o t h e K o A k a n r e g i o n f r o m K a r a d d u r i n g the e a r l y m e d i e v a l
• •
period, w h a t w a s the r e a s a i b e h i n d t h e s e m i g r a t i o n s Is

h a r d to say. Because, e s p e c i a l l y in Koftkan t h e r e d oes n o t

s e e m to b e any s p e c i a l a t t r a c t i o n o f s o u r c e o f l i v i n g o r

s o u r c e f o r f u r t h e r studies. The royal patronage could b e

t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e r e a s o n for t h e B r a h m i n s to m i g r a t e In

K oAk a n .
 134

The R g v e d i B r a h m i n s a m o n g the d o n e e s f o r m the

l a r g e s t number. However, the B r a h m i n s from otJjer V e d a

t r a d i t i o n are n o t untoown. T h e r e are r e f e r e n c e s to the

14 *- 15
B r a h m i n s of t h e Y a j u r v e d a and Samaveda trad i t i o n s .

ii. T h e B r a h m i n s r e s p e c t e d for t h e i r r e l i g i o u s p o s i t i o n s

a n d k n owledge;

F r o m t h e r e c o r d s the r e f e r e n c e s are f o u n d a b o u t t h e

B r a h m i n s m i g r a t i n g to Koftkan f r o m fai?-off p l a c e s e.g.

16 17
c o m i n g from M a d h y a Pradesh"^ , W e s t B e n g a l # etc. This

tends us to b e l i e v e t h a t a B r a h m i n was r e c o g n i s e d in a n y

p a r t of the c o u n t r y for h i s k n o w l e d g e a n d h i s p r e s t h o o d

a n d n o o t h e r i d e n t i t y w a s f e l t nece s s a r y . Othe r w i s e # h o w

a p e r s o n c o m i n g f r o m a d i f f e r e n t so c i a l s e t - u p w a s so

e a s i l y a c c e p t e d in a n e w e n v i r o n m e n t ? It was e a s i e r for

t h e B r a h m i n s to s e t t l e in a t o t a l l y n e w a rea p r o b a b l y

b e c a u s e of t h e i r p r i e s t l y r o l e w h i d i was r e c o g n i s e d a n d

respected everywhere. T h e s u f f i x e s l ike u p a d h y a y a f o u n d

in t h e r e c o r d s i n d i c a t e the p r i e s t h o o d of the Brahmins.

F o l l o w i n g is a l i s t o f t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of t h e

B r a h m i n d o n e e s m e n t i o n e d in the i n s c r i p t i o n s o f the
t ^ ^
Silaharas.

1. Vedavedangapurahamimaftisamrtinyay abhi jlia,

K n o w l e d g e a b l e in v e d a s a n d a l l i e d b r a n c h e s of

V e d i c s t u d i e s logic, e t h i c a l codes, m y t h o l o g i c a l texts,

 135

19
2, Kramavid

One who i s e x p e rt in r e c i t i n g the V edas i n 'Krama*

s t y l e or o r d e r .
20
3. J o t ir v id /J y o t is ijc a

A s t r o lo g e r or know ledgeable in A st ro lo g y and

Astronomy.
— — 21
4, P u r o h it a c a r y a

The o f f i c i a t i n g p r i e s t .

5. A g n i h o t r i /Y a j n i k a

The p r i e s t m a in ta in in g the s a c r i f i c i a l f i r e and

perfo rm ing or o f f i c i a t i n g the s a c r i f i c e s .

— 23
6. Somayagi -

One who has perform ed or one who c o u ld o f f i c i a t e

at Somayaga a k in d o f s a c r i f i c e .

7, D v iv e d i^ ^ -

Vtellversed in two v e d a s .

iii. The r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f the Brahmins as the iirportant

members of the s o c ie t y .

The Brahm ins, b y and la r g e , were expected to perform

fl.ve s a c r i f i c e s d a i l y , (v*iich a r e r e f e r r e d i n the chapter

on r e l i g i o n ) and s i x p e r s o n a l d u t i e s . The s i x d u tie s

25
perform ed by the Brahm ins were c a l l e d as Swakiyasatkarm as
• •
and a l l the c h a rt e r s mention them as a must on the d cm ee's

part. The d u t ie s are as fo llo w ss

 136

a) Y a ja n a;

Perform ing s a c r i f i c e s ; By the perform ance o f

fiv e s a c r if ic e s d aily fir s t of all a Brahmin was

m a in t a in in g the c o n t i n u i t y o f the V e d lc t r a d i t i o n ,

s e c o n d l y h e was s e t t in g h i s own example b e f o r e the

s o c ie t y . T h i s must have h e lp e d him in m a in ta in in g

theirespect which he was r e c e i v i n g from the s o c ie t y .

b) Y ajan a;

S a c r i f i c i n g fo r o t h e r s . E xcept fo r t h e Brahmina#

other members o f the s o c i e t y were not allow ed to

p erfo rm the s a c r i f i c i a l and o t h e r r i t u a l s on t h e i r

own as th ey w ere l a c k in g the t e c h n i c a l knowhow o f

the p r o c e d u re and the chants to b e r e c i t e d . Hence#

a Brahmin w ould b e c a l l e d to perform t h o s e an d i t

was c o n s id e r e d as a p a r t o f h i s d u ty t h a t he perform s

the r i t u a l s for o t h e r s . T h is mustf^ave saved him

from b ecom ing an i s o l a t e d u n i t and he would fu n c tio n

more as a p a rt o f the s o c i e t y ,

c) A dhy ay an ai

L e a r n in g , s t u d y in g , A Brahmin was e x p e c t e d to be

on the vo uyage of knowledge th ro u g h o u t. As a re su lt

of t h i s t r a d i t i o n we p o s s e s s a v a s t mass o f l i t e r a t u r e

prod uced on v a r io u s s u b je c t s b y the a n c ie n t In d ia n

s o c ie t y . The f a c t that t h e B rahm ins w ere s tu d y in g

v a r io u s s u b je c t s i s e v id e n t from t h e names l i k e

’ S a d a n g a v id ’ r e f e r r e d to i n t h e records.
 137

d) A dhyapana;

Teaching, T h e p r e s e r v a t io n o f t h e V edas was posslBt

m ainly due to the o r a l t r a d it io n the tech n iq u e o f

w h i c h w a s d eveloped s p e c i a l l y fo r t h i s purpose in

a n c ie n t tim e . That t r a d i t i o n r e q u ir e s a r ig o ro u s

tra in in g . By Adhyapana m ainly t h i s t r a i n i n g was

e x p e c te d . However, th ere must have b een v a r io u s

o th er s u b je c t s a lso w hich were tau g h t b y the Brahm ins,

e it h e r a t home or a t p l a c e s l i k e M athas, The names

27
lik e 'D i x i t ' i n d i c a t e the p roper i n i t i a t i o n rece­

iv e d b y the student from an a b le te a c h e r .

e) S t l t h y a ;

A Brahmin was expected to r e c e iv e g u ests and o f f e r

them food and s h e l t e r . In case o f the Brahmin donees

t h is A t h it y a must b e a k in d o f s o c ia l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

as w e l l . Because he w a s a ssured o f h is fo o d and

s h e lt e r by the s t a t e . If a s tr a n g e r comes to the

v i l l a g e he should b e r e c e iv e d b y one who i s sure o f

h i s own m ea l. Secondly# the s t a t e was no t c o l l e c t in g

any dues from the Brahmin d onees. But expected him

to should er t h is k in d o f s o c ia l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . By

way o f 'A t h i t h y a ' asked from a Brahmin the r e s t o f t h e

s o c ia l members were s av ed from the b urd en o f

e n t e r t a i n i n g a g u e st . Of co u rse, here th e g u e s t

pro b ab ly w e r e s e l e c t i v e and no t j u s t anybody e n t e r in g

the v i l l a g e .
 !3S

f) Agnlhotra:
M a in t a in in g the sacrificial fire. M ain t a in in g

the s a c r i f i c i a l f i r e asks for keep in g o f c e r t a in

vows. Thus 'A g n ih o tra * does n o t mean J u s t the

fire but a l s o a l l other r i t e s and r i t u a l s a s s o c ia t e d

w ith that. These w e r e s t r i c t l y to b e fo llo w ed

because the ’p u r i t y ' o f the f i r e was g iv en

a l o t o f irrportance and t h a t depended upon the

b e h a v io u r and p r a c t ic e s o f the Brahmin who keeps i t ,

A g n lh o tra i s p r o b a b ly the memory o f th at d is t a n t

p a s t when man needed the f i r e fo r su rv iv in g in

extrem ely c o ld clim a te and he co u ld n o t produce i t

th at e a s i l y . A lo t o f symbolism went on accumula­

t in g around t h is b a s i c n e c e s s i t y f a c t o r over

m illen ia s. And the w hole h is t o r y o f i t i s p r e s e r v e d

by t h i s t r a d it io n o f m a in ta in in g s a c r i f i c i a l fire.

Apart from p r ie s t h o o d t h e Brahmins d u rin g the

I _
__ _

S i l a h a r a p e r io d also fu n c t io n e d as a d m in is t r a t iv e o f f i c i a l s ,
I _ ^

The names o f the m in is te r s o f th e S il a h a r a s h a v in g the

•A iy a * o r
'B h a t t a ' s u f f i x i n d i c a t e t h a t they w e r e from
••
28
Brahmin community . However, the Brahmin o f f i c i a l s were

s lo w ly pushed a s id e and t h e ir p o s it io n was taken over b y

— — 29
the lo c a l c h i e f s l ik e Nayaka and Thakurs
 139

D iv e ag ar p la te s of Mummuni r e f e r to 'S m a r ik a ' a

body of 16 le a r n e d Brahmins who were to g iv e the judge­

ment a cco rd in g to the r u le s of the Sm rtis fo r the o f f e n c e s ,

such b o d ie s must be e x i s t i n g in a number o f v i l l a g e s and

they must b e h e lp in g the k in g in m atters about r e l i g i o n

and j u s t i c e . T h i s again i s a p a r t o f s o c ia l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

s h o u ld ere d by the le a r n e d B ra h m in s. The dravfcack of such

a s y s te m i s t h a t the s o c ie t y c o u ld become more and more

a u t h o r it a r ia n as a r e s u l t .

K sa triy a s; The second p o s it io n in the system of v a m a s i s

• •

th a t o f K s a t r i y a s . K s a t r iy a s was th e r u lin g and the w a r r io r

• •
class. For the p e r i o d under r e v ie w i t is v e r y d i f f i c u l t

to aay w hether the militeiry r e c ru it m e n t was done o n ly from

the members o f K s a t r iy a c l a s s . Or even fo r t h a t m atter was

th e re a c la s s id e n tirie d as K a a t r iy a c la s s In the
•
KoAkan •

d u rin g the S i l a h a r a p e r io d ? Even about the S il a h a r a s

them selves i t i s d i f f i c u l t to say that they were K s a t r iy a s .

They claim t h e ir o r i g i n from the V id y a d h a r a Jiixwtavahana.

The Vidyadliaras are d e s c r ib e d as sem i- divine b e in g s ^ ^ *

Hence i t i s d i f f i c u l t to p la c e t h e i r su cc e ss o rs in the

fo u r- fo ld d iv i s i o n of human s o c ie t y . By t h i s we mean t h a t
I _
__ ^

the S i l a h a r a s d id n o t claim t h e i r l in e a g e to any o f the

p o p u la r K s a t r iy a h e r o s , h en ce , t h e i r i d e n t i t y as the

K s a t r iy a s can be q u e s tio n e d . However, the S i l a h a r a s of

 '40

Kolhapur branch c a l l them selves to be the b e s t among the

K sa triy a s^^, Hence, the S i l a h a r a s o f KoAkan a ls o oould b e

• •
r e f e r r e d to as the K s a t r i y a s . A nother i n d i c a t i o n fo r the

s i l a h a r a s to be K s a tr iy a s comes from the oth er sto ry o f

— — 32
t h e i r o r i g in d i f f e r e n t from the Jlm utavahana s to ry .

ih e hero 's i l a r a ' Wio saved the w estern s e a from the

arrows of P a r a s u r ^ a cou ld b e th e co u n ter v e r s io n o f the

I — • —

a u t h e n t ic Parasuram a myth. The Parasuram a myth g l o r i f i e s

th e Brahm ins. There c o u ld be some o th er s t o r i e s r e la t e d

I ^

to Parasurama myth where t h is g r e a t Brahmin h e r o , who i s

d e s c r ib e d as the unconquered w a r r io r , was c h a lle n g e d by

sone hero from the K s a t r iy a c l a s s . The sto ry o f the o r i g i n

0
I ^ ^

o f S ila h a r a s about a hero who saved the s ea from the arrows

• ^
o f Parasurama co u ld be a r e f l e c t i o n o f the v e r s io n from the

s i d e o f the K s a t r i y a s , I t a ls o sugg ests t h a t the S l l ^ a r a s

who claim ed t h e ir o r ig in in t o one hero named 'S i l a r a * who

» —
opposed Parasurama were a c t u a lly the K a a t r iy a s . But as i t

went a g a in s t the au th en tic v e r s io n or r a th e r the version

made a u th e n tic by the Brahm ins, the s i l a h a r a s had to drop i t

and they claim ed t h e ir lin e a g e from a v id y a d h a r a who was

n e it h e r a Brahmin no r a K s a t r iy a ,

Itie r o le o f the K s a t r iy a s was very s i g n i f i c a n t in the

s o c io - r e lig io u s l i f e o f a n c ie n t I n d i a . E s p e c ia lly # the

K s a t r iy a s as the r u le r s were to p r o t e c t and promote the cause

o f s o c ia l w e lfa r e . In t h is r e s p e c t the S i l a h ^ a s were true

 HI

to t h e i r K s a t r iy a vow. Though t h ere i s h a r d ly any g r e a t

v ic t o r y to t h e i r c r e d it o u t s id e t h e ir land, t h is i t s e l f

i s very c r e d i t a b l e th at the S i l a h ^ a s d id p r o t e c t t h e ir

b o u n d a r ie s . The Kadambas from the southern s id e and the

C haulukyas from the northern s id e cla im to have b ro ught

Konkan under t h e i r s u z e r a in t y . However, they could not

I _
__ ^

p u t an en d to the s il a h a r a r u l e . There are two p o s s ib l e

r e a s o n s for t h i s . E it h e r the powers from o u t s id e could

never b r i n g the whole o f Koftkan under t h e ir sway, o r the

#

conquerors l e t the S il a h a r a s c o n tin u e w ith t h e ir r u l e a ft e r

acknow ledging the s u p e r io r it y o f the v i c t o r . E it h e r o f

the cases proves the e f f i c i e n c y of s i l S i a r a s as the r u l e r s .

It a lso su g g ests th at the S i l a h a r a s co u ld earn t h e f a i t h

o f th e ir su bjects.

The k in g s were to p r o t e c t th e ca u se o f r e l i g i o n as

w ell. The example o f A nan tadeva shows th a t t h e S ila h a r a s

were q u ite aware o f t h e ir duty towards r e l i g i o n . K in g

A nan tadeva fo u gh t a g a in s t the Yavanas and d e fe a t e d them

i n an open b a t t l e , v;ho had e a r l i e r t r o u b le d th e Gods and

the B r a h m i n s ^ K i n g A p a r a d it y a i wrote a commentary on

Y ajnavalkya- sm rti which also proves th at the S ila h a r a s

were very much concerned about the m atters of r e l i g i o n

and m o r a lity .
 142

The V a is y a s ;

In the s o c ia l h ie r a r c h y these were lower than th e

K s a t r iy a s . The m erchants, the tr a d e r s and th e agricul-

t u r i s t s are the members o f t h i s c l a s s , prom t h e records

• — — •
o f th e S il a h a r a s a number o f S r e s t h is a re known. They
• •

seem to be the p e o p le involved in Inland and m aritim e

trade. Some o f them used to own v e s s e l s used in sea t r a d e .

The r e fe r e n c e to such merchants i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e

t h is was a time when A rabs were v e r y po w erful on the

34
w estern c o a s t . They also had t h e i r c o lo n ie s an d a

p o s it io n in the lo c a l a d m in is tr a tio n due to the favours

— — 35
from th e R a s trak u ta s . The A rabs on the Konkan coast- land
• • •

h a d h e lp e d the Kadambas in the f ig h t a g a in s t th e S i l a h ^ a s ^ ^ ,

in such s i t u a t i o n i f the merchants from Koftkao c o u ld c a r r y

o u t t h e ir t ra d e on the w estern c o a s t i t i s a c r e d i t to them.

T h is must have been p o s s i b l e f i r s t l y due to 4 ie lr strong

g u i l d o r g a n iz a t io n and secondly w ith the h e lp o f royal

s u p p o r t. The s i l a h a r a s w ere n o t i n good terms w ith the

Arabs. Hence, they must have given more encouragement to

the lo c a l merchants to c h a lle n g e the Arab monopoly in trade*

In support o f t h i s argument the e x a n ^le from the Kharepa^an

p l a t e s of A nan tadeva I can b e q u o te d . He had two o f h i s

m in is te r s M ahapradhana and S a n d h iv ig r a h ik a who were

m erchants. The K ing d e c la r e d exemption i n custom dues for

the s h ip s o f these merchants a r r iv in g at lirportant p o rt s

lik e Thane, Choul and So p a ra. T h is A nantadeva had fo u g h t

a g a in s t the A ra bs in an open b a t t l e .
 43

The m e r c h a n ts h ad an i n f l u e n t i a l p o s i t io n in the

court. The m erchants b e in g th e m in is t e r s has a lr e a d y been

r e f e r r e d to in the e a r l i e r p a ra g ra p h . The P a tt a n k u d i
•• • •
p l a t e s o f King A v asa r I I r e c o r d t h e names o f th re e

m erchants who o ffe red a 'p a d y a p u j a ' to the k in g w it h g o ld

c o in s (D in a r a ) and asked the k in g to secu re t h e i r here'Si-

ta r y r i g h t s . (P ro b a b ly over th e fa m ily p r o p e r t y ). Ih e s e

m erchants a lso prom ised the k in g an annual g i f t o f fo u r

la c s o f areca- nuts.

The m erchants had t h e ir g u i l d o r g a n iz a t i o n s w hich

h a d g ain e d r e s p e c t a b le p o s i t i o n in the s o c i e t y , Itiese

were r e f e r r e d to as Harftyamananagara. The term HeAyaraana,

according to Sircar refers to f i v e classes o f a rtisa n s

v iz. the gold- sm iths/ b lack - sm ith s, Eraiser, c a r p e n t e r atnd

37
s to n e mason , Ttie g u il d s were sometimes a c t in g even as

t ru s t e e s o f the d o n a tio n s made to th e r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s .

K in g ; ^ a r a j i t a made a donatio n to the God L o n a d it y a by

p o u rin g w ater on the hands of the g u i l d members from Gunapura.

The menrhiers o f the g u i l d r e c e i v i n g t h e d o n a tio n on b e h a lf

> I
Of the t e n p le were Arribusresthi and V a p p a iy y a s r e s t h l . m
• •
the B r i t i s h museum i n s c r i p t i o n o f th e regio n o f H a r lp a la d e v a

one savukara i s T O n tio n e d . However, due to t h e damaged

c o n d it io n of the i n s c r i p t i o n it is d i f f i c u l t t o say a nything

more about the sahukara m entioned in the i n s c r i p t i o n . The

Sah ukaras were the m oney- lenders. A cco rding to Dr, Romila

Thapar the money le n d e r s were the o n ly c a teg o ry o f commercial

 144

p r o f e s s i o n a l s whose p r o s p e r it y In c r e a s e d d u rin g the

p e r i o d under re v ie w ^® .

About the a g r i c u l t u r i s t c la s s h a rd ly a n y t h in g i s

known from the records under r e v ie w . The T h a k u rs , NayakS/

M ahattaras must be the menfcers o f t h i s c l a s s . Among them

a few could r a i s e t h e ir s ta tu s to t h e e x t e n t t h a t they

became the m in is t e r s for the k i n g . The M ahattaras were

p r o b a b ly the same as the t i t l e 'W h a t r e ' to d a y , who a re the

farm ers in p r e s e n t day Koftkan, A c c o r d in g to p r e s e n t s o c i a l

•

d iv i s i o n s th e se are m ainly the Kunbls i . e . the t i l l e r s .

The records o ft e n mention the f i e l d s . T hus, b y a na lo g y

one can prove the e x is t e n c e o f th e c la s s o f t i l l e r s .

The Su d ra s:

As i t has b e e n a lre a d y p o in t e d out e a r l i e r t h a t

the on ly r e fe r e n c e to th e ^ d r a s is through the temple

I

s c u lp t u r e s of Ajrfcaresvara. T h e c l a s s of s c u lp t o r s were

the members of Sudra V a r n a , a c c o r d in g to t h e S m rtls .

• •

So f a r we have d is c u s s e d d i f f e r e n t members o f the

s o c ie t y which have a f i x e d fu n c t io n and p o s it io n i n the

s o c i a l frame work. itie s t r u c t u r e was such t h a t i t h a r d ly

le f t any scope fo r an i n d i v i d u a l to go b eyo nd the c la s s

id e n tit y . H is s o c ia l r e c o g n it io n t o t a l l y depended upon

th e c la s s where he b e lo n g s t o . However, there s t i l l

e x i s t e d one p o s s i b i l i t y o f h a v in g a d i f f e r e n t I d e n t i t y and

command r e s p e c t in d e p e n d e n t o f c l a s s m em bership. T h at was

 145

to renounce the world and become an a s c e t i c . I n d ia n

s o c ie t y always r esp ec ted t h is c la s s of peo ple and vdth

t h i s c la s s no c a s t e i d e n t i t y or 'c l a s s - s t a t u s * was

attached. F r o m the records under r e v ie w there are a few

r e fe r e n c e s to t h e se a s c e t ic g ro u p s. Itie a s c e t ic s mentioned
in the records are m ainly the S a iv a a s c e t i c s . The S ila h a r a

k in g s used to re sp e c t them and used to make p r o v is io n s for

t h e i r food and s t a y . U s u a lly , th ese would stay in the

Mathas a ttached to t h e tem ples,

B u d d h is t monastery a t K anh eri was s t i l l fu n c t io n in g

d u r in g the p e r io d under r e v ie w . Ih u s the B u d d h ist monks

were a lso a p a r t o f the KoAkan s o c ie t y d u r in g th e Silah^a

p erio d . By now 'B u d d h a ' had become the in c a r n a t io n of

V is n u . Hence/ adm itted in t o the H indu p a n th eo n . It is

p o s s i b l e t h a t due to t h i s r e c o g n it io n the p e o p le in the

surroun din g a r e a , though not the B u d d h is t fo l l o w e r s , c o u ld

b e v i s i t i n g the monastery a t K a n h e r i, T h is c o u ld a ls o b e

p a r t l y as a c o n t in u a t io n o f e a r l i e r t r a d i t i o n when the

monastry must have l a r g e l y depended on the support of the

lo c a l p e o p le , m ainly for the aims g iv e n to th e B h ik s u s .

•

The Koftkan being the c o a s t a l la n d and h a v in g a

number o f in p o r t a n t p o r t s the in h a b it a n t s o f t h is land must

have been a c q u a in te d with the t ra d e r s from v a r io u s p l a c e s ,

esp e c ia lly , the A r a b s . Itius the KoAkan s o c ie t y must have

 146

been comprised o f peo ple of v a r io u s races# c u lt u r e s and

relig io u s a sp ir a tio n s. The Arabs sometinies attem pted to

become more accepta}^le to the l o c a l p e o p le . The b est

exam ple o f i t would be the d o n a tio n s made by A ra b s at

— 39
C in c a n i d uring the time o f the R a str a k u ta k in g in d r a I I I
•• •
The C in c a n i p la t e s o f the S i l a h ^ a p e r io d also records the

names o f the A ra b s . However, the S il a h a r a recorxJs a ls o

r e f e r to the t e n s io n s between the S i l a h a r a s and the A ra b s .

It i s recorded th at the A r a b s , i f they are t h e Yavanas

mentioned in the records t r o u b le d the Gods and th e Brahm ins

i .e , t h e / h u r ted the r e l i g i o u s sentim en ts o f the p eo p le and

I ^ ^

the S ila h a r a k i n g s . T h is must have r e s u l t e d in the cha n g in g

a t t it u d e s o f th e lo c a l p e o p le towards the A r a b s . However#

in absence o f any fu r t h e r in fo rm a tio n i t is d i f f i c u l t to

say anything more about the s o c ia l exchanges between the

A rabs and the p e o p le of Koftkan.

The reco rds often make mention o f o n e more s o c ia l

group, or r a t h e r a c lu s t e r o f two s o c ia l groups v i z . the

C atas and the B h a ta s. U su a lly they are r e f e r r e d to as the

• •
ir r e g u l a r s o l d i e r s (R e f. Bp g lo . p ,6 7 ). How ever, th ere I s

o t h e r e x p la n a t io n giv en b a s e d on th§ leg end ary Brahmin

40
c h r o n ic le o f K e r a l a known as K e ra lo p a th i . i t records th at
I

Parasuram a a f t e r having reclaim ed the land o f K e r a la from

 147

sea and d o n a tin g i t to B rahm ins, gave alms (sastrabhilcsa)

to 3 6 0 0 0 of them from 10 v i l l a g e s b e l o n g in g to 14 g o t r a s .

B ecau se/ they w e il d e d arms# they were c a l l e d Ardhabrahmanas

or sastrabtahraanas and they d id no t have the r i ^ t to V e d a s ,

a c c o r d in g to t h e c h r o n ic l e . T h e s e Brahmins were o r g a n iz e d

in the i n s t i t u t i o n s c a l l e d the S a l a i and the members were

c a lle d G attar. These 'c a t t a r s ' c o u ld be the same C atas

m entioned in the r e c o r d s . For the 'B h a t a s ' it is e x p l a in e d as

the 'B h a t t a s ' m eaning the t e a c h e r s . The word 'C h h a t r a '^ ^

••
became 'C a t a ' auad Bhatija became 'B h a t a '. T h e s e were the
• «
arm b e a r in g Brahm ins who co u ld c h a lle n g e the r u l i n g a u t h o r it y

and force the p e o p le to pay them the n e e d f u l . H ence, they

were p r o h i b i t e d a t l e a s t i n the do n a te d a rea w here the

a b s o lu t e peace and n o n - in te r fe r e n c e was a ss u r e d by the a t a t e .

There must have been a few more s o c i a l g r o u p s h a v in g

th e ir d is t in c t id e n tit y in the s o c i a l atm osphere/ e .g . the

K o lis i . e . tlie fisherm an community on the c o a s t . However,

the i n s c r i p t i o n s under r e v ie w do not make any mention to them.

P o s i t i o n of women;

S tu d y in g the p o s i t io n o f women in a h i s t o r i c a l p e r s ­

p e c t iv e has alw ay s been a p a r t o f c u l t u r a l s t u d y . For such

k i n d of i n v e s t ig a t i o n the re c o r d s under r e v ie w are no t much

I _
__ ^

of use. E xcept fo r th ree queens of the S i l a h a r a h o use, no

o t h e r woman of th e period is known from t h e se r e c o r d s . The

 M S

Queen seen to have r e c e iv e d a r e s p e c t a b le p o s i t i o n .

E sp ecially , the mother o f the r u l i n g k in g . Queen

P a d m a ld ev i, mother o f C h i t t a r a j a , N a g ^ j u n a and Munnmunf,

_ 42
ask e d ra th e r o r d e re d two o f h e r so ns, C h ittaraja and

Mummuni'^^ to make s p e c ia l g ra n t s to some B rahm ins. Both

#
the sc»:is obeyed t h e i r mother and made the n e e d f u l p r o v i­

sio n s. The C a n je stone i n s c r i p t i o n records the donatio n made

by King A p a r a d it y a for the w e l f a r e of h is nnother, queen

L ilad ev i. S im il a r r e fe r e n c e i s fo u n d i n the Thane p l a t e s

of MummunT, where the k in g made d o n a tio n fo r th e w e l f a r e

o f h i s c h i e f Queen Padmai (P a t t a m a h a r a jifi).

••

In v ie w of A pararka the women o f h ig h e r V a m a ,

•
esp e c ially , the Brahmin women sh o u ld perform 'S a t i * ^ ^ .

The id e a l o f S a t i i n d i c a t e s the t o t a l merger o f fem ale

p e r s o n a l i t y w ith t h e m ale. However, o n ly th e t e x t u a l

r e fe r e n c e i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t to make any c o n c l u s iv e remark

r e g a r d in g the p o s i t i o n of women i n the s o c i e t y during

the S i l a h a r a p e r io d in Koftkan. Ilie women were p ro b ab ly

c o n s id e r e d as p r e c io u s p o s s e s s io n and a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
. t
Thus, in th e K an h eri cave i n s c r i p t i o n o f P u l l a s a k t i it

is noted that the donatio n s h o u ld b e p r o t e c t e d as w ife

and son.

E d u c a t io n : A c c o r d in g to D r . Thapar, the c a s t e system

46
was c l o s e l y l i n k e d to the e d u c a t io n a l system o f the s o c ie t y
 !49

The formal e d u catio n became more and more t h e o lo g ic a l and

the schools got a ttach ed to t h e terrples by th e p e r io d

under rev iew . We have a lrea d y d is c u s s e d about the Mathas

fu n c t io n in g as the schools o f V e d ic t r a d i t i o n . T h is system

ex cluded the members of the low er caste from the system o f

formal e d u c a t io n . I t became the p r iv e l e g e o f a few upper

classes. The c h il d r e n o f the low er c a s t e p e o p le / who were

m ostly the s k i l l e d p ro fes sio n a ls r e c e iv e d the t r a i n i n g in

t h e ir own f a m i l i e s . T his was to h e lp them I n co n tin u in g

the t r a d i t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n . T h is must have b een more tru e

in c a s e o f h ig h ly s k i l l e d a r t i s a n s l i k e the s c u lp to r s .

It appears to b e the b e s t example o f social c o n tr a st where

the h ig h ly s k i l l e d perso n s were t o t a l l y cut-off from the

s o p h is t ic a t e d ed ucatio n and were t r e a t e d as the lower c a s t e .

In fa c t the s c u lp to rs were the members o f the Sudra c a ste

who are a t th e lo w e st. The t r a d e r s and some o f th e

a r t is a n s t r a in e d t h e i r youth i n the g u i l d s . Thus the whole

o f ed ucatio n was s o l i t i n t o two flections. The members of

h ig h e r c a s t e s , m ainly the Brahmins l e a m t the s c rip tu re s

in the tem ples, mathas, A graharas or a t home. T h eir

ed ucatio n was to help them in m a in ta in in g t h e ir r e l i g i o u s

and s o c ia l s u p e r io r it y . On the o t h e r hand th e non-brahmins

and e s p e c ia l l y the lower caste peo p le le a r n t a t home o r

a t the community workshop and t h e i r e d u catio n was m ainly

p r o fe s s io n o r ie n t e d . This r e s u l t e d more and more into the

r i g i d i t y and compactness o f the c a s t e - s tr u c t u r e .

 1 50

The Brahmins chanploned more and more In matters

o f r e l i g i o n and s o c ia l la w . T hus, the r e s t o f th e s o c ia l

members had to depend on t h e i r a d v ic e in every Im portant

m a tter, itie s l l ^ ^ a k in g s a ls o r e c o g n is e d the s u p e r io r it y

o f the Brahm ins and asked fo r t h e ir a s s is t a n c e and o ft e n

honoured them by making p e r p e t u a l endowments.

A part frtsra Brahm lns/ c e r t a in other c a s t e s a lso

r e c e iv e d the p r iv e l e g e of l e a r n in g the S a n s k r it language

and r e c e iv in g the e x p e rt know ledge in s u b j e c t s l i k e p o e t i c s ,

K ay asth as was one o f them. Famous p o e t so d dh a la I s one

••
good example o f i t from the p e r io d under r e v ie w . H is work

•U d a y a s u n d a r ik a th a ' has a r e s p e c t a b le p o s i t io n In S a n s k r it

lite ra tu re .
 151

REFERENCES

1. S .C . M alik , (e d ), und erSt

PP 42 , 4 3 .

2. Romila T hap a r, H is t o r y o f

3. Rgveda, X.
•
Y a jn a v a lk y a sm r ti, 1 .1 2 0
0

5, C ll, V I, NO. 22

6. Ib id .

7. Ib id .

8. Ib id .

9. Ib id .

10. Ib id .

11. Romila T hapar, op . c l t ., ]

12. U da y su n d arika th a, p . 10.

13. C II, V I, NO. 32.

14. Ib id , NO. 13.

15. Ib id , NO. 6

16. Ib id , NO. 15.

17. Ib id .

18. Ib id , NO. 4

19. Ib id , NO. 5.

20. Ib id , No. 8.

21. Ib id .

22. Ib id , No. 20 And N O . 12.

 9
7 ^ / ' ^ s ''^ p /7 . t"o -A «w / .> -X / f » i ) u u u ^ ^
fr^* \s^
r

u[. - O L D ^ e .
L-

f 'J\
it \j
tv
•J^ •v^

O' 0^
'•T
t ^>0
cf on-
cr'
■

; »e A\
CnT W

iv .>
*C'
^ Q) cr >J
<i>
O 0 ~s>
r r
1^ J
o '-«-J
o ^ r- '“
i
^Xi C
t)
 152

23. Ib id , NO. 23

24. Ib id .

2 5. Ib id , NO. 8

2 6. Ib id , NO. 14.

27. Ibid , NO. 1 5.

28, Ib id ^ No. 20

29. Ib id , NO. 21.

1
30. EharatTya Saftskrti Kosa, ed. M ahadevasastri
V III, P . 6971

31, C X I, V I, No. 60,

32. Ib id , NO. 4.

33, Ib id , NO. 19

34, . Ib id .

35, El, X X X II , p . 4 7 .

36. C II, V I, NO. 20,

37. E l, XXXIV , p p . 291- 292,

38, Romila Thc^^ar, op . c i t . , p , 2 5 1 .

39, Ib id , p ,3 5 .

40, M .G .S . N arayan, PIHC, 1970, Part I , p .125,

41, K. V e lu t h a t , PIHC, 1975, p ,9 8 .

42. C II, V I, No. 61.

43, Ib id , NO. 16.

4 4. ApararktTka, 1.2.87,

45. Romila Thapar, op. cit., p . 253,

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.CH'APTER- 5 ;.'■••*.' . - ■•V’,

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 153

RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY

I t has been a lr e a d y p o in t e d out in in t r o d u c t io n

t h a t the p e r io d under review was a form ative p e r i o d ,

changes were t a k in g p l a c e in a l l spheres of l i f e .

R e l ig i o n was no e x c e p tio n to i t . In a d d it io n to the

B u d d h is t and Ja in m onastic i n s t i t u t i o n s , now the

B rahm inic fo llo w e r s also formed new i n s t i t u t i o n s , v iz,

tem ples, mathas and a g r a h a r a s . Though not in d e t a i l /

the i n s c r ip t io n s o f the S i l a h a r a s y ie l d in fo rm a tio n

s u f f i c i e n t enough to say a f f i r m a t i v e l y th at the Brahmanic

i n s t i t u t i o n s m entioned above were a p a rt of th e contem­

p o ra ry s o c io - r e lig io u s l i f e . From the in fo r m a tio n g a in e d

I ^ ^

from the S il a h a r a records i n s t i t u t i o n s o f two f a i t h s are

known v i z , B rahm anical and B u d d h is t , iSTo J a in i n s t i t u t i o n

is Jsnown from the records u nd er r ev iew ,

1, The B u dd h ist i n s t i t u t i o n - saftigha: The B u d d h ist

b e l i e v e in th ree main p r i n c i p l e s c a l l e d T r ir a t n a s or

R a tn a tray a as a mark of t h e i r f a i t h ^ . These are Buddha

(the f i r s t p r e a c h e r ), Dharma (h is teac h in g ) and Sartigha

(the o r g a n iz a t io n o f monks and n u n s ) . D u rin g the l i f e -

time o f Buddha h im s e lf th e 'Saftigha' was form ed^, Buddha

form ulated the r u le s and r e g u l a t io n s for th e monkhood.

These ru les are com piled in the V in a y a t e x t ^ . According

to the t e x t , the B u d d h ist monks were not a llo w e d to camp

 !54

a t one p la c e fo r a long tim e. However, the rainy season

was co n sid e r e d to be an e x c e p t io n ^ . D u rin g the monsoons
the monks sta y e d a t a s u it a b le place w h ich w ou ld be
e x c l u s i v e l y c o n stru c ted fo r them b y the r ic h la y - fo llo w e rs .

The carrping period was c a l l e d V a r sa v a sa . u s u a l l y the

royal ho useho ld o r the r ic h t ra d ers fin a n c e d those const­

r u c t io n s . Throughout the w estern ghats th e re are a

number of these c o n st ru c tio n s, r a t h e r c a r v in g s , which prove

to b e u s e f u l sources for the study o f B u dd h ist f a i t h . One
such group o f c a rv in g s e x i s t s near the B o r i v a l i suburb of

G r e a t e r Bombay v i s . K ^h eri. Two o f the caves in t h is group

I ___ ^

b e a r the i n s c r i p t i o n s of the s i l a h a r a p e r io d . The d e t a i l e d

a n a ly s is o f th e s e in s c r ip t io n s h e lp s us in u n d e r sta n d in g the

f u n c t io n in g o f the B uddhist monastery at K a n h e r i. (See

C hart I in the 3conomic h is t o r y c h a p te r ^

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f the S il a h a r a i n s c r i p t i o n s in the study

o f h is t o r y of Buddhism in I n d i a ;

The i n s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e S ila h a r a s at K anh eri are

dated in the l a t e r h a l f of the n in t h century A . D . ^ T his

was a p e r io d when Buddhism had alm ost gone ou t o f the

In d ia n r e l i g i o u s scene from most o f the p a r t s . As Dr.M ajum dar

p o in t s o u t, though Hieun T s a n g (7th century A . D . )

endeavoured to g iv e a b r ig h t p ic t u r e o f B u d d h is t in I n d i a ,
 155

it appears fbom h i s recx>rds t h a t the p r o g re s s o f the r e l i g i o n

h a d been a r r e s t e d and in many p l a c e s i t had l o s t I t s h o ld

upon the p e o p le and was in fact, on the v erge o f d is a p p e a ­

r a n c e ”^, By t h i s time Buddha was a lr e a d y i n c l u d e d in the

g
V a is n a v a pantheon as an in c a r n a t io n o f v is n u . The p erso ns
• « ••
h a v in g B u d d h is t names are found mVing d o n a tio n s to

B rahm anical d e i t i e s ^ . The B u d d h is t h a d alm ost l o s t t h e ir

ex c lu siv e p o s it io n . T h is merger o f the B u d d h is t in the

Brahm anical community c o u ld b e due to a c c o r d in g to Sircar,

the M a h a y ^ a B u d d h is ts w o r s h ip p ed d e i t i e s q u it e s im ila r to

the Brahm anical Gods and Goddesses^*^. S e c o n d ly , after

H arsavard hana the B u d d h is t h a r d l y g o t roy al p a tr o n a g e .

Though there a re r e fe r e n c e s to t h e k in g s malclng d o n a tio n s

to B u d d h is t e s ta b lis h m e n t s s t i l l h a r d ly any name can b e

quoted b e in g t o t a l l y devoted to B u d d h is t f a i t h . A tendency

to fa v o u r the Brahm anical f a i t h than to any o t h e r s e c t

is e v id e n t from t h e records o f t h i s p e r i o d , 'ihe b e s t

e x a n p le o f t h is w ould b e the d e a lin g s o f P a la k in g s *

The P a la emperors who r u le d in B eng al and B ih a r from the

8th to 12th century a .D . cla im ed to be staunch fiud dhists,

(Parama S a u g a t a )^ ^ , However, t h e y also fa v o u r e d Brahamanlsra

to a la r g e e x t e n t ^ ^ . A c c o r d in g to D r , T haper t h e reas<m

f o r the d e c l i n e o f Buddhism was the d e c l i n e o f the

m e r c a n t ile community, s in c e the B u d d h is t l a r g e l y depended

upon the merchants for the f i n a n c i a l support^under these

 ^56

circum stances i t becomes very im portant to note th a t the

B u d d h is t m onestery at K anh eri was s t i l l in a flo u rish in g

s t a t e as l a t e as in the la t e q u a r t e r o f the 8th cen tu ry

A .D . Thus i t w ou ld be very s i g n i f i c a n t to t a k e in t o

account a l l the d e t a i l s known from the S i l a h a r a i n s c r i p ­

t io n s r e g a r d in g the f u n c t io n in g o f 'B u d d h is t Samgha at

K a n h e r i.

1. The D ono rs: The f i r s t and foremost o b s e r v a t io n

about the donors m entioned in the reco rds i s t h a t none

o f them was from the ro y al f a m il y , in the i n i t i a l l in e s

the names o f the s i l a h a r a r u l e r s and t h e ir R a s t r a k u t a

o v erlo rd s are m entioned p r o b a b ly i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e i r

p erm issio n seeked fo r making the donatio n w hich means

th a t these r u le r s were c e r t a i n l y n o t a g a in s t t h e

e s ta b lis h m e n t o f the B u d d h is t monastery w it h in t h e i r

t e r r it o r y .

(i) The f i r s t d o n o r; (c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y ). He I s s a id

to be Amatya V is n u g u p t a , son o f P u m a h a r i . Both the

• • ♦
names of f a t h e r and son show t h a t they were v a i s n a v i t e s
••
or a t le a s t had the in f l u e n c e o f V a is n a v ism on t h e i r

fa m il y . P ro b ably they had a ls o accepted the myth of

V i s n u 's in c a r n a t io n in the form o f Buddha w h ich m otivated

them to make d o n a tio n to the B u d d h is t Samgh.

 157

(ii) The second donor was Gaumin A v ig h a ak a a d ev o te e o f

Buddha from w est B en g al. The r e f e r e n c e i n d i c a t e s th at

d evo tees from fa r o f f p la c e s l i k e t h a t o f Bengal v i s i t e d

the m onastery at K a n h e r i. S e c o n d ly , the devotee m entioned

here was from B engal \-jhere the P a la k in g s were r u l i n g .

The P a la s c a l l e d them selves ' P a r a m a sa u g a t a ' . in terestin g

enough the devotee m entioned in t h e record a ls o c a l l s hini-

self to b e the follov/er of 's u g a t a '. Probably

nam e^of Buddha was more p o p u lar in Bengal d u r in g the P a la

p e rio d .

(iii) The t h i r d donor i s named V eva or v a iv a and excep t

fo r h i s name no o t h e r in fo r m a t io n is a v a i l a b l e abo ut him

from the r e c o r d s .

2. The w it n e s s e s - The i n s c r i p t i o n s c o n cern ed a lso

r e c o r d the w it n e s s e s to the d o n a t io n s . They were c a l l e d

'S a k s i '. It is i n t e r e s t i n g to see who were t h e i r w it n e s s e s .

A c a r y a P a tt iy a n a k a y o g a : The p erso n b e in g the A carya i s

very s ig n if ic a n t . A r e c e n t s tu d y on t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s of

K an h eri has p o in t e d out t h a t K an h eri was a g r e a t c w it r e of

l e a r n in g d uring the 5th , 6th c en tu ry A. D. I t had a

c o n tin u o u s t r a d i t i o n of t e a c h e r s who had a t t a x in e d d i f f e r e n t

l e v e l s o f e n lig h te n m e n t which are d e s c r ib e d in the B udd h ist

t e x t s ^ '’ . The p r e s e n t r e fe r e n c e o f A carya from t h e 9th

 158

c en tu ry A .D . i n d ic a t e s th at the t r a d it io n o f e n lig h t e n e d

teac h er s had co n tin u ed c e r t a i n l y t i l l 9th c ^ it u r y A .D .

(a c a ry a means a t e a c h e r ) . The acarya m entioned in the

rec o r d here was p r o b a t ly a lso s h o u ld e rin g the r e s p o n s i­

b i l i t y of the smooth r unnin g o f the Sartigha. H e n ce, h i s

w itn e s s was p r o b a b ly most im portant. One more 'acairya'

is known from the r e c o r d s . H is name was Dharm akarm itra^^.

F u r th e r i n t e r e s t i n g p o in t regard ing the w itn e s s i s th a t

fo r the t h ir d rec o r d the donor o f the second reco rd is

m entioned as the w it n e s s . However# he h im s e lf a lo n e was

not co n sid e r e d s u f f i c i e n t to be a w it n e s s . Hence# along

w ith him two A carya s are m entioned as the w it n e s s e s to the

same d o n a tio n .

R eferen ces to the w itn e ss e s and the w it n e s s e s from

that
the h ig h r e l i g i o u s order s u g g e s t /t i l l the 9th century A .D .

(when these d o n a tio n s were made) the Sa^jgha was ob serv in g

s t r i c t r u le s as any of the s o c io - r e lig io u s o r g a n iz a t io n s

would be obseirving. Probably t i l l t h i s tim e a t l e a s t the

Samgha had kept i t s e l f away from t h e m a lp ra c tic es which

17
c aused d e c lin e of Buddhism in other p a r t s of I n d i a .

T h is also could b e the reason fo r which Saftigha was suppor­

te d by lay fo llo w e r s coming even from t h e fa r- o ff p l a c e s .

:-iot o n ly the d o n a tio n s b u t the d o n a tio n s made i n the form

o f f i x e d d e p o s its (A k s a y a n iv i) i s very s i g n i f i c a n t .
 159

8. The k in d s o f d o n a t io n s ; Out o f the t h re e d o n a tio n s

re c o r d e d at K a n h e r i, from the s i l a h a r a p e r i o d , two were in

the form o f A k s a y a n iv is . T h is was a perm anent endowment

and was to y i e l d c e r t a in amount o f i n t e r e s t which w i l l b e

u t i l i z e d by the Saffigha as p e r the wish o f the d o no r. The

v e r y f a c t t h a t such arrangement was done r e f l e c t s the

a ssu ran ce o f smooth fu n c t io n in g of the Saftigha even in

fu t u r e g iv e n to the donor b y the in- charge o f the Sartigha,

As i t has a lr e a d y b een p o in t e d out t h a t i t was the time

when Buddhism had alm ost lo s t i t s fo o tin g s from o th e r p a r t s

o f the country th e r e fe r e n c e to th e permanent endowments

r e c e iv e d at K anh eri becomes s t i l l more irrportant. I t speaks

fo r the e f f i c i e n c y on the p a r t o f the in- charge of the

Samgha,

The r e fe r e n c e to f i x e d d e p o s it s which were to be

p r o t e c te d l i k e w i f e and c h i l d r e n ^ ^ irrimediately r e f l e c t s

th at the d e p o s it s v/ere hand ed o v er to tra d in g community

b y the Saifigha, Otherv/ise the r e f e r e n c e to w i f e and

c h il d r e n in r e l a t i o n to m onastic o r g a n iz a t io n l i k e t h a t

o f B u d d h is t sai^igha has no m eaning. Thus i t fu r t h e r

s t r e s s e s the p o in t t h a t K anh eri was s t i l l in touch w ith

the commercial p e o p le who p la y e d a v i t a l r o le r e g a r d in g

the smooth r u n n in g of the Saftjgha, The rec o r d m entions one

more s i g n i f i c a n t p o in t and t h a t i s the donor was to r e c e iv e

 ^60

the in t e r e s t on t h e fix e d d e p o s it t i l l he i s a l i v e and

19
only a f t e r h i s death i t was to go to the Saftigha .

w hich means he w o n ' t be there to see whether the in t e r e s t

i s b e i n g used in a way v,iiich he d e s ir e d i t to b e .

T h is c o n d it io n can only sta n d when t h e r e i s an atmosphere

of t r u s t . Itie w it n e s s in g acary a p ro b ab ly a ss u r e d the

f u l f il m e n t o f the c o n d it io n even when the donor was n o t

a l i v e and h i s word was v a lu e d enough to act as a s e c u r it y .

The t h i r d donation was in the form o f 1 00 Dramma

c o in s. The e x a c t purchase v a l u e o f th ese c o in s Is no t

known. Hence, no thin g much can be s a i d about t h is

d o n a tio n . From tihe mention o f the purpose o f donation

the o n ly t h in g that can be s a id i s t h a t the amount was

more than what you r e q u i r e fo r ex c a v a tin g one m ed itatio n

room and the rem ain ing amount can be u t i l i z e d for making

the arrangem ents o f c lo t h in g f o r a few nnonks,

4) The purpose o f d o n a tio n ; Each o f the th ree records

make a c le a r mention o f the purpose o f the d o n a t io n .

The donatio ns were made for the fo llo w in g p u r p o s e s :

(a ) The worship o f the l o r d : Out o f the i n t e r e s t g ain e d

on t h e f i x e d d e p o s it s donated by Amatya v is n u g u p t a a p a r t
•«
was to be s p e n t fo r the worship o f the lo rd Buddha, The

C h in e s e p ilg r im s Pa-hien (5th ce n tu r y A . D . ) and Hieun-Tsanga

 ^.61

.(7th century A . D . ) who v i s i t e d I n d i a have p r o v id e d us th e

in fo rm a tio n r e g a r d in g the forms of w o rships w hich were

20
p r e v a l e n t i n I n d i a d u rin g those days . A c c o r d in g to the
a ccounts of these p ilg r im s the w orship o f Buddha and

r e l i g i o u s t each ers of t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e orders was i n vogue

among both the H in a y a n is t and the M ah a y a n ists. Ih e

f-'ahayanists a ls o worshipped B o d h isa tv a s and T a r a . The

images were washed w ith s c en ted w ater and flo w e r s were

offered. These fo r e ig n e r s have a l s o g iv e n t h e accounts

of the processions taken out in t h e C h a r io t s . Those

d e s c r ip t io n s are v e r y much s im il a r to t h e w o rsh ip s and

p r o c e s s io n s p r a c t ic e d by m a jo r ity o f the I n d i a n s even today.

The purpose o f d o n a tio n m entioned in the r eco rd s as the

w orship o f the lo r d may be i n d i c a t i v e o f the p u r c h a se o f

r e q u ir e d m a ter ial f o r the above m entioned r it u a ls # e .g .

the sandalw ood, in c e n s e s , food o f f e r i n g s or even the

d e c o r a tio n s of the p la c e s of w orship*

(b) E x c a v a tio n s of the m e d ita tio n xrooms and the r e p a ir s

o f the e x i s t i n g o n e s : The r e fe r e n c e to the e x c a v a tio n o f

the m ed ita tio n room i s v e r y im p o rtan t. T h is once a g a in

a ss u res the u n d is t u r b e d fu n c t io n in g of the Samgha. The

a c t i v i t y of the e x c a v a t io n o f rooms su g g ests two t h in g s :

O ne, th at the number o f such rooms was n o t s u f f i c i e n t for

the numberof monks s ta y in g or v i s i t i n g the monastery or

the monastery was e x p e c t in g more monks to come and s t a y or

 162

v isit the p l a c e . in both the ca ses i t r e f l e c t s the

achievem ent of th e Samgha. Sim ilarly , the sartigha also

had the support from the lay fo llo w e r s who w ere w i l l i n g

to p r o v id e fo r the n e c e s s it ie s o f t h e Saihgha. T h is also

means t h a t the Safhgha at K anh eri had e s t a b l i s h e d a good

communication w ith t h e monks from other p l a c e s and w ith

the la y fo llo w e r s . When Buddhism was lo s in g i t s h o ld

from most o f the pa rts of the cou ntry t h e r e l i g i o u s

c e n t r e s l i k e th at of K in h e r i, which coere s t i l l surviving

and f u n c t io n in g w ith out much d is t u r b a n c e must have g iv e n

s h e l t e r to lo t o f monks and nx>ral support to those la y

fo llo w e r s who m aintained t h e ir lo y a lt y towards the

in s titu tio n and the o r d e r ,

(c) Food and C lo th in g fo r the monks: v^hen the Sa/bgha

stopped r e c e iv in g the ro y a l support or even the support

from t h e p e o p le s ta y in g in su rro u n din g a re a was weakened,

i t must have t o t a l l y depended upon the d o n a tio n s b y the

r ic h la y fo llo w er s for the p r o v i s i o n s . In t h is r e sp e c t

the donations made for the food and c lo t h in g for the monks

in the la t e 9th c en tu ry at K anheri become very im portant.

It i s b ecause o f such d o natio ns the saftigha co u ld fu n c tio n

even w ith out the ro y al patronage or the p u b l i c support*

 163

(d) Purchase of Books; T h ere is a ls o a r e fe r e n c e to

the purchase of b oo’cs as a purpose o f d o n a tio n . We have

a lr e a d y p o in te d o u t the im portance o f the K anh eri Saftgha

as a p la c e of l e a r n in g . The r e fe r e n c e to books fu r th er

supports the p o in t . The monks were s t a y in g , the acaryas

were p r o v id in g them w ith the knowledge and the knowledge

in the form o f boohs was a ls o brought from o u ts id e to the

Samgha for which the r ic h la y fo llo w e r s p r o v id e d fin a n c e .

Brahmanic r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s :

I. Agraharas: From the Crupta p e r io d onwards there

are freq uent r e fe r e n c e s to the d o n a tio n s o f la n d g iv e i

21
to the Brahm ins. These were c a l l e d Brahmadeya la n ds

The land d o n a tio n s g iv e n to the Brahmins were o f two types.

E it h e r a p lo t o f a land, c a l l e d K s e t r a or one o r more

v illa g e s were g iv en as d o n a tio n . The v i l l a g e s g iv e n to

— 79
the Brahmins were c a l l e d 'A g r a h a r a s . u s u a l l y in the

A grah a ra v i l l a g e s the Brahmins s e t t l e d in g ro ups, in the

I ^ ^

records o f S il a h a r a s there are r e fe r e n c e s to the Agrahara

23 —
v illa g es . From t h e donation c h a rt e r s o f Agraharas
I _
__ _
__

during the s i l a h a r a p e r io d c e r t a in g en eral c o n c lu s io n s can

be drawn reg a rd in g the i n s t i t u t i o n o f A g r a h a r a .

(1) in a l l the cases of such donatio ns the donor is

th e K in g , v/hich is o b v io u s . The donee r e c e iv e d the r ig h t

to c o lle c t a l l the s ta te dues i n d i c a t e d b y the term

 164

' S am astaraja B h o g a s a h it *. However, in c e r t a in c a ses the

24
r i g h t over the h idden tre a su re i s reserved b y the s ta te .

T h is nieans th at the s ta te g iv e s a p a r t o f i t s incone to

th e donee.

(2 ) Ilnese v i l l a g e s were not to b e v i s i t e d b y the

r e g u la r or o c c a s io n a l s o l d ie r s v i z . the C a ta s and Bhatas#

« •

T h is was p ro b ab ly to check the u n a u t h o r ise d demands. The

donee was a lso made free from e n t e r t a in in g the to u rin g

2 5
o ffic e rs . Which means th at the donee was a s s u r e d a

com p letely u n d is t u r b e d l i f e . L e a d in g such p e a c e fu l l i f e ,

where the source o f l iv e l ih o o d i s assured and t h a t co u ld

not be d is t u r b e d by any u n a u t h o r ise d fo r c e , the Brahmin

donees in A g r a h a r a s were ex p ected to devote t h e i r f u l l

a t t e n t io n towards perform ances o f r i t u a l s and towards

le a r n i n g ,

(3 ) The g rants were made to the s c h o la r ly Brahm ins who

were experts in the >aiowledge o f V e d ic t e x t s . Thus the

q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f the Brahmins w ere r ec o r d ed i n d i c a t i n g

t h a t they were worthy o f r e c e iv in g such d o n a t lo n s ^ ^ .

These Brahmins c o u ld be even from f a r o f f p l a c e s . Thus#

in the records under review there are Brahm ins m entioned

from the p la c e s l i k e .Madhya-Pradesh, B e n g a l, G u ja r a t e t c .

T h e se Brahm ins were r e sp e c te d fo r t h e ir know ledge In any

p a r t o f the country and the r u le r s a ss u r ed them the s u b s is ­

ten ce and p r o t e c t io n .
 165

(4 ) The b o u n d a r ie s o f the donated v i l l a g e o r v i l l a g e s

were recorded c a r e f u l l y and the d onatio n was d e c la r e d as

the p e r p e t u a l endowment. T h ese g rants were s a fe g u a r d e d

from a n / chance o f c o n f is c a t io n by any fu tu re r u l e r by

way of the cu r se s assuming f i e r c e e x p r e s s io n s .

(5) A ll th ese d o n a tio n s were a g a in s t the perform ance

o f r i t u a l s b y the Brahmins c a l l e d as Sw akiya Satkarma

which in c lu d e d f i v e s a c r i f i c e s p erform ed d a i l y . The

Swakiya satkarm a, meaning the s i x d u t ie s o f a Brahm in a r e :

Y a ja n a ) - S a c rific in g fo r own and for

)
Y ajan a ) o th e r s

Adhyayana ) - S tu d y in g the s c r ip t u r e s and

)
Adhyapana ) t e a c h in g them.

A g n ih o tr a - M a in t a in in g the s a c r i f i c i a l fire

and a l l t h e vows c o n n ected w ith i t ,

A t it h y a - S e r v in g the g u e s t s .

The A g rah a ras which have the above m entioned

common fe a tu r e s must have s erv ed as g r e a t c e n t r e s o f

re lig io u s a c t i v i t y and l e a r n i n g . The le a r n e d Brahmins

w ere expected to c o n tin u e w ith t h e i r le a r n in g throughout

t h e i r l i v e s and they were to run G urukulas where they

would teach the d i s c i p l e s . A t home the sons o f th e se

Brahmins must be r e c i t i n g the s c r ip t u r e s r i g h t from an

 166

e a r l / age under the s u p e r v is io n of t h e i r fa t h e r s who

were g u ru s. The s c r ip t u r e s e s p e c i a l l y those con nected

w it h the V ed ic le a r n in g cover a v a s t span of k n o w led ge.

S u b je c t s l i k e Gram^nar, Astronomy, R h eto ric were in fa c t

c o n s id e r e d as p a rt s o f the V e d a s , Thou^ no t the exper­

t i s e b ut a t l e a s t an in t r o d u c t io n to these s u b je c t s must

h a v e been r e c e i v e d by the s tu d en ts in t h e s e A g r a h a r a s ,

B^a, in H a r s a c a r it r e fe r s to t h e s c h o la r ly Brahm ins

form ing a 'l o g i c s o ciety *w h ere they used to d is c u s s the

problem s o f lo g ic . He a lso adds t h a t th ese Brahm ins

e x h i b i t e d e x c e s s iv e d e l ig h t in t h e s u b :p c t s l i k e
— —Sffi
Mlmailisa

The p e r io d under r e v ie w seems to be a p e r io d o f

c o n s o lid a t io n o f such r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s which have

s u r v iv e d in c e r t a in p a r t s o f I n d i a t i l l to da y . I n t o d a y 's

KoAkan one h a r d ly sees any 'A g r a h a r a ' v i l l a g e as such.

But there are Brahm ins who fo llo w the t r a d i t i o n s of

Sw ak iya Satkarma aad the perform ance o f P a n c a y a jn a s .

A Erahmin p r i e s t o f the v i l l a g e makes the c a l c u l a t io n

o f ho ro sco pes, g iv e s herbal m ed icines fo r many ailm ents

and quotes v e d ic passages in h is p r eac h in g s I n d i c a t i n g

the l i n e of t r a d it io n which he h as m aintained fo r many

g e n e r a t io n s .
 167

IT. 'remples; Lik e the B u d d h ist and j a i n s the Brahm anical

fo llo w e r s also s t a r t e d w ith t h e p r a c t ic e of h a v in g a common

p la c e of worship where an image of god w i l l b e i n s t a l l e d and

there would t e p la c e for the devotees to c o n g reg ate. Such

s tr u c tu r e s v i z . the temples became common from the gupta

I _
__ _
__

p e r io d onwards. T ill the time o f the S il a h a r a s i t was a

f u l l y d eveloped i n s t i t u t i o n p erfo rm ing v a r io u s fu n c t io n s .

As D r . A lte k a r p o in t s o u t, the temples were g r a d u a lly

29
becom ing the c e n tr e s of H in d u r e l i g i o n and c u lt u r e

Alm ost a l l th e members of the s o c ie t y were a s s o c ia t e d with

t h is in stitu tio n . The c o n stru c tio n o f the temples and the

d e c o r a tio n s (i n c l u d i n g stone and wood-v.’o r k ) encouraged the

s c u lp t o r s , the a r c h it e c t s and p a i n t e r s , the s e r v ic e of

the m usician s and dancers was r e g u ir e d as a p a r t o f the

w o r s h ip , lea rn ed Brahmins v i s i t e d the tfemples fo r food and

re
i n / t u m d e l iv e r e d r e l i g i o u s sermons, g a r d e n e rs or f l o r i s t s

m a in ta in ed the temple g a r d e n s , o i l p r e ss o r s p r o v id e d o i l

for the lamps, number o f workers must b e working in the

f i e l d s owned by th e temples, b e c a u s e o f w hich a number of

oth er workers a lso must be a s s o c ia t e d w ith the t e n ^ l e .

The p e r i o d under review was a period when the temple

i n s t i t u t i o n s were r e c e iv in g generous endowments throughout

In d ia . The records of the S il a h a r a s note the c o n s t r u c tio n s

and r e p a ir s o f the temples a lo ng w it h the d o n a t io n s g iv e n

 168

fo r the m aintainance of them. Gut of the 4 3 records under

r e v ie w 11 record the d o natio ns made to the tem p les. These

e le v e n records render v a lu a b le in fo rm a tio n about the temples

as r e l ig io u s i n s t i t u t i o n s (see c h a r t I I ) .

1, The d e i t i e s worshipped in the terrples known from

the r e co rd s;

t t
(a) S a iv a - 13 names o f lord S iv a , which are lo c a l names of

the lord are known from the d onatio n c h a r t e r s under

r e v ie w . They are l i s t e d b e lo w ;

R e feren ce
C I I ,V I , M O
'1'
i) Ambaresvara 17
1
ii) Avvesvara 41
... *
iii) B h aiy appesvara 11

iv ) G atakesvara 30
•
V) G ha n tesv a ra 14
••
v i) M arudXsvara 23
_ 1
vii) N ag esvara 14

v iii) Somnath 31
1
ix ) Sangamesvara 5
1
x) Sompesvara 36
•
•
x i) U ttaresv ara 39

xii) V aid yanath 32

1
x iii) Vyomesvara 30
 169

(b) sakta: The g o d d e s s , con so rt o f t h e l o r d s i v a .

i) Bhagawatl 12
il) jogesvarT 21

ill) Mahalaxmi 35

iv) uchchadevi 14

v) * V a u lth a l 14

* About t h e s e two there i s no d i r e c t r e fe r e n c e to

the tem ples. They co u ld be j u s t even the form o f stone

b o u ld e r s w orshipped in op en.
R e fe r e n c e

C I I ,V I ,N O _

(c) solar: sun-temple

i) L o n ad ity a 7

(d) V a is n a v a
••

i) Laxnninarayan 34

ii) V isn un aray an 14

• •

2. The purpose o f d o n a tio n : As i t is a lre a d y m entioned

above the purpose o f donatio n g iv en to t h e t e r p l e are

r e p a i r s of the tem ple, the temple r i t u a l s and the food

and c lo t h in g for the a s c e t ic s d w e llin g in the terrple

com plex. The records l i s t the temple r i t u a l s as the

o f f e r i n g o f Aftigabhoga and Raftgabhoga to the lord^*^. The

Aftgabhoga in c l u d e s sandal p a s t e , in c e n s e s , food o f f e r i n g .

 170

lamp, flo w e r s , etc. and P,aflgabhoga in c lu d e s dance and m usic.

The reco rds make s o e c i f i c m ention to t h e s e o f f e r i n g s .

3. K in d of d o n a t io n : D o n a t io n s were m ainly p erpetual

endowments. E it h e r a g r ic u l t u r a l land or f r u i t g a r d e n s.

Sometimes the s p e c i f i e d cu r ren c y amount i s m entioned as

d o n a t io n . T h is co u ld be the amount o f the s t a t e dues

e x o ec ted from t h e donated area which was t r a n s f e r r e d to the

tem ple.

4. The d o n o rs : The S i l a h a r a k in g s , t h e ir m in is te r s

and the fe u d a t o r ie s donated g e n e r o u s ly to the temple

in stitu tio n s. M a jo r it y of the d o n a tio n s were made to t h e

I

S a iv a tem ples, which pro b ab ly in d i c a t e s the p o p u l a r it y of

I

the faith- Perso n a l names of the donors h a v in g S a iv a or

I

Sambhu s u f f i x c e r t a in l y i n d i c a t e the S a i v i t e fa ith . The

I I

custom o f e s t a b l i s h i n g e i t h e r a S a iv a or V a is n a v a temple

to iiimorfealize the name of the donor was also p r e v a l e n t

i n KoAkan d u rin g the p e r io r und er r e v ie w . Thus we g e t

m

the r e fe r e n c e s of the temple o f god Vyam esvara, the

c o n s t r u c tio n o f which was f in a n c e d by Vyomasambbu or the

I

temple o f god Avvesvara which was c o n stru cted und er the

32
p a tr o n a g e o f the kin g A v asa ra .

5. Temple o r g a n iz a t i o n ; The tem ples are g e n e r a l l y

lo o k ed a f t e r by the su rro u n d in g d w e lle r s . T h is must b e

the c a se in h i s t o r i c a l p e r io d as w e l l . The p e o p le i n the

 171

l o c a l i t y seem to be very p a r t i c u l a r about the m ain ta in a n ce

o f the terrple. A b e au tifu l example o f i t fo r the p e r io d

uncter r e v ie w comes from the B r i t i s h museum i n s c r i p t i o n o f

the re^gn of k in g H a r ip a la d e v a . I t reco rds t h a t some evil-

minded person damaged the w ater ch a n n el con nected to the

w ell in the temple complex of the god A g n ih o t r a . The

v i l l a g e r s r e p a ir e d i t and th rea ten ed any p e r so n v*io may

t h in k o f doing a s i m il a r act a g a in w ith an ass c u r s e .

I t seems that a c o u n c il o f few im portant men of the

v i l l a g e used to act as the t r u s t e e s of the tem ple. Thus

a p a r t from th e names of the m in is t e r s we g e t th e names o f

the v i l l a g e e l d e r s mentioned i n the r e c o r d s ^ ^ . In some

cases the t r a d e r s ' g u il d s a lso found a c tin g as t r u s te e s

of the temples and r e c e iv in g the d onatio ns on b e h a l f o f

34
the tem ple .

Ill* The M athas; During the p e r io d under r e v ie w some o f

the temples had a s m aller i n s t i t u t i o n a tt a c h e d to them

w hich was c a l l e d as 'Matha* or ’ M a t h i k a '. The p r e s e n t

• •
day Mathas are in d ep en d en t i n s t i t u t i o n s but d u r in g the

S i l a h a r a p e r io d the Mathas were a ttach e d to S a iv a or

I^

S ak ta t e n p le s .

R eferences to Mathas or M athika in the S il a h a r a

• •
records;

i) Kautuka M a th ik a : The c in c a n i p l a t e s of Cham undaraja

 172

re c o r d a d o n a tio n o f an o il- m ill for the K autuka M athika

of the goddess B h a g a v a t i. O il from the m ill was to be

used for the lamp i n the M athika and fo r b esm earing the
•
f e e t of the le a r n e d Brahmins coming to v i s i t the M a t h ik a ,

The word Kautuka M athika is v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t .

The Agamas r e f e r to t h e term • Kautukabirriba‘ or

•K a u t u k a b e r a ’ ^ ^ , which means an image o f God u s e d fo r the

p r o c e s s io n s and o th e r r i t u a l s perform ed on s p e c i a l o c c a s io n s .

H ence, Kautuka M ath ik a c o u ld be a M athika i . e * a p a r t of

• •
the main te n p le where Kautuka-bimba o f the G od d ess Bhagaw ati

was p la c e d . Such 'K autuka* p l a c e s a re r e f e r r e d to else-

_ 37
where as w e l l . e .g . in the Sarasvatikantha- bharanam and
•• «
38
in the D ev ib h a g av a tp u ra n a the r e fe r e n c e is to Kautuka-

m andira.

ii) The math a a tta c h e d to t h e J o g e s v a r i tem ple. The

C i n t r a stone i n s c r i p t i o n o f A p a r a d it y a i r eco rd s the

exenfption g iv e n in the house- tax to the in c h a r g e o f the

matha (M ath ap ati) attach e d to the Jo g e sw a ri tem p le, m

• •
t h is i n s c r i p t i o n t h e M ath ap a ti and P u j ^ i both are m entioned.

T h is p ro b ab ly i n d i c a t e s t h a t though t h e matha was a tta c h e d

to t h e temple i t was a s e p a r a te u n it- h a v in g i t s own fu n c t io n s

and modes. The temple was taken ca re o f by the 'P u j a r i '

and the matha by the 'M a t h a p a t i ',

 173

iii) Pancam athasthana and M a t h ik a t r a y i : in the P a tt a n k u d i

• • •• • •

p l a t e s of k in g A v a s a ra I I , the k in g a d d re s s e s to these

r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s along w ith the o th er mernbers of

the s o c ie t y w h il e d e c la r in g the d o n a t io n .

iv^i P a n e a m a h ^ a t h a s t h a n a s ; The B a l l i p a t t a n a p l a t e s o f

R a t t a r a j a r e f e r to t h e P a ^ m a h a m a t h as th an a, a p la c e or

p l a c e s o f f i v e g r e a t M athas.

A c c o r d in g to D i x i t the pancam athas were in the

I

names of f i v e g o d s. v iz. Brahma, V is n u , M ahesvara, Buddha

«•
39 —
and j i n a . The Pancam athasthanas r e f e r r e d above c o u ld

be i n t h e same m eaning. However, in absen ce o f any

sp ec ific atio n the Pancamathas and the M athika- trayi

r e f e r r e d to in the i n s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e S i l a h a r a s remain

o b s c u re .

The M athas were p r o b a b ly the c e n t r e s o f l e a r n i n g .

D u r in g the S i l a h a r a p e r io d the V e d ic le a r n in g was g iv e n

a l o t o f in p o r t a n c e . Learn ed Brahmins r e c e iv e d fo o d and

s h e l t e r in t h e t e n p l e s . The a s c e t i c s who u s e d to s ta y

in the t e n p le s must b e the members o f d i f f e r e n t M athas.

They would a lso b e perfo rm in g Yogic and o th e r a u ster e

p rac tic e s. The a s s o c ia t io n of the M a ^ a - y o g i e w ith the

P a n h a le - k a ji caves proves th at the a s c e t ic s p erfo rm in g

such p r a c t ic e s w e r e not unknown to the land"^*^. These

 !74

yogis must be d w e llin g in the h i l l s as a usu al p r a c t ic e

and o c c a s io n a lly v i s i t i n g the v i l l a g e s . There they w ould

sta y i n the terrple corrplex and r e c e iv e food and s h e lt e r

from the t e n p le o r g a n iz a t io n ,
*
I ^ _

The Gods and Goddesses known from the S ila h a r a r e c o r d s :

The p e r io d under re v ie w was the period when the

Gods Brahma, V isnu and K ahesvara formed the o f f i c i a l

••
41
t r i n i t y who towar over the r e s t o f the H in du pantheon ,

However, the actual r e l i g i o u s devotion o f the p eo p le p la c e d

I

F is n u and S iv a to the supreme p o s i t i o n . Around these two

epi- centres v i z . V is n u and S iv a most o f the r e l i g i o u s

••
I

cu r r e n ts r e v o lv e d , s a iv a i d e n t i t y was given to the v a r ie t y

o f c u lt s , which ranged from the a u ste r e p r a c t ic e s to the

42
m agical t a n t r ic p r a c t ic e s . M a jo r it y o f the f o l k c u lt s

r e c e iv e d ho nourable p o s it io n i n the s a iv a patheo n rath er

I

than a r e a c t io n . The t e s t exam ple o f i t is god G anesa,

O r i g i n a l l y a totem d e it y in a form o f a b e a s t r e c e iv e d
' — 43
a r e s o e c ta b le patron ag e of s i v a and P a r v a t i . D u rin g
I

the p e r io d under rev iew S aiv ism was favoured most by the

p e o p le in Konkan. Visnu and Brahma appear to b e a t in f e r i o r

• ••
p o s it io n .
I

1. S iv a : In tiie in v o c a t o r y verses of the records o f

•
the S ila h a r a s s iv a is p r a is e d in a h ig h ly p o e t ic manner,

in the Thana p la t e s o f A r i k e s a r i he is invoked with t h e

fo llo w in g words:
 175

•Cn v/hose head Gafiga s h in e s l i k e b r i g h t crescen t

I

of the moon as i t r is e s over the peak of sumeru. S iv a

adorned with la rg e mass o f brown matted h a i r t ie d w ith

the lo rd s e r p e n t, who b e a r s the crescen t moon which he

has h im s e lf p la c e d on h i s head and which resem bles the

extrem ely r e s p le n d e n t tender shoot o f the K e ta k a f l o w e r , '

In the K harepatan p la t e s o f R a t t a r a ja he i s
» • •«

d e s c r ib e d as*.
I

'May t h a t sm ile of S iv a whe:^ he s a id a t the time

o f h i s Tandava, th at the p e a r l s dropping from c a v it ie s o f

••
the c y s t e r s h e lls turned up from the hea v en ly Gaftga, whose

stream was s tr u c k by the t ip o f the la rg e toe o f h i s

mighty s t a f f l i k e leg r a is e d s p o r t iv e ly and t h a t the

sk eleto n of h i s body had m a rv ello u sly come to l i f e by the

d r ip p in g of n e c t a r from the moon in h is matted h a i r ' .

•
In the temple s h r in e S iv a was worshipped I n the

p h a llic form. in the C in t r a stone in s c r i p t i o n o f

A p a r a d ity a I there i s a mention of 'L i n g a p u j a r i * which

i n d i c a t e s the worship o f the lo r d in the 'L i n g a ' or p h a l l i c

I ^

form. The images o f S iv a in the form o f ' K a ly a n a s u n d a r a '

«
'N a t e s w a r a ', 'G a j a n t a k a ', etc. are v i s i b l e on t h e w a lls

of the Ambarnath temple , Eut even t h e r e

the lo r d in the s h r in e i s in the L ln g a form.

 176

The a s s o c ia t io n of S iv a w ith the w ater r e so u rce s

is a comnxjn fe a t u r e a l l over I n d i a . Thus in the inscr-

I ___ • .
i p t io n s o f the S i l a h a r a s a ls o names l i k e 'Sangam esvara*

are found'*'^ (Sangama means the c o n f l u e n c e o f two r i v e r s ) ,

The name Atnberesvara a ls o a t t r a c t s the a t t e n t io n .

•A m bara’ means s k '/. Sky is one of th e f iv e b a s i c elem ents,

the o th er fo u r are e a r t h , h e a t , w a te r and w ind or a i r ,

I

The a s s o c ia t io n o f these f i v e elem ents w ith S iv a i s

I 45
r e f l e c t e d in the icon of Pancamukhi S iv a ( f i v e r*ids

r e p r e s e n t in g the f iv e b a s i c e l e m e n t s ). God Am baresvara

could b e an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n . I n th e Lonad

sto n e i n s c r i p t i o n of A p a r a d it y a I I a s im il a r name o f Lord

I I

S iv a o c c u r s . There the god is c a l l e d vyom esvara, 'Vyom a'

means sky.

The d e v o t io n o f the s l l a h a r a k in g s and t h e i r

m in is t e r s towards S aiv ism took them beyond the l im it s of

t h e ir t e rrito ry . T h u s, one f i n d s r e f e r e n c e s to the dona­

t io n s made to the temples In G u j a r a t - by the S l l ^ a r a s

and t h e ir m in is t e r s (see the c h a rt Mo. 2). King A r lk e s a r i

had taken a p il g r im a g e to the Somnath tem ple where he

offe red a l l his v i c t o r i e s a t the f e e t o f the l o r d ^ ^ .

Out o f the two sons o f the lo r d S iv a , 'K a r t lk e y a *

is m entioned very r a r e ly in t h e r e c o r d s , no tem ple o f

^iartikeya is known from the S l l a h a r a r e c o r d s . He i s n o t

m entioned in the in v o c a to r y v e r s e s e i t h e r , K a r t lk e y a is
 177

m entioned only in the e u l o g ic a l verses"^*^, one K a r tik e y a

ic o n from the V in d h y a v a s in i caves n e a r c h ip l u n i s

m entioned by D r . E ira si as b e in g that of the S i l a h a r a

p erio d ^^. However, in the absence o f any c o n c re te

e v id e n c e i t i s d i f f i c u l t to g iv e any e x a c t n e s s to the

p e r i o d o f the s c u lp t u r e .

Ganesa, the second son of the lo rd S iv a had

#
become very p o p u la r d u rin g the p e r io d under r e v ie w .

Fo urteen in v o c a t o r y verses s t a r t w ith t h e p r a y e r to

• I

Ganesa. Ganesa i s r e f e r r e d to w ith the names

• #
Ganan-Syaka^^, V in a y a k a ^ ^ , Larribodara^^ in t h e S i l a h a r a
*

records. I n one of the v e r s e s h i s l i k i n g f o r t h e sweet

52
called 'Modak* is a lso m entioned , He i s s a i d to be

the God who p r e v e n t s the e v i l ^ ^ . T h ere is a lso a

m ention o f one a u sp ic io u s day c a l l e d aftgarika w hich i s

' 54
a s s o c ia t e d w ith lo r d G a n esa . T h is p o t - b e l l ie d ,

elephant- headed god i s b e a u t i f u l l y e x h i b i t e d in dancin g

I ^

posture (N rtyag an es) on t h e w a l l s of Ambarnath tem p le,

• •

(see the p l a t e s ) .

/ ' —
.
S a iv is m has sub- sects l i k e S a iv a - S id h a h a n ta ,

Pasupat, etc. The a s c e t ic s o f t h e s e sects were r e s p e c t e d

I _
__ _

b y th e S il a h a r a k i n g s . These a s c e t ic s were c a i l e d as

a caryas or g u r u s , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r p o s i t io n in the o r d e r .

King R a t t a r a ja made a d o natio n o f 3 v i l l a g e s to the S alv a

 178

a s c e t ic s of the Karkaroni b r a n c h ^ ^ . Among the S a iv l t e

sub- sects some b e l i e v e d in w e ir d p r a c t ic e s l i k e d rin k in g

and in d u l g in g in sex. A pararka g iv e s an a d v erse

o p in io n about such gro ups. He quotes the extreme examples

lik e those of h o m icid es, d r in k in g In cups of human s k u l l s ,

etc. He concludes that o n ly those r i t u a l s which are

p r e s c r ib e d b y the s c r ip t u r e s are to b e perform ed and those

w hich are no t approved by t h e t e x t s should b e avoided^

2. Sak ta: P a r v a t i, the c o n s o r t of S iv a is r e fe r r e d

to in three records o f the S l l a h ^ a s . She i s c a l l e d as

>^7 * 5 3 _ 59
Bhagawatl"" , J o g e sv a r l and Mahalaxml . Goddess Bhagawatl

known from the C in c a n i p la t e s o f cham undaraja I s B hagaw atl

••
I

Dasam l. The same goddess i s r e f e r r e d to in the c ln c a n l

p l a t e s o f the R a s t r a k u t a s . Goddess Mahalaxmi I s r e fe r r e d

••
I

to in t h e A k sl sto ne i n s c r i p t i o n of the r e ig n o f K esld ev a I I .

rhe name Mahalaxml is very p e c u l i a r . M y th o lo g ic a lly Laxm l

is the consort o f v is n u . But when r e fe r r e d to as M ahalaxm l,

••
t
she i s consort of s iv a . she i s r e s p e c t e d and Invo k ed as

an in c a r n a tio n of P a r v a t l . The thlr d r e fe r e n c e is to

I

g oddess Jogesw arl ir\ the C in t r a sto ne i n s c r i p t i o n o f

A p a r a d it y a I , The r e fe re n c e to V a u lt h a l and Uchchadevl

in the Thane p l a t e s o f i^mmunl p ro b ab ly i n d i c a t e the local

• •
f e r t i l i t y c u lt s or th e c u lt s of mother g o d d e s s e s .
 179

The tem ple w a lls a t A m b a r n a t h d e p ic t P a r v a t i in

d iffe re n t forms liTce K a l i , camunda, M ah is a s u r m a r d ilii /

etc. (see th e p l a t e s ) .

3. v is n u ; O n ly two t e m p le s of t h is god a re r e f e r r e d
••
to i n the r e c o r d s . T h is number is too sm all as connpared
I

w ith the number o f S a iv a te m p le s .

Those are (i) L axm in aray ana^^ (ii) V is n u n a r a y a n a ^^

m entioned in c h a r t 2 . V is n u is a ls o p r a i s e d in the
♦•

in v o c a t o r y v e r s e s e .g . 'Namah P u r u s o t ta m a y a ' . V is n u i s
••

a lso d e p ic t e d on the w a lls o f Am barnath, m ainly in the form

o f S r id h a r a ,

4. Brahma: Though Drahma is c o n s id e r e d as the c r e a t o r

of bhe u n iv e r s e , he nev e r became p o p u la r among the m a sses,

in o n ly fo u r records o f the S i l a h a r a s , Brahma is m entioned

and that too o n ly in t h e in v o c a t o r y v er ses e . g . p rin ce of

W ales p l a t e s o f C h h a d v a id e v a . There i s no menticxi o f any

tem ple devoted to t h is god in the r e c o r d s . A s c u lp t u r a l

r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f Brahma w ith S a v i t r i can b e seen a t

Ambarnath on th e temple w a l l .

5. sury a; D u r in g the p e r io d under rev iew temples

d evoted to Surya were n o t uncommon in I n d i a . From the

S i l a h a r a records we know o f one sun temple in Konkan,

the temple o f the God L o n d d it y a ^ ^ The p l a c e I s in Thana

♦ •
d istric t, near to the c a p i t a l c it y o f T han a. The in t e r e s t i n g
 180

fe a t u r e of t h is name L o n a d ity a is t h a t 'L o n a * means s a l t

• •
and Thana d i s t r i c t is famous fo r i t s salt- pans where

the temple was s i t u a t e d . Thus i t r e f l e c t s the r e g io n a l

in f l u e n c e in the r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t y o f the p e r i o d , some

o f the names of the S ila h a r a s a lso had 'A d it y a * su ffix

e .g . A p a r a d it y a .

A part from the Gods and G od d esses m entioned above

two p la n e t s are known from the S i l a h a r a records

(i) C an dr a-moon (2) E u d h ^ ^ , However, they occur o n ly in

the in v o cato ry v e rses and no thin g s p e c i f i c abo ut them i s

m entioned.

R itu als:

i) The temple r i t u a l s ; As the temples were meant fo r the

c o l l e c t i v e e x p r e s s io n of d ev o tio n the w orship o f the image

in the sanctum was g iv e n prim e-im portance throughout the

age. The d e t a i l s about the w orship are a v a i l a b l e from the

Bhadan p l a t e s o f A p a r a j i t . it says t h a t the d onatio n was

meant for fo llo w in g o f f e r i n g s : Pushpa (flo w e r ), Dhupa

(i n c e n s e ), oTpa (o il- la m p ), N a iv ed y a (f o o d - o f f e r i n g s ). The

B e r l i n museum p l a t e s o f cSihittaraja a d Gandha (sandal

paste) and Tambula - (b e t e l l e a f w ith o t h e r a s s o c ia t e d

in g r e d ie n t s l i k e b e tel- n u t, etc) to t h e l i s t g iv e n above.

The reco rd fu r t h e r mentions th e dance eind m usic perform ances

in the te n p le as a p a r t of tem ple r i t u a l . I t says.

 181

Gitavad'/anr^yadidGvaj-'hoga (G i t a - s i n g i n g , vadya -
«

m usical in s tr u m e n t, K rt y a - d a n c e ) . King R a t t a r a j a

o f the southern b ra n c h had s e t t l e d the f a m il ie s of

M alakaras (g a rd en ers and g a r l a n d m a k er s), T ailik as (oil-

p r e s s o r s ), D a r ik a (tem ple- dancers) in t h e v i c i n i t y o f the

I 56
tem ple o f god A w e s v a r a . There the w orship was supposed

to b e done w ith f i v e u p acaras (fiv e o ffe r in g s ) v iz. Snana

(th e gods w ere w ashed w ith water and sometimes w ith other

l i q u i d s l i k e m ilk , cu rds, e t c .) . Pushpa (flo w e r o f f e r i n g s )

Dhupa (i n c e n s e ), DTpa (oil- lam p) and N a iv e d y a ( food-

o ffe r in g s ). In short, the temple r i t u a l in clud ed all

the a c t io n s of a rich- dom estic life, the o n ly d i f f e r e n c e

was t h a t they w ere done c e r e m o n ia lly . L ik e a fe u d a l lord

the god was o f f e r e d a l a v is h b a t h , then adorned w ith s i l k

garm ents and flo w e r g a r la n d s , t h e s u rr o u n d in g was made

p l e a s a n t w ith the in c e n s e sm ell and lamps h a v in g e x c lu ­

s i v e d e s ig n s , a r ic h food was p rep ared s p e c i a l l y fo r the

Crod
^w ith a v a r i e t y o f sw eets and then a b e t e l - l e a f w ith 16

in g r e d i e n t s was o f f e r e d . T here a f t e r arrangem ents were

made fo r the r e c r e a t io n . The whole d e s c r ip t io n s u its

to t h e b e h a v io u r of the r ic h c la s s o f the s o c i e t y . As th e

tem ple r i t u a l s w ent on becom ing more and more e la b o r a t e /

the tem ples a ls o s t a r t e d h a v in g added cham bers. Of course,

t h i s pro cess is n o t r e f l e c t e d in th e rec o r d s u n d e r r e v ie w .

But i t i s i n d i r e c t l y r e fe r r e d to b y the r e f e r e n c e o f v a r io u s

p e o p le b e in g s e t t l e d near the te m p le s.
 ^82

(li) The Dom estic R it u a l s ; A p art from th e temple r i t u a l s

c a l l e d the Aftgabhoga and Raftgabhogas, the i n s c r i p t i o n s

a ls o record the d a i l y dom estic r i t u a l s , perform ed b y the

B rahm ins, T hese were c a l l e d as Paincama h a y a jn a s . These

Pancam ahayajnas are m ainly the s a c r i f i c e s p r e s c r ib e d by the

Smrti l i t e r a t u r e . By the tim e under re v ie w the V ed ic

s a c r i f i c e s were out of vogue and those w e r e r e p la c e d by the

sm all r i t u a l s perform ed a t home. T h ese f i v e Y ajnas were

as fo llo w s ;

(a) Brahm ayajna: to b e perform ed b y d a i l y r e c it a t io n of

the s c r ip t u r e s , c a l l e d as Swadhyaya.

(b) P it r y a j n a ; T his was perform ed b y o f f e r i n g o b la t io n s

«

in the name o f the a n c e s t o r s . T h is was c a l l e d

Sradhdha.

(c) D e v a y a jn a : to be perform ed b y o f f e r i n g oblatlcxis

in the a g n ih o tr a i . e . the sacred f i r e at home. In the

names o f gods. I t was c a l l e d V a is v a d e v a .

(d) B h u ta y a jn a ; There were o b l a t io n s o f f e r e d In t h e name

o f a l l b e in g s and s p i r i t s , c a l l e d as B a lip r a d a n a .

(e) K a n u sy a y a jn a ; o f f e r in g food and e x p r e s s in g r e sp e c t

towards the g u e s t s . I t was c a l l e d A t i t h i p u j a n a .

Above fiv e were the r i t u a l s performed d a i l y . A p art

from th ese th ere are a few m entioned as the R tu k riy a ,

which were the o c c a s io n a l r i t u a l s .

 18 3

The a u s p ic io u s days known from the r e c o r d s ;

(i ) 2 :c lip s e s ; Both the s o la r and lu n a r e c l i p s e were

c o n sid ered to b e the b e s t times f o r making dona^

t io n s . On such o c c a s io n s the kin g used to take

bath at sacred p la c e c a l l e d 'T ir t h a * and a f t e r

w o rsh ip p in g the gods used to make d o n a tio n s to the

Bral:imins fo r h is w e lfa re and w e lfa r e of h i s fa m ily

members
68

(ii) S a n k r a n t i; The S a n k r a n ti days were a ls o c o n s id e r e d

as the a u s p ic io u s days fo r making d o n a t io n s . The

Thane stone in s c r i p t i o n o f A p a r a d ity a I I records

th e o c c a s io n of b o th U tta r a y a n a and D a k sin a y a n a

•

S an k ran ti b rin g the P a rva days.

(iii) O ther a u s p ic io u s d a y s: The s il a h a r a s b e i n g the

• * ^
staunch S a i v i t e 'S i v a r a t r i ' must have b een an

important, day fo r them. However, th ere i s only

I ^

one r e fe r e n c e o f a d o natio n made on S i v a r a t r i day

is availal-'le. I t comes fro m the chaudharpada

I

in s c r i p t i o n o f K esid ev a I I . Same i s the ca se about

■Afigarika day which i s a s s o c ia t e d with the God

I

Ganesa. I t is referred to o n ly once in th e P r in c e

«

o f VJales museum p l a t e s o f C h h ad v a id ev a .

^'iost of the e c l ip s e d ates are found c o r r e c t . Chart

I in c lu d e s d e t a i l s reg a rd in g the e clip ses known from the

I ^ ^

S il a h a r a rec o r d s .
 184

I’h e r u le r s and r e l i g i o n :

(1) The duty o f the kin g tow ards r e l i g i o n :

A c c o r d in g to the t e x t s a k in g must p r o t e c t and

promote the cause o f r e l i g i o n . The s i l a h a r a k in g s seeni

to be very c o n s c io u s about t h e i r d u t ie s towards r e l i g i o n .

By b u i l d i n g the temples and b y g iv in g la n d d o n a tio n s to

them the S i l a h a r a s p a t r o n iz e d the most im p o rtan t Hindu

re lig io u s in s t it u t io n . Temple was such an i n s t i t u t i o n

w it h v ^ ic h a ll the members o f th e s o c ie t y were a s s o c ia t e d .

As i t has ;:een a lr e a d y p o in t e d ou t e a r l i e r , b u ild in g of a

t e n p le meant c r e a t in g a new c e n t r e fo r s o c io - r e lig io u s

activ ity .

The d o n a tio n s g iv e n to the Brahmins a ls o s u g g e st

a s i m il a r th o u g h t. The B rahm ins r e c e iv in g d o n a t io n s were

e x p e c te d to perform s i x r e l i g i o u s d u t ie s in w h ich le a r n in g

and t e a c h in g were i n c l u d e d . Thus, th ere comes an a ss u r a n c e

o f the c o n t in u it y of the r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n . The

S il a h a r a s d id n o t perform any g r e a t s a c r i f i c e lik e that

I

o f Asvamedha b u t they i n s i s t e d on the perform ance o f

Pancam ahayajnas which were p r e s c r i b e d b y the S m r t is ,

The Brahmin donees v/ere e x p e c te d to perform them for

them selves and fo r other members o f the s o c i e t y . Brahmins

were c o n sid e r e d to be very im p o r t a n t, alm ost n e x t to the

gods. Hence, when the Yavanas t ro u b le d both the Gods and

 185

Brahm ins, kin g .\na:itadeva fou ght a g a in s t them and protected

69
the cause of r e l ig io n

'7hile d is c u s s in g about the a t t it u d e of t h e S ila h a r a s

towards r e l i g i o n i t would be im portant to note t h e ir

a t t it u d e towards Buddhism. King A p a r a d ity a has expressed

a k in d o f d i s l i k e towards the B u d d h ist fa it h In A p ar ar k a tik a,

(a commentary on Y a jn a v alk y a - sm rti) w r it t e n b y him . There

he mentions that the r ead in g o f the B u d d h ist t e x t by a

G rh asth a s h o u ld be co n sid e r e d as a minor s i n ”^^. However,

s i m il a r l y noteworthy is a fa ct th at no a c tic n was taken by

• _ _
the s ila h a r a k in g s a g a in s t the fu n c t io n in g of the B udd hist

monastry at K anheri which was in t h e ir t e r r i t o r y . This

c e r t a in l y r e f l e c t s the r e l ig io u s t o leran ce o f the k in g s .

The view is fu r th er supported by the fa c t thfet even d u rin g

the reign of M a llik a r ju n a , who r u led two g e n e r a t io n s a ft e r

A p a r a d ity a i , the monastery at K anh eri was s t i l l fu n c tio n ­

in g as an irrportant B u d d h ist centre"^^.

(li) The kin gs accum ulating M erit b y making d o n a tio n s:

The purpose of donatio n is often m entioned as the w elfa re

o f the king and h i s fa m ily members. King Kummunl gave

land donatio ns to 14 Brahmins fo r the w e lfa r e o f h is queen

72
Fadmai . The thought o f accum ulating m erit b y making

d onatio ns to Gods and Brahmins i s r e f l e c t e d through the

records under r e v ie w .
 186

(iii) The study of the s c r ip t u r e s by the k in g ;

The s i l a h a r a kin g A p a r a d it y a I a ls o c a l l e d as

A p ar ar k a is the supposed autho r of A p a r a r k a t lk a , which

is a commentary on Y a jn a v a l k y a s m r t i. He had a body of

7 3
le a rn e d Brahmins a t h is cou rt , I t is p r o b a b le t h a t

somebody out of th at could b e the composer o f the above

m entioned t e x t and i t v;as p o p u la r is e d in the name o f the

k in g. Even i f t h a t was the c a se one th in g is still

im portan t that the king r e c o g n iz e d the im portance of such

lea rn in g .

.\pararkatika records the cc«tem porary socio-

re lig io u s p rac tic e s. Thus w h ile there is no m ention to

••• •
' S a t i • in Y ajna v alk y a - sm rti, A p arark a d is c u s s e s that

i s s u e and g iv e s the o p in io n th at a w i f e o f a Brahmin can

perform S a t i ”^*^. S im ila r i s the c a se about the B u d d h is t.

The kin g does no t approve of the study o f the B u d d h is t

75
texts . with the p r e s e n t u n d e r sta n d in g o f social-

psy ch o lo g y t h is may sound u n h e a lt h y . But i t i s s till

im portan t fo r the u n d e r sta n d in g o f our p r e s e n t s o c ie t y

in a h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t iv e ,

(iv ) The k in g s eq u a tin g them selves with d i f f e r e n t Gods

in t h e ir b ir u d s .
 18 7

in t h e ir b ir u d s the 'S i l a h a r a ' kin gs o f t e n equated

them selves with d i f f e r e n t gods and m yth o lo g ical figu res.

Thus one comes acro ss the b ir u d s lik e ' D aity a r ip u d a la n a -

dam odar' or 'G a n d a n a r a y a n a ' T h is i n d i c a t e s the

P u r a n ic in f l u e n c e on the s o c ia l l i f e o f the p e o p le in

g en er al and on the k in g s in p a r t i c u l a r .

M ythology ;

I ^ _
__

The s to ry o f the o r i g i n of the s i l a h a r a s :

From the records of the S i l a h a r a s too d i f f e r e n t

s t o r ie s o f t h e i r o r i g in are known. The f i r s t comes from

the P r in c e o f W ales museium p l a t e s o f Chhadvaideva# d ated

a ppro xim ately in the m iddle o f the tenth c e n tu r y A .D .

A cco rd in g to t h is story one person n am ed ' S i l a h a r a ‘

I ^

p r o t e c t e d the s e a from the arrows o f Parasuram a. B ecause

o f t h is h ero ic deed h is descen da n ts g ot h i s name and were

I _
__ _
__

r e c o g n is e d as 'S i l a r a s ' or 'S i l a h a r a s ' . T h is leg en d

refers to tlie famous hero of In d ia n M ythology v i z ,

' — 78 —
Parasuram a . A cco rd in g to Puranas he is the s ix t h
I _

in c a r n a t io n o f V isnu and he is im m ortal. Parasuram a had

taken the oath th at he would d e s t o r y the K s a t r i y a . He

k ep t h i s oath by f ig h t in g a g a in s t the K s a t r ly a s and

d e fe a t in g them twenty-one t im e s. A f t e r doing so he perform ed

a great s a c r ific e in w h ic h he d onated the whole o f h i s la n d

 188

(t h a t was whole o f the e a rt h ) to the sage K asy a p a . as

-arasuram a was l e f t with no p la c e fo r h im s e lf he forced

the western sea to recede and c r e a t e d a new l a n d . Thus

the c o a s t a l s t r ip b etw een the S ah yadri and the W estern

79 —
s e a was created . D i f f e r e n t Puranas g iv e d iffe re n t

v e r s io n s o f t h i s le g e n d . However, nowhere do we hear of

any 'S i l a r a ' s a v in g the w estern sea from the arrows of

Parasuram a, T a k in g the Puranas as t h e source o f p o p u lar

•
mythology the s t o r / o f the 's l l a r a * hero becomes o b s c u re.

The sto ry o f t h e 'S i l a r a ' hero co u ld be then on e o f the

f ^
u nreco rd ed p o p u la r v e r s io n o f the Parasuram a myth. Given

due c o n s id e r a t io n to t h is f a c t now the problem i s why

sh o u ld there be a t o t a l l y new s to ry about the o r i g in o f

I _ ^

the S ila h a r a s which is no-way connected w ith the

I ^

Parasuram a myth. The new s to ry goes as f o l l o w s :

In the J a n j i r a p la t e s o f A p a r a j i t i t i s recorded

fo r the f i r s t tim e . (Saka 9 1 5 ) , A ccording to t h is sto ry

the S ila h a r a s are the d escen dants o f V id y a d h a r a Jim utavahana

who s a c r i f i c e d h im s e lf to save the N ag as. The food i . e .

'a h a r a ' o f f e r e d on rock i e . 'S i l a * became S i l a h a r a . Like

Parasuram a, Jim utavahana a ls o was a p o p ular hero f i g u r e .

In K a t h a s a r it s a g a r a , w hich presupp oses B r h a t k a t h a m a n jir i,

the Jim utavahana sto ry i s n a r r a te d thrice® ® . The Kanoja

k in g H arsavardhana w r ^ e a p lay ca lle d 'N a g a n a n d a ' b as ed

 189

on the J i m u t a v a h a n a s t o r y . This show s t h a t th e Jim utavahana

l e g e n t must h a v e b e e n very p o p u la r in the D ecca n a t l e a s t from

the f i f t h , s ix t h century o n w a r d s . A s the 'S i l a h a r a s ' w ere

originally from t h e Deccan a rea they must be a c q u a in te d w ith

the sto ry b e f o r e r e a c h i n g upto Koftkan.

By h a v in g such s t o r ie s about the a n c e s t r y the r u le rs

t r i e d to c la im a r e s p e c t a b le p o s i t io n and a r ig h t to r u l e .

W h ile doing so the o n ly t h in g they were to pay a t t e n t io n to

was t h a t i t s h o u ld not go a g a i n s t t h e p o p u lar b e l i e f s o f

the p e o p le . In case o f the S i l a h a r a s , the Parasuram a myth

they had to r e j e c t p r o b a b ly b e c a u s e i t was a g a i n s t the

I —
p o p u la r b e l i e f v i z . t h a t the Parasuram a was an u n c h a lle n g e d

hero. On t h e o th er hand the s to r y o f Jim u tavah ana sym bolised

the r e l a t io n s h ip betw een the p e o p le o f the KoAkan la n d and

the S l l a h a r a r u le r s and i t was a c c e p te d . The synobolism was

in the form o f the p r o t e c te d and the p r o t e c t o r . The p e o p le

of Koftkan were the N a g a s and the P r o te c to rs w ere the S i l a h ^ a s .

E c l i p s e s known from the r e c o r d s : (Most of the d a t e s can

be v erified and they are found c o r r e c t )*

I. 3 o la r E c l i p s e s ;

In s c r ip t io n a l d e ta ils w it h R e fe re n c e

C h ris tia n dates. V I ,N o ._

1. Vi ja y S a iW a ts a r , shravan Amavasya

Saka 9 15 - 20- 8- 995. 5 ,6

 190

R e feren ce
C II, V I/ NO.

2. Pramathi 3a:Tivatsar, Shravan Amavasya 13

3aka 961 - 27-S-1039

__ I ___

3. Magh s u k la P r a tip a d a 22

Sake 1 0 6 0 - 1 5 / 1 1 / 1 1 3 7

(cannot be v e r i f i e d )

4. v r s a SaiTrvatsar, Pushya Amavasya 29

••
Saka 1083 - 17-1-1162

5. Krodhi Sam vatsar, K a r tik Amavasya 30

I

Saka 1 106 - 5-11-1184

6. Raudra Samvatsar^ C h a it r a Amavasya 39

I'.onday

12-4-1206

II. Lunar E c l i p s e ;

In sc rip tio n a l d e t a i l s w ith

C h r is t ia n dates

1. No d e t a i l s except s a y in g i t was 4
lunar e c l i p s e .
8
2. P in g a l S aiW a tsar K a r t ik Paurniniia
I •

Saka 939 - 6 - H - l o i?
 191

R e feren ce
C IT , V I, No_

3. Kraya S a iW a ts a r K a r tik P a u m im a 9

Saka 9 4 8 - 2 8 , 1 1 . 1 0 2 6

4. Sarvakhari Samvatsar Falgun Paurnima 14

Saka 9 7 0 - 20-2-1049

5. V iro d h i S a ;W a t s a r Bhandrapad P a u m im a 15

Saka 971 - 15-8-1049

6. S id d h a rth a S a w a t s a r A sv in Paurnima 23

Saka 1061 - 9-12-1139

7. shrimukh Saitivatsar Ashadh Paurnima 26

saka 1 07 5 - 7-7-1153
 192

em ple K i n d o f D o n a t io n Purpose Donor R eferen ce

C I I ,V I ,N O

1, Lona- v i l l a g e i^ h a d ^ 1, w orship of K in g
d it y a However, 2 60 God A p arajlt
drammas ou t o f
2. R e p a ir s of
the income from
the terr¥)le.
t h is v i l l a g e
was to be given
to the s t a t e .

2. Bhaiy- One f i e l d - 1. fo r the K ing 11

I

appesvara Arhinavadeva- food and Chhitta-

Chchebha c lo t h in g r a ja
o f the
a s c e t ic s
s ta y in g in
the temple.

2. worship of
the GOd
w ith Gandha
Dhupa-Dipa
etc.

3« R e p airs and
renov ation
o f the
tem ple.

3, Bhag- An o i l m ill o il from the Chamunda- 12

^ ••
vati m ill was to raja
(Kautuk- b e used for A feuda­
mathika) tory o f
1) Lamp in the
terrple the
S ila h a r a s
 193

errple Kind of m nation purpose DO nor R eferen ce

C I I ,V I ,N O

2) Besmearing
the f e e t of
lea rn ed
Brahmins
vi s i t i n g
the temple

Vyomes'-One f i e l d 100 For the Maha- Mahapra- 30

roruthi b hoga o f the dhan
Drammas. God Bhopak
f
Vyomasa-
mbhu.

5. soma- 1. A p a r t o f the worship o f Kahama- 31

nath income from a the God on tya
( Saura- fru it garden. 5 a u s p ic io u s Laksman-
• •
stra)
2. A p a r t of the nayak.
incor^e from a (s p e d -

paddy f i e l d . fic a tio n s

g iv en )

6. vaidya- 2 4 Drammas out v;orship o f K in g 32

nath of th e income the god w ith Apara-
from a f r u i t fiv e d it y a
garden , SH up acaras II

7. Laxmi- a f r u i t garden Not mentioned Som 34

narayan Thakur
•

h is
p o s it io n
is not
m entioned.
 194

T e m p le rin d of D o n a t io n purpose Donor R e fe re n c e

C t l / V I ,N O

Maha- E x c a v a tio n of Not Mahapra- 35

laxmi a w ater tank m entioned dhan
B h airju

9, Uttar- 1. One f r u i t Not King 39

es v a r a garden m entioned Somesvar
2. 10 v is o v a s
3. 162 Po ruthi
Drammas

10. sumpe- A hamlet of a For the 36

svar v illa g e w e l f a r e of K esTcie viL
Fopagrama the temple
p rie st

11. Avves- 3 v illa g es 1. w orship of K in g X

vara Kusm andi, the god w ith R a t t a r a ja 41
• •«
Asanvir 5 upacaras.

Vadan gul 2. R e p a ir s of
the temple

3. Food and
c lo t h in g
fo r the
a s c e t ic s
 195

REFERENCES

1, D .C . S ir c a r , S tu d ie s In The R e l i g i o u s L i f e
Of A n c i e n t *\nd M edieval In d ia , p. 185.

2, S .R . G o y a l, A H is to r y Of In d ia n Buddhism, p . 156,

3, Ib id , p. 159.

4, Ib id , pp. 157- 158,

5, D .C . S i r c a r , In d ia n E ip g r a p h ic a l G l o s s a r y , p ,3 6 5 .

6, C II, V I, pp. 1 -8 .

7, R .C . Majumdar (E d ), The C l a s s i c a l Age, p ,3 9 5 .

8, Memoirs Of A 3 I , No. 26, p . 5.

9, I HQ, X X X II, p p . 221 f f

10, B .C . S i r c a r , Op. C i t ., p. 189,

11, S .R . G o y a l, Op. a t., 496.

12, D .C . S i r c a r , S t u d ie s in religious life of Ancient

Axid m edieval I n d i a , p , 2 5 3,

13, Rom ila T hapar, lU s t o r y O f A n c ie n t I n d i a , V o l. I,

p . 263.

14, JB S I, V, p . 110.

15, Ib id .

16, C II, ^/I, p . l .

17, Rom ila T h ap a r, Op. C i t ., p . 263

18, C II, V I, p .l

19, Ib id .
 196

20, R .C . Hajumdar (S d ), Op. C i t ., p . 375

21, D .C . S ir c a r , In d ia n E p ig r a p h ic a l G l o s s a r y , p . 61,

22, B .A . Saleto re, L i f e In The Gupta Age, p . 5 5 3 .

23, C II, V I, No. 4 2.

24, I b i d , No. 6.

25, I b i d , No. 16.

26, Ib id , No. 2 3.

27, I b i d , No. 15.

28, H a rsa ca rit, p . 71

29, A. 3. A lt e k a r And R .C . Majumdar/

V akataka - Gupta Age, p ,3 7 5 ,

30, C II, ^/I, No. 11.

31, I b i d , NO. 30.

32, I b i d , No. 41.

33, I b i d , NO. 25

34, I b i d , No. 7.

35, M arici Safhhita, 3 5 .5

36, Ib id , 3 5 .2

3 7. saraswatikafithabharanam , 2 .6 1 ,1 4 .
• •

38. D e v ib h a g av a tp u ra n a , 3 .2 2

39. G .S . D ixit/ Local s e l f Government In M ediev a l

K arnataka , P » 162^21

40. M .N . Deshpande, The caves O f Panhale -

K a ji, p . 159.

41. R. r.. Majumdar, (E d ) , O p .C i t ., p . 4 35.

 197

42, Romila T hapar, Op. C i t ., p . 261,

4 3. G .M , Khare, i-iurtivijnan, p. 157.

44. G II, VI, NO. 5

45. Mahadev S h a st ri Joshi (E d ), B h a r a tiy a

Sartiskrti Kosa, V, p. 292,

46. CII, ’'/ I , NO. 8.

47. Ibid, MO. 15,

48. Ibid, P. XC

49. Ibid, NO . 23.

50. Ibid, No, 22.

51. Ibid .

52. Ibid.

53. Ibid, No. 20

?4. Ibid, No. 4

55. Ibid, NO . 41

56. A pararkatika, i.l

57. A pararkatika, j .i

58. Ibid, NO. 1 2.

59. Ibid, NO. 2 9.

60. Ibid, NO . 3 5 .

61. Ibid, NO . 1 4.

62. Ibid, No. 5.

63. Ibid, NO. 7.

6 4. Ibid, NO. 4.

65, Ibid.
 1^1
198

66. Ib id , NO . 4 0 .

67. Ibid^ NO. 8.

68. Il)id, NO. 23.

69. Ib id , NO. 1 9 .

70. A p a r a r k a t lk a , 1 .4 .9 9 .

71. Prabandhacintam anJ, p . 1 28

72. C X I, V I, NO. 1 4 .

73. Ib id , NO. 2 2 .

74. A p a r a r k a t ik a , 1 .2 .8 7 .

75. Ib id , 1 .4 .9 9 .

76. C II, V I, No. 1 6.

77. Ib id , No. 5,

78. S ah ya drikh a nd a, 2 ,1
••
79. Brahmandapuran, m , 5 7 .4 7 .
••

80. K a t h a s a r it s a g a r , II, p , l 3 8 And

V II, p . 49.
 !99

SUMiMARY AND CONCLUSION

The main o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s work i s to study the

in sc rip tio n al d a t a and to jud g e how f a r i t h e lp s in

c o n s t r u c t in g a com prehensive p i c t u r e o f c u l t u r a l life

in the p a s t . K e e p in g t h is v ie w in mind a span of time

and p la c e was f i x e d , a cco rd in g to which i t is a stu d y

I _
__ _
__

of the i n s c r i p t i o n s o f the S i l a h a r a s from the KoAkan

r e g io n , in o th er v/ords i t i s a stuc^ of c u l t u r a l h is t o r y

of the c o a s t a l d is t ric t s of M aharashtra from c . 8th

• •
cen tu ry A .D . to 12th century a . D . b a s e d on i n s c r i p t i o n s .

The i n s c r i p t i o n a l d ata under r e v ie w i s c la ssifie d

under f iv e main h e a d in g s ;

(1) P o l it y and A d m in is t r a t io n

(2) H i s t o r i c a l g eography and c u l t u r a l ethnography

(3 ) Scononiic c o n d it io n s

(4 ) s o c ia l c o n d it io n s

(5 ) R e l ig i o n and m ythology.

T h is c l a s s i f i c a t i o n is b a s e d on the u n d e r sta n d in g

o f the t e r n 'c u l t u r e ' in the s e n s e as 't h e man-made p a r t

o f the s o c ia l e n v ir o n m e n t '. The work a ls o p o in t s out

the l i m i t a t io n s o f the c o n c lu s io n s drav;n from the

i n s c r i p t i o n a l e v id e n c e .
 200

1. PO LIT Y AI'ID A D ::I n ISTRATICN :

Both in p o l i t y and a d m in is t r a t io n the S il a h a r a s

seem to have fo llo w e d the p r i n c i p l e s p r e s c r i b e d b y the

a n c ie n t In d ia n te x ts on p o l i t y a nd s t a t e c r a f t ( e .g .

A rthasastra, S u k ra n iti, e t c .) . Through the i n s c r i p t i o n s

of the S i l a h a r a s t h e ir e f f o r t s towards prom otion of

Dharma, A r t h a and Kama are v i s i b l e . I n the a d m in is t r a t iv e

s e t up the S i l a h a r a s most p r o b a b ly follov^ed the 'Saptang a*

m odel. 'sap tafiq as' are the seven c o n s t i t u t i o n a l elem ents

of s t a t e , v iz. 'king, m in is t e r s , te rr ito ry , resources/

d e fe n c e , forts and a l l i e s . A ll these elem ents are r e fe r r e d

to in the i n s c r i p t i o n s under r e v ie w i n v a r io u s c o n te x t s ,

I ^ ^

A d m in is t r a t iv e d i v i s i o n s known from the S il a h a r a

r eco rd s are v er y much s im ila r to those found fro m o th er

contemporary r e c o r d s , e .g . V is a y a , D e sa , M an d a la, etc.

• ••

Due to the sm all area o f t h e i r kingdom the

I ^ ^

S il a h a r a s p r o b a b ly had a small m in is t r y . Among the

m in is t e r s Pradhan and s a n d h iv ig r a h ik a appear to be most

in d isp e n sa b le .

I ^

The s t a t u s o f the S i l a h a r a s as fe u d a t o r ie s i s known

by th eir t il e s lik e Samanta or M and a lesv a ra, however about

••
t h e i r r e l a t i o n s v/ith the o v e r lo r d s n o th in g s u b s t a n t ia l is

known. The i n s c r i p t i o n s r e f l e c t a p e c u l ia r c h a r a c t e r o f
 201

the Silahara rulers i.e . their liking for very high -

sounding titles. This stands in contrast w ith their

Rasakuta overlords v/ho assumed h u m b le r t i t l e s to t h e i r

m iqht^position,

2. HISTORICAL GBOGRAI-TIY AND CULTURAL gTH?70GRAPHY ;

The place-names and p erso n a l names found from

the records under revi'ew are c l a s s i f i e d under number

o f heads m a in l / d efe n d in g upon the s tr u c tu r e o f the

name. The stu d y y ie ld e d u n d e r sta n d in g about c e r t a in

in t e r e s t in g p e c u l i a r i t i e s in the place-name and

"e r s o n a l name p a t t e r n s . Both the place-names and

•Personal names r e f l e c t southern a f f i n i t y in most of

the c a s e s . A long w ith place-names a number o f oth er

g eo g ra p h ica l fe a t u r e s are a lso m entioned in the

records. These h e lp e d in i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the p la c e s .

The place-names having 'L a v a n a ' as i t s segment

i n d i c a t e an im portant economic a c t i v i t y of the

I ___ ___

S il a h a r a p e r io d v i z . the salt- m aking. (Lavana or Lona -

• •
m eaning s a l t ) .
 202

The s tu d y of the p e r s o n a l names of the m in is t e r s

p o in t e d out to a "lajor s o c ia l ch ang e. T ill the tenth

c e n t u r y the names of the m in is t e r s i n d i c a t e t h a t they

were from the Brahmin c a st e and t h a t to a s p e c i f i c c la s s

o f Brahm ins, probaJrly who were o r i g i n a l l y from the Kannada

s p e a k in g a rea . However, from th e b e g i n n i n g o f th e 11th

c e n t u r y .\.D. the names o f the m in is t e r i n d i c a t e a d i f f e r ­

ent s o c ia l g ro up. The m in is t e r s from 1 1 th c e n t u r y onwards

were ’.layaks, T h ak u rs , P rabhus, who were most pro b ab ly the

lo c a l c h i e f s from the a g r i c u l t u r i s t community. which means

th a t i t was a time v/hen the Brahmins ' s u p e r i o r i t y in the

a d m in is t r a t iv e m atters was q u e s t io n e d and the representa­

t i v e s o f m a jo r ity c l a s s came to p rom inence. T h is can

fu r t h e r b e suoo orted ]:iy the o b s e r v a t io n r e g a r d in g the

la n g u ag e o f the e p ig r a p h s . From 11th cen tu r y onwards the

ep ig ra p h s s t a r t e d the use o f l o c a l langu ag e v i z . the o l d

K arath i,

3. ECONOr-UC C O N D I Tia-TS :

G e n e r a lly , the economy'" must have been agro- based

as was the c ase tiiroughout I n d i a . However, due to the

h illy t e r r a in and low p r o d u c t i v i t y o f s o i l , a t many

p laces the a g r i c u l t u r i s t p r o b a b ly d id no t r e c e iv e adequate

r e tu r n s from the la n d . In t h a t c a s e the economy must have

depended on trade a c t i v i t y to a la rg e e x t e n t . The records

under r e v ie w r e f l e c t b o th in la n d and m aritim e tra d e*

 203

roiMtan c o a s t was v e r y famous for the f o r e ig n t r a d e

c a r r ie d through the im portant p o r t s l i k e K a ly a n , Sopara,

T hana and chaul r ig h t from very a n c ie n t tim e s. The ,

i n s c r i p t i o n s o? the S i 1 aharas a lso mention them. However/

th e re i s a b s o lu t e ly no in fo rm a tio n a v a il a b l e r e g a r d in g

the commodities those were t ra d e d through the p o rt s

m entioned above from the r e c o r d s ,

I _
__ ^

A number o f coi-ns are known from the S i l a h a r a

records which in fo rm about the use o f cu rren cy fo r v a r ie t y

o f e x ch a n g es. The im portant in fo r m a tio n i s r e g a r d in g the

u s e o f D in a r , a g old c o in , not commonly known in the

post- Gupta p e r i o d . One more r a r e coin is known from the

r e c o r d s under r e v ie w v i z , the Kumara-ga d yanaka. I t was

p r o b a b ly a gadyana coin is s u e d b y the 'Kumara* or the

crown- prince,

» ^ ^
prom the S il a h a r a r e co rd s a few p r o f e s s io n s are

a ls o knov/n. The p r o f e s s i o n a l s l i k e o il- p r e s s o r s ,

gardeners, potters m entioned in the records were mainly

a s s o c ia t e d w ith the tem p les, in return to t h e ir s e r v ic e

to the terrple th ey r e c e iv e d some r o y a l fa v o u r s ,

4. SOCI.\L CONDITIONS :

The i n s c r i p t i o n s under r e v ie w r e f l e c t the process

o f caste in fo rm a tio n b a s e d on p r o f e s s i o n s in its f i n a l phase,

 204

Vhe p r o fe G s io n a l ca stes known from the records are the

potters, o i l p ressors^ bamboo w eavers, g arden ers and

dyers. The S il a h a r a p e r io d a lso w itn e ss e d a change in the

p o s i t i o n o f the Brahm ins. From the 11th c en tu ry onwards

the Brahmins s t a r t e d g e tt in g c o n fin e d more and more to

the r e l i g i o u s a c tiv ity .

Regarding the s o c ia l l i f e in general th e r e i s

h a r d ly any in fo rm a tio n a v a il a b l e from the r e c o r d s under

re v ie w .

5. RELIGIOUS COUaiTIONS :

For the study of r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t y d u rin g the

I ^ ^

p e r i o d under reviev/ the i n s c r i p t i o n s of the s i l a h a r a s

are extrem ely u s e f u l . Alm ost a l l th e i n s c r i p t i o n s are

the records o f r e l i g i o u s d o n a tio n s g iv e n to the Erahmins

or o t h e r r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s . The r e l i g i o u s in s titu tio n s

knovA^ from these r eco rd s are (i) B u d d h is t Saftigha (li) The

ag rah ara v i l l a g e s (iii) The tem ples and M athas. R eference

0

to fu n c t io n in g o f Euddhis t monastery as l a t e as the clo se

o f 9th fientury A . D . i s very s i g n i f i c a n t . Ey t h a t time

Buddhism was almost on the verag o f d is a p p e a ra n c e from most

o f the pa rts o f sur;-continent,

I
C\'’e r a l l the 3 a iv a s e c t dom inated the relig io u s
 205

scene o f t h is p e r i o d . The S i l a h a r a s favoured i t most.

However, the d o n a tio n s r e c e iv e d by the tem ples o f the

o th er s e c t s lik e s o la r and V a is n a v a r e f l e c t the

• «
eclectic sp irit of the S i l a h a r a s w hich was a connmon

f e a t u r e of the t h a t age.

The r eco rd s a lso mention some of the p o p u la r

I ^

myths e . g . the Parasuram myth, the myth of the d escen t o f

Gaftga, the myth o f a v id y a d h a r a hero Jim u tavah ana from

I _
__ ^

whom the S i l a h a r a s t ra c e d t h e i r l i n e a g e .

COMCLUSIONS

The c o n c lu s io n s a r r iv e d at are on two l e v e l s . At

the first le v e l the c o n c lu s io n i s r e g a r d in g t h e u t i l i t y

of the i n s c r i p t i o n a l data for the study of c u l t u r a l life

o f the p a s t . On the second le v e l the c o n c lu s io n s are in

the form o f a s e t of p o s s i b l e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s about the

cultural life in Kofikan during the S il a h a r a p e r i o d .

*

ThG i n s c r i p t i o n s under review proved to b e v ery

useful for the study o f r e l i g i o u s and econom ic c o n d it io n s

and for the study of p o l i t i c a l systems o f the age. But

fo r the stud y of s o c ia l c o n d it io n s i t was f e l t to b e v ery

s c a n ty . In t h is r e s p e c t the i n s c r i p t i o n a l in fo rm a tio n

needs to l:e coro bo rated by the num ism atic and l i t e r a r y

e v id e n c e .
 206

On the second le v e l i .e . the p ic t u r e of c u lt u r a l

l i f e p r o je c t e d throuah the i n s c r i p t i o n s , i t appears that

the period under review did not w itn ess any r e v o lu t io n a r y

change in any sphere of c u lt u r a l a c tiv ity . Changes were

c e r t a i n l y t ak in g p la c e b u t they were g radual and v e r y

much in tune with the changes tak in g p la c e in the n e i ^ -

b o u r in g a r e a s . On the p o l i t i c a l h o rizo n a new c la s s o f

a d m in istra to rs was emerging from among the c u l t i v a t o r s .

The records a lso r e f l e c t a l i n g u i s t i c c h a n g e. From the

beginning of the 11th century the o l d form of M arathi

s t a r t s m.aking I t s appearance in the ro y al c h a r t e r s .

R e l ig i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e Mathas attached to the temples

were w idening the scope o f s o c ia l fu n ctio n served b y the

tem ples. A new s t y le of temple a r c h it e c t u r e was in tro d u ­

c ed in Koftkan d urin g t h is p e r i o d ,

I _
__ ^

The r o le oZ the S il a h a r a s as the r u l e r s in the

pirocess of c u lt u r a l tra n sfo rm atio n must be very sig n ifi­

c a n t . These r u le r s bxought the c u lt u r a l t r a it s from the

Deccan to Kortkan and thereby h e lp e d the process o f cul-

t u r a l a s s im ila t io n a g re a t d e a l . These r u le r s assured

the KoAkan p e o p le an o r g a n ize d p o l i t i c a l system which

I _
__ _
__

would m aintain law and o r d e r . The S il a h a r a s p r o je c t e d

them selves as the id e a l kin gs who would promote Dharma,

A rth a and p'ama in the p r e s c r ib e d way o f the s c r ip t u r e s .

 207

l i k e true K s a t r i /a s v/hen time demanded th ey p r o t e c t e d

the la n d p a y in g t'ne co st of t h e i r liv es. T h is must

have c r e a t e d a g re o t in p a c t on t h e p e o p le of KoAkan
•

and as a r e s u l t of v/hich they must have a ccep ted the

I _
__ _
__

S i l a h a r a r u le fo r more than fo u r c e n t u r i e s .
 208
APPENDI X I
I ___ ___ %
Geneology of the S lla h a r a s (the fig u r e s in th e b r a c k e t

I n d ic a t e the approxim ate iruling span o f each r u l e r ) .

Northen H o use: (a l l dates in A . D . )

Kapardi I (8 0 0- 32 5)
I

Pullasak ti (825- 850)

I

Kapardi I I (850- 880)

Vappuvanna (880- 910)

f
- __________________ t, ■
Zanza (910- 930) Goggi (930- 945)
I
-------------- -
V a j ja d a I (945- 965) c h h a d v a ld e v a (965- 975)

A p arajlt (975- 1010)

-L.
v a jja d a i i (1 0 10 - 1 01 5 ) A r ik e s a r i (1 0 15 - 1 02 0 )
I

I----------------------------------- f---------------------------- 1
“
C h h i t t a r a j a (1020 - 1 03 5 ) N a g ^ j u n a (1035- 1045) Muramuni (1045- 1075)
1
1
Anantadeva I (1070 - 1 11 0 )
9
A p a r a d ity a I (10 10 - 1 04 0 )
1
■I-- ----- 1

V ik ra m a d ity a (1138- ? ) H a r ip a la d e v (1138- 1155)

I

M a llik a ju n a (1155- 1170)

A p a r a d ity a I I (11 70 - 1 19 5 )
t
1------------------------------'---------
•
r—
I
Anantadeva I I K e sh id e v a I I
(1195- 1200) (12 00 - 1 24 5 )
I

Anan tadeva I I I
(1 2 45 - 1 25 5 )
t
Some*svar
(1255- 1265)
 203

southern House;

San aph ulla (765- 785)

1
1
1
Dhammiyar (785- 820)
1
1
1»
A iy aparaj (8 2 0- 84 5)
1
1
1
Avasar I (8 4 5- 87 0)
1
1
1
Adi yavarma (870- 895)

1
Avasar 11 (895- 920)
1
1
in d r a r a j a (920- 945)
I
1
Bhima (945- 970)
1
t
t
Avasar I I I (970- 995)
1
1
I..
R a t t a r a ja (995- 1024)
 210

R E l ' E R E N C E S

1. c il, V I, p. v ii

2. Ihi:'., p . xxi
 211

:■ P E N D I X II

AI-':B;.P.NAm TEMPLE

I ___ _

A terrple o f S il a h a r a p e r io d c a l l e d as

' S ria m b a r n a th d e v a k n la ' ^ in the i n s c r i p t i o n i s the only-

d ated soecimen a v a i l a b l e for the study of temple

a r c h it e c t u r e and t ie s c u lp tu r e for the p e r io d under

r e v ie w . The temple is s it u a t e d to the e a s t o f the

p r e s e n t r a il w a y s t a t io n , c a l l e d v/ith t h e same name v i z ,

Ambarnath. T h is is pro b ab ly the e a r l i e s t e x a n p le o f the

Eh um ija type o f temple in M ah a ra sh tra ,

2
A c c o r d in g to D r. D e g lu r k a r , two fe a t u r e s o f

th is tefi^le are remar>:able fo r a r c h it e c t u r a l study and

d e se r v e s p e c ia l a t t e n t io n on that acco u n t,

i) The Plan : The plan c o n s is t s o t tvX3 sq u ares of

v a r y in g dim ensions p la c e d d ia g o n a l l y to one a n o th e r ,

as such th eir o p n o s it e co rners touch each o t h e r ,

ii) The S ik h a r a : ".he space betw een the t u r r e s t at

the fou r c a r d in a l d ir e c t io n s o f the tov;er are f i l l e d in

with small p i l l a r - l i k e o r n a m en ta tio n s. The towers o f the

temples oi: l a t e r p e r io d in M aharashtra show e v o lu t io n

in t h is re 67>ect.

The temple c o n s is t s o f three p a r t s ; (i) Garbhagrha

(ii) Mandapa (iii) Ardhamandapas a ttached in th ree

 212

directions of the ; :andapa l e a v i n g the s h r i n e . The

••
e x t e r io r of the temple i s b e a u t i f u l l y ornamented
I

v;ith a variety of sculptures. The Sikhara is in a

badly damaged c o n d i t i o n . Still it reflects a high

degree of w orkm anship. The Mandapa a l s o h a s a

•«
pyram idal roof having carvings on i t ,

S t y l i s t i c a l l i ' the t e m p le show s a f f i n i t y with

the e a r ly mediaval toinples. ^

 213

R i' E R E C E s

1. cii, ^n, No. 17

2. G.E. jenlurkar.
Temple architecture and Sculpture of
I'aharashtra, p. 27.

3. Ibid, D. 25.
 214

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