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    aviation navigation and sensors

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    10 views15 pages

    Avionics

    Uploaded by

    Shreyash Raj
    aviation navigation and sensors

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    of 15
    1 Stetng toward destination of known positon fom he erat’ preset rion, The stectng equations can be deve fom a plane angle fr Seay desations or fom spherical tangle for dsant destoations (Chapter 2). 2. Stsing toward desinstion without expily measuring the tate ve {eA guided vehicle can hom ro, infeed, or visual emissions. ‘Guidance tow moving target usually of inert fo lita tactic pss in which a seeing sligoritm entre pact within the mane ev and fol conse ofthe iniecepoe On of Several related guide nce agonhns,collciey called propordonal navigation, processes ‘Sensor data and este vehicle to mpc uidance award fied a fet vols beaming, as inthe Tnstument Landing System (Chapter th, 13 CATEGORIES OF NAVIGATION Savion systems can be cto a postonig or det reckoning. Po toning sponses ste ecto wthoat ear he pu tele Dy Een te ps Thee a re onde of poisoning ems 1, Radio ystems (Chapter 4106). They consis fa ewer of tans ter ometine also receiver) onthe ground, i steies, or on ier ‘ticles The airborne navigation set detects the transmisions and ou Puts its potion relative (othe kaown postions ofthe sation in the fuvigation corte fae. The area's velocity i measured rom the Denper sito the uanmissons ce from a aqueace of postion men 2 Celestial systems (Chapter 12). They compute pion by measuring the ‘vation and aimeth of celestial Boies lative to the ravigtion coor ‘inate fxme at predsly known times. Celestial navigation i wed a Specalpupose Naa sera conjunction wih an ine na ‘fst: Manon celestial navigation was practice tsa for millenia and in ira Hom the 1930s to the 1960s. 3. Mapping navigation tems (Seton 2.4). Tey oberve images of te ‘round, profes of stad, or eb enteral features. Dea-echoning navigation systems dtive thie state vector fom a contin: os sere of easement lative toa inal postion. Tere ae two kinds of dead-eckoaing measurements 1. Alralft heading ster spot or ascleraon. For example, heading an be messed ith gyroncopes (Chaper 7} or apneic compasses (Chap) wile speed canbe measured wih ada Sensors (Chapter rm vance 3 8) or Doppler radars (Chapter 10), Vetr acceleration i measured with inet sensors (Chap 2. Emisions from continmous-wave ratio stations. They cere ambiguous “anes” (Chap tat must be counted to Keep wack fears pesition ‘Their phase fs measured fer Sine postonng. They mst be eintiahaed ier any gap in radio coverage. Deadseckonng systems must be seni a eos scum ad i tees power sos 1a THE VEHICLE LAL Cit Aira ‘The civil aviation industry consists of air caniers and general avai. Ae caries opeae lage airrft used on unk routes std smal sire wen commer service, General aviation ranges from single pace rp dss 10 ‘well-equipped fourengine corporate en Most air caries and genera-avion jet aicaft oper excaivly ia developed ares whetegroni-bosed radio aise plea Ofer operate ‘over obeans and undeveloped ares where, before the Global Positoniay 89s tem (PS, Char 5) navigation sds were nonexistent. Before the 1970s, sich sera hd astodomes tough wich a human navigate tok clei! ss ‘witha babblesextat (Chapter 12) From the 1970s 0 200, sia Aying ver oceans and undeveloped acas used maid neal rst or Ome (Chap 4. By the yer 2000, most of hese srt ill ve GPS aloe or ormbination with ner sams (Chapter 7). Begining in the mi 1980, he UUSIFAA allowed overtr fight with single long-range mavztion st and 2 separate single long-range communication se ‘Simple geeralavation ara (iacludig haliopes) operate over short routes, ive to of fever engnes, and are ow bye e two plo They ‘ese for water ops on res searchand ese, fring ces one i platforms, ptce parol memplae ste, crop dusting st ating oes from forests, for example. Each usage bas is ova navigation requerens The ‘pes aia navigate visally or with Loran or GPS st: he more complex sireraft ose the Sime navigation equipment as do at cues. In 196 ei Insicopters wed VOR/DME (ee Chaper 4) In develope srs. They lend ‘stl because hi approach pala were to weep forthe tore ang system (ILS, Chapter 18) Many wil alot GPS for nstriment sproacs, Chil aircraft fly ina benign environment the major eecialsresses 0 ionic equipment are caused by lighting and eleci-powerwansins the ‘majo mechanical stresses ae cased bya urbulence ard nding, nd abo ‘ve handling by maintenance tecnicacs, Figure 1 shows the aca far and evionics bays onan advanced arspot a sou orci a 4. Gago cai Tes cal tve the sume navigation erent oc acai ation, they dp ergs by parce seul ‘rn une. Cag dos ree gt log» eden ht ‘lee at predetermined postin Capo et oe ao emetic ft a efucngranes and mobic haps Taner ae cpl ‘ith adr beacons to id rendrvous Tey maybe shed eke {Gog ngs nd pers Aecomalsnee sia. Tse sinh ales phoogapic an ele isa das Te vgn rect fn clr mnt te dak sty cove to hse bors. Thy metre ely recline {0 compenstcamers an yuh pee fds or ei mon elcopter and shor kf and STOL) whic, Miltary ee ‘Sp fn suppor topo esa tack ks fo eppess ‘tly tnd altars ie, ano anspor oles anes Tey ‘euch or and desoy sabi fo tht beso age si They ‘ease poo, othe cn eater inthe conte ames ea ‘dy comma pose. Mos of ter navigate by ital pag Sse any an Army Heep data wth Dopplr ar and conse {Chops 9 an 10) cing Tue to etn to Bet pe ot an ee ‘Reman ve ei oy on re ane latch weapon and waitin verticals haa! Aer 3 cao mea deo downat om ers Dee pat ‘anh a connate ame fae ne oving encanta at i when working wah subse Scingvntboys Sexchant ‘mci blogs ca cvs ate! and eof sry ‘scr ansines (6 Coniston! weapons cary {hl nvigatrs and ops iager for cag tapes end olson Unmanned ir vets (nce cal “emote pled veces", Tey ‘anges om mod sane ten tnd logan They ae sued os tre oes, comaiance when, and sees bosbe They snack ght rps Cala omtog smear a cee ‘iat enging te Tes eo, Some te ete eel Imapshing snd cose serio some cay Dope fala They sien sia neil unt hear ele red ene acquire the arg then guide themselves to impact wth submetr acc Vewnly every mila srr cases an nstumen-landing stem CLS) sseiver(Chapicr 13) Inthe pas, some eled on 4 "prund-conli ‘speroach” in which human, watching a ala disply onthe ground or on an siren carer. radioed sering commands tothe plo The pel pro toms of landing onan srr camer are dscussd in Caper 13. ly a at often engage in high-speed high, waa mancavers that cilcnge ‘te mechanical design of on-board avionics, Guns al rocket luce mpse shock and vibration loads. By the year 2000, most itary craft wil ery GPS recive 1S PHASES OF FLIGHT SA Takeott “The takeoff phase bepins upon ating ato te runway and ends when clind- ou is extablishd on the projected runway ceneine. The acai guided tong the centerline by han ying ora coupled autopilot based on serine Seal rom an ILS lclzer snc 1945) To inp speed measures sind rth ay Th gx gd odo whi sta ol is powbl is pocomputed snd compare, ding he takeoff ran tote aca {rund speeds displayed by the navigation sytem. The speed a wich te oe fed Cotto") preculclaed and compared tothe ual airspeed 1 displayed by the aida system, Baromete altude rate oe GPS-derived ‘ae ae (inrially smoothed) measured apd one, 1.52, Terminal Area ‘The terminal phase consis of departure and approach subphses, Departure Deine when the scr! maneuvers vay tom the projected racemic Shdcade whet eaves the trina contol ra (by which ie x exabiso ‘Gh an arma). Approach begins wen te art eters he tial zea (oy Stich time a the sry) and ens when i neceps he landing ad st {happroach fic In 198, vera navigation was bse on barmete sae. {hd heading ves wore ssp by trac contol Majer algo hve ‘Sandardappeach and depart routes unige to each anway. Inthe United ‘Stats, the deed teminal-area pavigaton accuracy i 1.7 unl, 2-igma per ‘Advisory Cela 20130 ure det aren Chapter i 153 En Route “Te e-oue pase lets fom the oii othe destination and aerate des Svs (a Sete destaton i ued of cv scat operg wie Semen ight rls rom te 1930 tthe 19% vey were defn Uy swig ie over an an By aia longs fs ener se Th wht of sayy so tr lara paraon depended co the gy of th Uefnngnavaids andthe distance between them. The ntdoton of inet tvigton systems aod DME in the 1970 caused aviation autores ee te Sarecevigatin” airways (RNAV) tat do aot always reenact VOR Set AEA os Sson 27.9, Begining in he 199s, GPS bs loned precio navigation anywhere aot jnton aay, Given exnave os fo ban clio ce sp nen and the wend twa educing goverment budgets, “fee-figh is being Fnoduced in contol sispace. Each airat woul aceon a route before takeft and then be fe to ehagge the rout, afer inteareraft communication Vevifed that the sbk of eosin is sufienly ow. Enroute surveillance by Jndzpenden gro-ase radars may sappeato be reploed by position X28 12a Tours a com-a sais, Busy terminal reas and sip surfaces are ie to remain under cea, positive conto in the Unite States in 1986, the en-route navigation err must be less than 2 nmi ovr Ian and 12 ami over oeans (sigma) (7: AC-20-130), AS Fesional maps Become avallabe in digial form wit aeronautical annotation [easiminimum en-oute lade, arf in ndeveloped seas will use GPS forcroue puviaton and poapreison approuches, 154 Approseh ‘The approach phase bei st aequison ofthe landing aid and continues uni the asyut sh sight ote icra on the ran. depending onthe ca Ie of the landing (Chapter 13). ‘Daring apgoth, the decision eight (DH) i the alte above the ru swap at which Me approach most be aborted ifthe runway is notin sight. The ater the landing asthe lower te decison height Deision Begs ae pub Tse foreach runway at eich agport (Chapter 13). The decision height fora Category it landing ¥ 100 ft o les. By I an approach may’ ae even be “itepe unless the orizontal vinbit, measure by a runway sua ange (iv) insrment exondsa tele that ranges from ero (Category IC, to approved anywhere in 1996) 10 800 meters (Category. A nonprecision Upprosch has elecuon guidance ony i the hodaoatal diection. A aerate erecting a ronprecison approach must abort if he runway is no visible at {hs minut descent lite, wich i ‘picly 700 ft above the ase. "1996, ii traf ute the eX Soviet bloc used the Instrument Land ing Sytem fr low-clling,low-vishity approaches. A Microwave Landing ‘Shc hal foen approved the laternationa Civil Aviation Organization for ppovnon appa and was bela sated st major international spas, Tipecilly Europe. Inthe United States, Loran and GPS had ben approved for nonrecsin approaches at many aipors, (Landing aids are discussed in (Chapeer 13) 15S Landing ‘The landing pss hepias a the decision height (when he ronway isn ight) and ens when he aerate he runway Navigation daring fae and dead {ius he vin or the navigation ses cles gut may be copled to an topo A ai altimeter meses he Belg of te mai lang gear above the mn fr guiding the Mae. Thee outs guide bythe landing ai the 115 lclze), Landing mavgution is desrbed in Chater 13. 1.56 Missed Approach ‘A missed approach is intited atthe pile’ option oat the fie controle’ request rypeally Beease of poor visibility por alignment with te run ‘quipment lore, or contieing tafe. The fight path and alte proile for ‘mused spprach re puis the approach plates The mised spproach omits of clin fo «predetermined holding haat which the icra was fer instructions, Teal ea navigation ids are se, 187 Surface Airraft movement fom the runway o gues, hangars, or evenents sa malar limit on sip: apace in instrument meteorological condtons. Surface nai tation is vial onthe pat of the crew, wheres the ground ctl buerve ‘craft vsully of wth a srface srvellnce radar No miter how goal the surfice navigation, collision avoidance among sieat and ground vehi- ‘les regres cena guidance, typclly provided ty «human contol ith “compute assivance. Poston reports eg via GPS) rm scat that are co ‘eae in radar shadow rede the sk of colsion and help Kes uamented frat of active ranways 158 Weather Insiument mereorolopcalcondtons (IMC) are weather codons in which ‘sity rented yplally less tan 3 wales as defined by law Aca ‘pean ia TMC are supposed toy under instrament figh rales (FR), dened bylaw in each country (Chapters 13 and 1). 1 DESIGN TRADE-OFFS ‘The navigation system designcr conducts tradeoffs fer each scr nd mis sion fo determine which navigation nytems to wse.Tadeols consider the fol Towing abuts: 1. Cost nce se the constracion and maiotenanes of transite tions and the putchase of op-board hare and soware. User ie ‘oncerad only wilh he cost of hour hardware and aware In he past, governments have aldo operate adso-nsigain wap. Is "he fre, combined com-av aids may be operated privately and funded by ser charges 2 Accuracy of positon and veloc. Ths is specifi in terms ofthe sa ‘Seal ation of eo as obuerved ons lange umber of Nght 5) ‘The acuracy of miliary sjstems soften hacacerized by cular enor wobable (CEP, in meters or natal mies; Chapter 2), The maximum a gure 12. Gil Fostonng Sym Speer, Block I (cone of Rocke) receivers, the ionospheric delay (Chap 5). In 1996, the military modes of (GPS achieved 20sec (2dr) accuracy anywhere in he wor, whet mode could ashieve 4aetr accuracy bat Was intentionally degrade 10 meter «banc toc navigation that tay be dacotiued efoce the year 200 The United States and Ria ave announced that GPS ant GLONASS. wl be availble werldvide, fee of charge, fora let 15 years and ther ‘Mer with 6 yee’ warming ofthe ead of sevice. Nevers, worldwide cil be switched ff or degraded ding hosts. The advent of continuous GPS allows the use of AHRS-qualiy inetal/tiude ference systems (Chapters “and 9) nal bu the mon demanding mary applications. The undetected lost of« navigation signal or te alte of reoier could be eatastop, ‘spevaly acing laning slow Sein height ’ widespreat mend of improving GPS scary and monitoring the signals sto installs ground waton at receives GPS signals and iss positon {sors or ranging errs and stellt failure sts on a radio Hn o nea ai {raft This aiferenial GPS (DGPS) ca achieve centimeter accuracy for Bed ‘servers and Isto Seer scuracy on eat ha cun solve awn et lasor The Unied Stes was experinenting wih a naonvide DGPS system (Wide Area Augmentation Sytem, WAAS; Chapter 5) tat coul event replace the network of VORTAC "The GPS andGLONASS synems ae expensive to pert cacosting testy bln dela pe year othe replacement of stalls a the maltenance of the ground-conuol and monitoring network The cost of clleting wer chars (cis by sullingencytion keys or axing receivers) would exceed the eevee that ould be exacted from mvigaton ony es. Hence, i th Akt seer {way t amen the GPS network ora ow-cost replacement ee dda (GPS satelite Goverments woul sil maintin he comand mosis tins hat alee its and uplink dt for rebrodeast. Taxpyer ppt is ‘ore ely GPS becomes widely usd in antomobies. I present tends contnoe toward fe for sevice, taxpayer-funded avigton sds ay case to ent cra 200, hen commercial cnn stl il ave superimposed ranging codes on ther communication sia. Cornea tin and vigaton would then be aval o a perl ais, fring aera agin to rly on prove deal reckoning Beween intcmsten ies, probably ffom sel sonsinod paneled mict-machined inal istrment (Chap tere and 9 TTIDS and PLRS (Chapter 6) ae military com systems ht conte a ulekt-sized network whose terminal ae in command emer and vehicles. PLRS trials can be backpacked by solders ‘Since aibore digital computers Became avllable inthe 1960s, algrtins| rove been invented and perfected that combine the mesarements of diverse ‘vigatin senses to create a “bet eximate of poston std veloc” They "> ein "yb oavigation system. rom 1970 1 te end ofthe cent. ‘trou fom of Kalman ters were favored for combining data from verse ‘aviation sensors (Chap 3, 18 INTEGRATED AVIONICS 11 All Atrratt Navigation” sone of several elctronic bres, cllectivey called an tes The ther subysiemn ae as follows: intercom anicng the crew members and one or more extemal two-way ‘oie and dt inks, Flight como. Ths consists of wabity augmentin ani opto. The formes points te airame snd contoe ts oltions, while the later [vider sich fonctons ie attage-nod, heading-hol. and aia. Flay, lat and poet are often conf electronically sn aon to ‘de elevator, ad leone = - 3 nine cool, Thins the electric conta of engine trust, often called tive management After aod trast reverses may Be conoled ‘manual perhaps ia athe byte contol syst 4, Fight management. Tis subsystem stores the coorinates of eno ‘respons and calles the sering signa toy toward hem. ca ses cli and descent profes that maybe followed wih or without “constanisonthe time at which designated Bxes and alte re rose, Grossing ines predetermined times and ates Is sometimes called Jourdimensinal hsigation egies ta the Might management sh ‘Sst contol enpne shut In 1996 al ph management sbs}stems lore waypoins in digil form. By the year 2000 many wil store dae ital maps ofthe enroute aispce, tnd approaches (called STAR in the Unted Sates) stand departs (alld SYD in the United Stats), Sppoach plates, sd check (ee Chapter 10, Subsstem monitoring an ono. Fa ial subsystems are dpa. {sare recommended ueions tobe tke. Tis subse icles wired Topi and software forthe automate recoaiguraton of fas in time ‘a siteysteme (eg, Hight coool. where afl can destroy the sieaft in ess han tes second), Qackresponses to sfey-ceical faults were tome i Migh-comral systems bythe 1980s. nthe 19905, the rend tra auomats the responses fo slower-acting aus, thus redoing the Solo in one-pot ad two svrafe The falre-montoeing sib- Sete may iach an on-boerd maitenance recorder. the radio tans Inssion of fault fo rehice mpi me, and an aceden eeoler whose its sarvive crash (egied by aw on many srr. (6, Colson avdance, Tis submytem pred impending colons wits Ser ssi or the ground and rocommends en avoidance maneuver (tater 1, ‘eather detection, This subsystem observes Weaer dead of he aircraft so thatthe rote of ight cin be altered to avoid thundersioms and areas Df high wind her The senor re sully radars Chapter 11) and asers (hare Emergeny locator tanamiter (ELT). This sabystem is wiggered ato- matically 00 high npact or manual. Ip 1966, ELTs emit dxine- tive ties on 1215, 245, and 406 Me [8)- These frequencies (and per- haps soon 16 Gis) are monitored by search-and-eseue irra and by SARSAT-COSPAS stelle, 1482 Mittary Avionis “The aviones olen cost 40% of the value of mila arr In ation othe ‘avigation subsystem and the subst described in Seton 1.8.1, niltary vine consis of | i INTEGRATED AvIONICS 37 1. Rade iar ond othr tage sensors. Tes may have tr on pln and cons or may se uliprpose devi, 2. Weapon management + Fre con Caleta geo siming us nd ani rocks ‘ber srt nde round gee + Sor ninigement tht nilzs and ances guided weapons i sls and bombs 2. lect coumeresiecs, This sap et, ose, ad iden: tc enemy emer of ekcomapnee rato hima ao gees ining sigs 1986, cro Consterenes wa aien so com plex ta they wer inl inan externally cared pod on specially cped aa 4. Mon pling. Peg mision plone otaly done he i tear by comple bat epee titel fight nn fren eto Sundon, Omar sofa replane ruts heh eneny dims bed on enrotecbsevains. Ente reploning raison ad ‘tal map ofthe ean athe alte detection of em rls 5. Formation fight. This baytec niin eration igh in intrent tmeorlgl condor onecnssted Beacon, ansponde ad omaniation links bots being replaced by reave GPS. 183 Architecture Before te 1960s, electca and eletonic systems on ara consisted of ine poet subsystems, each wth is own seas, analog compar, displays. nd tl The appearance oso distal compat inte 194s crete the St negated avonc syste. The interconnect of bore eset filled archecre I involves si aspects 1, Ditplays. They present information frm the avionics tthe pits (Chap ters 9 and 15), The information consists of vertical and horizontal ma fon dt, ight-c aa speed and ange of wack), and com: ‘munication data aio frequencies). The dsplays show the stats fal Sabeystems inching their alts. Displays consist of diced gauges, dedicated las displays, mikipupose glass display, and the suppor Ing symbol generators In 1996, flat-panel vertea- and orzo tion daly were displacing eathaeray tubes a ls sys” Mil ‘ipupose displays of text and lok diagrams ae Mi-pael ties sr ‘ounded by Dons whose labels change asthe displays change On-board “gia! tern dat, used for mission planing. canbe dpsyed 09 the ovizontl station display or ona hesd-up dsp. 2. Cons. The means of inpating infomation from the pilots wo the avionics. The flight cont rationally eonsst of rudder pedals and a ‘onto soln eck Fy-y- wie srt ae inressingy ws eet fwuraxs hand conan sid redder pols (espedall in tated Soceera thee axe hand coaroles, The bys coro canis of Pslnodntd tons and svitchos. Switches are also meured on the tol column, sik, tite, and and-conolens; sometimes 5 batons per tan. The butors onthe perpbery of mulipurpose displays conto the sess 3. Compucton, Te wet of processing sensor data Two exree es ‘ations of computston exist ‘Centralized, Data fom all sensors ae collected in a bank of central ‘ptr in which sofa from several subs) are inerningled “Te eel of fat leans shit the mos eral subsystem, ste ily gh contr I ste simples! bardvare and lnerconnetons. in 199, coal computers were feaneurigroeasrs of ml + Desens. Each tadona abstr reais is integrity. Hence, ravigntion semors feed navguton compute, figh-conal senses fsed a Pigh-cotol compute at dives Aightcomrol actuators, and ‘ron, Tue acca requis complesinerconnectons Bu as the ‘Shaniags tat alongs provine can difer foreach sabyater Scconting 16 the consequence of fale ab tha softwar erated i experts in eich subsystem, exerts independent of ter so ‘vue and ealy modied. When designed with nual itercon- tr chanel nd it-esnnabity et, Scented stems have nore rable software than do cenalied stems Many avionc ystems combine fests of cetalized and decentralized sche 4, Data buses. Copper or fide opi pats sons Sesees, computer, et sos dpa, and contol, s disease in Chapter 5. Some datapaths Sr dedcted un some ar mutilexes. Complex sir conan pura aves (one wire, pr of tres or opal Aber peri) and evil Pases| Tete set social on on wie pro Ber). large seat a ave {thane pounds of sgl wit 5S. Safety paring, Commercial fy-by-vite ircralt sometimes divide ‘he ara toa ighlyredundstsfey- 1) 10 osu tha he ptch is sampled, ven withthe expected alongtack eo. The “Computer clon the ack whone cross colton i ingest he most pob- Ale tack. The computer sles the xshft of tuximum conlaion ras the ong-sck conection tothe dead reckoned position. Heading dit is wally ovsmall tat coreation ae at segura in azimuth, The algorithm accom ‘odes fits in buomic ata cased by an unknown sexlvel sting “The with of the patch depends onthe growth rate of amu ers inthe Aeadreckoning system. Simpler algoitne have teen wed "mean absolute Ailerences) and more complex Kalra es have been used [5] “erin corelator ace bl unde the tames TERCOM, SITAN, and TER- PROM, They are usually used on unmanned aircraft (rise mises) and can facieve cco less thn 100 f (1.8) The feasibility of this navigation sit “Gepeds onthe existence of uigue terrain patches slong the Hight pa and “othe avalbity of cgi maps of train heights above Sa level. The US. Defense Mapping Agency proluces TERCOM taps fr lands and mi tuMe updates in theese pis 27. CouRSE ComPUTATION 27.1 ‘Range and Rearing Caleula ‘The purpose of the course compuation sto calculate rage and bearing fom tra t one or more desired waypoints, gets, asp, checkpoints, oF fadio beacons, The computation begins with the beststimate of the present postion of the aircraft and ends by dclivering computed range and bearing to ‘ter vehicle subsystems (Figure 21). Waypoias maybe oad bafore dep ture or inserted en rut. The navigation computer, sion compute, o igh ‘management computer peTorms the serng aesatons Range and bearag {o 4 destination canbe calculated by using ether the spherical or te plane tangle of Figure 28. If fa-Eath approximations are ‘tsfactory, the sy coordinates of the aera are compute sing the dea reckoning Equation 2-10; andy of he tages ae Toad fam a asset or fiom a Keyboard. Tea, range D and bering By to the are reasred fom twee north are Dalia? 400-9 Byte om aan “The crew will want a disp of relative bearing Be = Br dr) or rlaive tack (Ty ~Br~ Ty). By ste te Dearing ofthe target. Relive hearing Be Js the heizontal angle from the longitudinal axis ofthe areat othe wget ‘nu eltive track Tp i the rion angle rom he ground wacko he icra to the target gue 24). Wad tnd A ae Fess than fran, the plane angle slton exceeds the 4 THE NAvIGATION EQUATIONS spherical angle solution by range AD: 0. B in 0 sin Bsn Btn 20) sin Brin 285 RD ‘This er is 36 nat 8 range of D= 1000 nmi an azimuth By = 45 deg and latitude of & - 25 deg, I this st sulficenly accurate, a spheialriangle Solution my he ose cos P. « sin @ sin , +008 4 608 #008(h— A) Re cot oat azn TwiDIRS bard sia By = ind) Ae the Gaussian radius of curvature, Equation 24 At lng range, where the aslute and percent eros are lige, the) are usualy leas significant. Within 100 min of the sical the Earth can be assumed lat within an enor of 0.3 ‘Stering an rnge-earing computations canbe performed dizety fom the aviation sooainaes of from the direction cosines Cfo preven! singular jx near the oe ahd south ples. ‘Knowing the measured or compote ground sped, an aircraft canbe seed in suc a manner thatthe ground speed vectr—not the longitudinal axis of the aircrft—tcks toward the desired waypoln elatve tack isthe seeing ‘Smad ha fs led). The ditlerene butwees beading toward the target Sd racking foward the twgetf ignfeant onl for helleopters: the vehicle ‘veal asves there ia ee case by slighty different pats. “Two general Kind of tering 1 a destination are commonly se (1) steer Jing dry trom the present postion ro the destination and (2) steesing slong 4 preplanned twa cr rou Te former rests in atea navigation (Section 2.78) using the stones (hough sot secesarily the Tastes) rote to the de tiation, wheres the later is tepesentative of fying long assigned alrvays (Chapter 14) Esher steering metiod may be slved by the plane-tiangle or spferiea-rinple calalation. “The thumb line i sed y ships and simple arf. eis defined by fying ava constant te heading tothe local meridians, The resuing Might paths 8 Straight ine ona Meteatr char. Aireraf sometimes divide a complex route into ‘umistinesepmens 30 at each segment canbe flown at constant heading. ‘More often, the continually enanging esding toward the next waypoit is recomputed ad fat the atop Since the gret eile maps inf nat= ‘aight line op & Lamber conformal char, the erew can monitor the fight Path by manvalploting f desire. Inthe twenty-first century, electronic map Uispays wll show the moving ical on chars i 272 Direct Steering The seeing comput calc th gnd sped V; ls the dison wo the desiaon an Vs normal tte file deat Tae tad an ang made roportonal o Vs re i cats Se ing rte Ht den zo hen ing ng he deste pet ce Nr, i iaped = /V.)un and he comma nk sages Akitas 2 provides some ancpion when appronchng te ces diet of fg ‘Th commanded tank angle ied a masiman vane Ge 1 fee cert vd vont manne wn ita igh dese sa New the desi, he compton of aa sped V2, becomes ie fs tnd he deny sgl nul che eal. Ty fovea he ck snl aig is rnc nd Meld uni desta epee ‘ugg and ground spec) is pated. The ange at wich te sng at 8 fouen s etermined by silat, Tic ngaton etd isos {ied yoo eigaton tm eed fo mints i wiht eating rat of evel ade proper oe nett cto he ip The nm 1 te seat lt cmssng preset peston Rohe estan fit by hut racer ft PM Plo Re oh em (Figure 28) The lateral speed V2 isthe magnitude of the dot produto he ae. ‘rats velocity with this nit vector. Te ange to 0 fram Rt Ry given by Equation 2.20) or (2.22. Time oo is ealelaed Som the proposed elo sched ‘The fastest rote neither the great cise no he srway because of winds,

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