December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship

Vol. 12, No. 4 (2007) 467–478
© World Scientific Publishing Company

LEARNING ABOUT WOMEN. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT,

ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND THE ENVIRONMENT
IN INDIA: A CASE STUDY

NANCY BERTAUX
Department of Economics, Xavier University
3800 Victory Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45207-3212, USA
bertaux@xavier.edu

ELAINE CRABLE
Department of Management of Information Systems
Xavier University, 3800 Victory Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45207, USA

Received October 2006

Revised September 2007

On a recent semester-long stay in India, students from Xavier University (Cincinnati, Ohio) learned
about a variety of social and economic development issues, with an emphasis on the role and status
of women. This study describes and assesses the impact and effectiveness of their learning with a
particular focus on their exposure to Meerut Seva Samaj (MSS), one economic development initiative
concentrating on rural women.
The Indian economy has recently witnessed an increase in entrepreneurship among women.
Entrepreneurship often allows women to engage in home-based work so that they still can attend
to their domestic duties, while also helping to financially support the family. Banks, companies, and
NGOs (non-governmental organizations) are finding that offering micro-credit, or small loans, and other
types of entrepreneurial assistance can help women start businesses. Meerut Seva Samaj provides a
concrete example of how Indian women, especially in rural areas, can become successful entrepreneurs
with the help of technology, training and other resources. MSS also assists local communities in the
use of biogas, an environmentally friendly energy source that improves the environment and fertility
of land in rural areas. The study places this service learning case study from India in the context of the
literature on women, economic development, entrepreneurship and environmental issues.

Keywords: Women; economic development; case study; India; entrepreneurship.

1. Entrepreneurship and Development

Entrepreneurship is the foundation of a new model of development for developing countries.
It has been widely recognized that traditional strategies for aiding the third world poor have
produced mixed results, with the failure of many modernization programs linked to factors
such as tensions with indigenous cultural values, difficulty in maintaining capital intensive
initiatives and adverse effects of large-scale development projects on the natural environment

467
December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

468 N. Bertaux & E. Crable

(Sen, 1999; Goulet, 1989, 1990). In a newer, more grassroots approach, the focus is on
enabling the poor to improve their lives by obtaining the necessary training to successfully
launch their own small businesses (“micro-enterprises”), including the acquisition of small
business acumen and micro-entrepreneurial skills (Woodworth, 2000). Such skills are often
addressed in development projects through consulting and technical assistance by NGOs
who also frequently assist with the acquisition of the necessary capital through various
microfinance strategies. These small ventures can be easier to sustain because of their
strong links to local people, less capital-intensive scale and greater environmental sensitivity
(Hymowitz, 1995).

1.1. The role of gender in economic development

The role of gender in economic development processes has been increasingly recognized
as crucial, both in terms of the potential for success and in the nature of the impact of
particular development strategies and programs (Beneria, 2003; Kabeer, 1996). Gender
becomes especially important to consider when the grassroots, micro-enterprise approach
is considered, as the traditional home-centered roles of women can make it far easier for
women to participate in such programs, as opposed to the more traditional, large-scale, top-
down programs. (Mahmud, 2003; Esim and Sims, 2000). Due to the prescribed social roles
for women that center on their position in the home, small-scale enterprises that incorporate
the home can empower women. Gender-based theories of the economy have long recognized
that social advancement and independence for women is strongly related to women’s ability
to both earn and control income (Gilman, 1998). We can thus expect economic empowerment
to be linked to social empowerment. Studies have also shown that initiatives that enhance
women’s access to and control of income enhance the welfare of their children, especially
in the areas of education and health, more than when men earn and/or control income (Sen,
1999). Not only is this important for children’s welfare, but since improving the health and
education of children is crucial for the long term economic development of the society, it is
also important for the whole society’s prospects for advancement.
In India, many have argued that the economic reforms enacted in recent years have stim-
ulated the country’s entrepreneurs, providing a receptive environment for micro-enterprise
initiatives (Sharma, 2003). Critics of India’s trade liberalization measures have been particu-
larly concerned with the adverse effects of large-scale foreign investment on local products,
producers and environments (Shiva, 2005). Therefore, economic development programs that
seek to strengthen local, small-scale entrepreneurs would appear to be a strategy of great
interest to many observers. While India is comprised of widely diverse cultures, religions
and languages, it is reasonable to generalize that the position of poor women in India has
been one of low status. Therefore, development programs that seek to empower women in
India at the local level need to address a number of barriers and obstacles.

1.1.1. Obstacles for Women in India

There are myriads of barriers facing entrepreneurs in India, including traditional cultural
values that may favor acceptance of one’s destiny and status as opposed to trying to improve
December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

Learning about Women. Economic Development, Entrepreneurship and the Environmnent in India 469

one’s material situation; social structures centering around the caste system; the history of
British occupation, which has been critiqued as having forced out local businesses in favor of
British business interests; and government practices since independence, which have tended
toward state dominance of business, although this has been changing somewhat in recent
years (Dana, 2000; Sharma, 2003). Women entrepreneurs in India face all these barriers as
well as additional obstacles directly and indirectly related to their gender.
Women’s traditional roles in India have strongly constrained their activities at home,
in the workplace and in the economy. They have also been disadvantaged in their access
to resources, including food, transportation, education and literacy, technology, and finan-
cial resources in general, including financing for entrepreneurial activities (Beneria, 2003;
Kabeer, 1996; Hymowitz, 1995).
It is increasingly evident that women’s status in social, legal, educational, and busi-
ness/economic spheres are interconnected issues; that is, social, legal, or educational restric-
tions on females may be both a cause and an effect of economic restrictions. This can mean
that reforms in the area of women and business can lead to improvements in women’s social
status, including access to resources, which in turn can lead to further improvements in
women’s economic position.

2. Efforts to Increase Entrepreneurship in India

2.1. The role of Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
A variety of institutions have addressed the need to increase entrepreneurship in India.
For many years, the lack of success of many multinational companies in countries such as
India has been related to MNCs’ insensitivity to host countries, including a failure to adapt
products to local needs, lack of recognition of negative effects of their products on local
social and economic conditions, and notably, a failure to find ways for local businesses to
participate (Dawson, 1985). Some MNCs today follow a variety of practices to address these
concerns, including adapting product and marketing strategies to local situations, hiring
local employees whenever possible and using local enterprises as suppliers and distributors.
However, the latter of these practices has often been limited in application. To the extent
that India’s economy since independence has been closed, there has been less involvement
of MNCs than could have been the case. Some observers welcome the recent increase in
the openness of the Indian economy and would like to see it become more so, while others
are more critical of the role MNCs are playing in India. With respect to gender, there has
been little attention paid by MNCs to the empowerment of women entrepreneurs, but MNC
critics have noted that many of the small-scale enterprises disrupted by MNC activities
either often employ women or are run by women (Sharma, 2003; Shiva, 2005, 1999).

2.2. Role of government

The Indian government has been involved in efforts to increase local entrepreneurship since
the 1950s including a government program of reservations and a subsidy system for univer-
sity graduates. These efforts have been criticized as both ineffective and more concerned
December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

470 N. Bertaux & E. Crable

with patronage networks and bribery than with a strong small business sector. The gov-
ernment has also been criticized for the many regulatory bottlenecks and for its failure to
make sufficient progress on infrastructure improvements (Sharma, 2003). More recently,
the Ministry of Industry established the National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small
Business Development, which has focused on entrepreneurship development through train-
ing programs, and has produced educational manuals and videos. It is not clear if most or
even many of the Indian government’s effort in the area of entrepreneurship have adequately
addressed the particular needs of women (Dana, 2000).

2.3. Microcredit programs and economic development

Microcredit programs in the economic development context refer to the extension of banking
financial services to the poor, who otherwise would be unlikely to have access to services
such as small loans and taking deposits (Economist, 2004). When traditional banks are
involved, microcredit is typically provided in a conventional manner, with the poor becoming
customers of the bank. When governments have subsidized credit programs with the goal
of reaching the poor, there is evidence that such programs have been subverted, with the
wealthy in the society reaping the benefits from the subsidies (Dutt, 1991). There are also
some examples of foreign companies using microcredit programs for local entrepreneurs
to gain access to rural markets by extending credit to small distributors of their products,
which are sometimes either sold in smaller units or in simpler forms in order to increase
their usefulness to poor, rural customers (Prystay, 2005; Kripalani and Engardio, 2002).
When NGOs (non-governmental organizations) are involved, the poor may participate in
a revolving loan fund, where the NGO may put up the initial seed money for the loan
fund, and the clients repay loans that are then re-loaned to other small entrepreneurs so
that the community is essentially acting as its own bank. This has been referred to as
“village banking” (Woodworth, 2000). Recently, the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded
to Bangladeshi economist and banker Muhammad Yunus for his work with micro-credit in
Bangladesh and he brought nine women borrowers with him to Norway to accept the prize
(Yunus, 2006).

2.4. Role of NGOs

Perhaps the most effective type of organization in the efforts to foster entrepreneurship
in India in general, and among women especially, has been the NGO (non-governmental
organization). A number of NGOs have initiated programs related to entrepreneurship,
including microcredit or microfinance programs for small-scale entrepreneurs; training and
technology transfer projects; and direct assistance with small business start-ups. With due
respect to women, NGOs sometimes offer programs targeted specifically at women, since
women may have limited or no access to more generalized development programs.
NGOs operating in developing countries such as India, whether based in India or abroad,
often focus on small entrepreneurs and/or the special development needs of women by pro-
viding training, workshops, technical assistance, job opportunities and help with start-up
of small businesses. Often, NGOs receive funding or other assistance from government,
December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

Learning about Women. Economic Development, Entrepreneurship and the Environmnent in India 471

charitable or corporate organizations. In India, these efforts have ranged from the Indian
government’s National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development (pre-
viously mentioned) to the non-profit, locally-based Self-Employed Women’s Association
(SEWA) and Hindustan Lever, Ltd.’s corporate-based program to encourage distribution of
its products through local entrepreneurs (Serril, 2005; Prystay, 2005).

3. Ecology and Economic Development

A number of organizations active in India have recently begun to address the problem
of negative ecological effects from large-scale economic development projects through a
variety of programs, including adaptation of traditional, sustainable agricultural resources,
knowledge and methods in lieu of adopting Western agri-business practices (Shiva, 1999).
Biogas production has also been linked to economic development in ways that empowers
local entrepreneurs while protecting the environment. Biogas technology has significant
benefits in alleviating wood-based fuel shortages and can lower costs for the small farmer
and entrepreneur (Laichena and Wafula, 1997; Srimalee, 2003).

4. Case Study: Meerut Seva Samaj

A large number of small villages located north of Delhi in Uttar Pradesh are finding ways
to empower the women in their villages. A non-government organization (NGO) by the
name of Meerut Seva Samaj (MSS) has been supporting the village people in this area since
1977. Their mission is to help the poor and marginalize the move out of illiteracy, ignorance
and poverty. Over the years they have developed programs to help educate people in the
area in order to develop a consciousness that would lead to self-reliance, social justice and
cooperation. Their goal is develop a pride in the self and in the village.
MSS attempts to support 17.5 million people in 8,571 villages in this 10-district area
of Uttar Pradesh. Dal and roti (cereals and hand-bread) are the staple diet of the average
poor person in Uttar Pradesh. People in this area communicate in Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi and
English. Religious cultures of Hinduism, Jainism, Islam and Christianity form the soul of
this area.

4.1. History of Meerut Seva Samaj

During the years of 1977 to 1986, MSS worked to establish a level of trust in the villages.
They worked with everyone in the villages and specifically targeted education of the vil-
lagers, including developing local village schools and establishing adult literacy programs.
MSS also created an animation program where local villagers were trained in small business
techniques and assigned to villages to stimulate interest in self-reliance programs. One of
the outcomes of the animation program was the involvement of Meerut Seva Samaj in the
development of biogas plants for energy production, an example of how small-scale eco-
nomic and entrepreneurial development can enhance the natural environment. In 1989, MSS,
with the technical collaboration of the organization Action for Food Production (AFPRO),
trained 16 masons for the construction of biogas plants in these small, poor villages. Since
December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

472 N. Bertaux & E. Crable

this beginning effort, MSS and AFPRO have trained 100 village masons in this technology.
These masons travel to the small villages in the area building biogas plants making this
program one of the most successful programs in the area.
Approximately 2,600 biogas plants were constructed through the facilitation of MSS by
the end of 2005. The methane gas produced in the biogas plants is used by the villagers for
cooking, lighting, and heat in the winter months. The remaining cow dung slurry is used
for fertilizing the fields, which saves the environment from the overuse of chemicals. The
higher the reliance on biogas, the more the area frees itself of pollution and encourages
the preservation of the surrounding forests while at the same time fostering locally-based
entrepreneurial activity and economic development.
In 1985, MSS specifically targeted women with a program called “Mahila Mandals-
Village Women Organization.” MSS provided animators in order for the villages to focus
on ways to involve women in projects that would lead to a feeling of empowerment. These
volunteers brought the village women together to inform them of the opportunities avail-
able to them. MSS thus focused on encouraging locals to teach and motivate others with the
goal of empowering villagers, especially women. MSS called for applications from those
initially interested in the program and tested the applicants on reading and basic math skills
along with interpersonal skills. Initially, 164 individuals were accepted into the animator
program and were paid a stipend of 2,000 Indian rupees (US$45) a month. Of these individ-
uals, 14 were paid slightly more and served as coordinators for the other animators in the
villages.
Through donations from a charitable group in Germany, MSS was able to give schol-
arships to some local women for education opportunities such as nursing and vocational
training (such as secretarial training) using the Turner and Fitter training method. MSS
also set up a legal aid camp in order to explain day-to-day legal matters such as how to
read a simple business contract to help villagers who wanted to start a small business or do
some construction on their home. This group also helped the villagers settle petty matters
amicably in order to avoid going to court, which could be costly to poor villagers as well
as negatively affect the desired sense of community within the village.
During the period of 1990–96, the Mahila Mandals continued to focus on empowering
the women of the villages. Since the animators had been visiting the villages for five to seven
years by this time, a significant level of trust had been established. The women had started
coming out of their homes and establishing personal relationships with other women in the
village. MSS then introduced the next step, participation in self-help groups (SHG). Five
animators were trained in the SHG approach and their job was to train 20 new animators
per year who would each return to the village and start small self-help women’s groups.
Each self-help group discussed the importance of understanding laws such as the illegal
dowry law, since dowries cause much pain and suffering for village women. The women
learned that families who demanded land, jewelry or money from the wife and the wife’s
family were breaking the law, not enforcing the law. The women actually banded together
in villages, empowered by the self-help groups, and they would frequently go after any man
who demanded a dowry of a woman. The animators also were quite helpful in assisting
widows and the handicapped in learning about pensions due them (Rs150–200 per month).
December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

Learning about Women. Economic Development, Entrepreneurship and the Environmnent in India 473

The animators continued to support the women in the villages by helping them realize
the benefits of having small businesses of their own. The groups decided on 10 to 12
possible trades that would fit their particular talents and helped the group start a savings
plan for the future business. One to two years later, the groups would have enough to start
a small operation, and MSS would help them find a bank loan of approximately Rs50,000
(US$1,111) by the third year. During this three-year period, the women were motivated
to participate in the literacy programs and to meet regularly with the animator to learn
what to expect from owning a small business. This three-year period also encouraged the
men to “free” the women from the house. Previously, women rarely left their home, and
if they did, they did not socialize. The women dressed in full burqa attire and were not
easily recognized. Once the women started their own small businesses and were able to
contribute to the financial support of the household, the men often began to view their wives
in a different, more positive light. Some of the observed changes included women who
reported they now had a say in how the house would be run, men began to actually discuss
business operations with women, and women in many villages chose to discontinue wearing
the veil.

4.2. Current entrepreneurship projects supported by MSS

One example of a business in a Meerut village involved approximately 200 women with
a jewelry-making business. After the women joined the cooperative and each had saved
enough money to join this small business, her whole family became involved. This Meerut
village was involved in making beaded jewelry such as belts, bracelets, necklaces and hair
decorations. The animator initially had the village make samples of the jewelry and one
woman representative of the co-op and the MSS animator visited small shops in Delhi
in order to sell their products through sample examination. Once back from visiting the
shops, the co-op representative distributed the orders to the families of the co-op. Within
only two years, the women who chose to be involved were making an extra Rs1,000–2,000
(US$22–44) per month.
The village cooperatives hold mandatory meetings each month to enhance the sustain-
ability of the co-op. Success is breeding more success in the villages as the message spreads
to neighboring villages and the MSS animator program continues to grow. Since this pro-
gram has assisted in moving villagers’ income above the Below Poverty Line (BPL), the
Indian government has shown a willingness to contribute some financial support. The BPL
guideline in India applies to people who have incomes of less than Rs1,000 (US$22) per
month, live in a mud house with no electricity, telephone, a motor vehicle or appliance, and
own less than one acre of land. As women in this co-op program help to bring the family
above the poverty line, they gain self-respect as well as the respect of men, and villages are
beginning to see the girl-child as having positive economic potential.
Other examples of businesses in the villages in Meerut are textile weaving, textile deco-
rating, jewelry bangle decorating, handicrafts such as wedding chunis (a high demand item)
and bee farming. Bee farming demands more savings from the villagers and loans of up
to 2 Laks (US$4,500) since there is extensive equipment that needs to be bought and land
December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

474 N. Bertaux & E. Crable

needs to be owned or leased. One bee box costs Rs1,500 (US$33) for materials (box, sugar,
wood frames). One box can provide 60 kg honey and usually lasts for five years of operation.
In Meerut, the Bee Society collects the honey and honey comb from the villagers’ honey
boxes and then sells it for the villager, thus providing marketing and distribution assistance
as in the case of jewelry making discussed previously. In all these businesses, MSS tries to
take advantage of local resources, skills, and knowledge, and to enhance these selectively
in a way that empowers villagers.

5. Case Study: Student Learning about Women, Economic Development,

Entrepreneurship, and the Environment in India
A visit to Meerut Seva Samaj was part of the Xavier University’s Academic Service Learn-
ing (ASL) program during the 2005 fall semester, in which seven students and a faculty
facilitator participated. The students ranged from sophomores to seniors and their majors
encompassed social work, business, pre-medical, pre-law and undecided. The students pre-
pared for the trip by attending a preparatory course that met once a week during the semester
prior to the trip. Studies in Indian culture, speakers on India and study of economic devel-
opment and women’s issues were part of the preparatory course. While students showed a
good academic understanding of the preparatory curriculum, from the time they arrived in
India, it was clear that when they began to live what they had learned, their understanding
deepened. The semester-long ASL program involved living among Indian families while
attending the following classes: History of India, Culture and Religion of India, Hindi Lan-
guage, and Service Learning. The service learning component involved students working at
service sites, as well as participating in a formal reflection process on their service learning
experiences. The students kept a journal of their observations concerning events and their
own experiences and emotions. The journals evolved over time and the students moved from
being outside observers to feeling participants. By immersing themselves in the life and cul-
ture of India, the students and the faculty member were able to move from a sympathetic
position to a more empathetic understanding of the challenges of economic development
and of life in India, with special emphasis on the challenges facing Indian women.

5.1. Student reactions to the program

Students’ reactions to the ASL program, including their experience with MSS, were assessed
in a variety of ways, including written evaluations, reflection during group meetings, and
tracking of student activities subsequent to the trip. Upon returning to the university, virtually
all the students became involved in social issues in the United States. Upon graduation,
three students joined social service agencies that helped women and their struggles. The
one undecided major chose Social Work and began focusing on women’s issues as well.
After graduation, this student spent the next semester as an assistant for the India Service
Learning program while deciding how to put her degree to use. All students indicated that
the experience made a lasting impression especially concerning the struggles of the poor,
the “socially invisible” and women in developing countries.
December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

Learning about Women. Economic Development, Entrepreneurship and the Environmnent in India 475

The students generally felt that three months only allowed them to scratch the surface
of the culture and get involved with the community itself. Many who had planned on
traveling and dedicating time to helping world agencies reevaluated these thoughts about
how long it would take to be effective in these agencies, now that they recognized the
challenges of working in different cultures. Several decided to focus on women’s issues in
the United States.
Observations about the plurality and tolerance of religion in India were common among
the students. Even though Muslims and Hindus have a history of controversy, when the
students talked to many members of other religions, they found much mutual acceptance
among the Hindus, Sikhs, Christians as well as other sects. The students noted that the
women of these religious groups suffering from oppression over the centuries had a high
level of understanding and acceptance of difference, which appeared to be grounded in their
awareness of commonalities among women.
The students were asked at the end of the semester how this experience was connected to
the overall learning objectives of Xavier University. They expressed that the ASL program
in India helped them to “reason critically and think creatively” since they were constant
skeptics and asked challenging questions while looking for the deeper reasoning behind
social problems. They did not just accept the simple and most widely accepted reasons for
poverty and submission of women. They learned to “appreciate communication and the value
of communicating effectively.” As the students became more adept at Hindi, they found a
better understanding of the culture and people and in turn, truly understood the importance
of language in intercultural activities. The students at the service sites found that the more
they communicated with people across different social strata, the more they were able to
understand the challenges of the people, especially the women. Being able to communicate
with the Meerut Seva Samaj women helped the students appreciate the challenges that they
had overcome and the excitement they felt now that they could offer financial support to
the family. Students felt strongly that the ASL semester helped strengthen and solidify the
need to constantly “pursue wisdom and truth.” They left India motivated to pursue wisdom
and truth since they were able to put names and faces with people exposed to abandonment,
disease, exploitation, hunger, poverty and oppression. They left with a feeling that their
career choice should involve “moral responsibility and living lives of solidarity.” Gandhi’s
words, “being the change you wish to see in the world”, deeply impressed them and became
more imbedded in the fabric of their lives and studies.
The students all agreed that a semester immersed in the Indian poverty made a lasting
impression on them. They realized and understood the term “faith and good works” to
be something they could live. They recognized that social justice was something to live
out in one’s daily life, but they also acknowledged this was difficult to accomplish. Some
small victories they had experienced in their service sites had helped motivate them to
keep focused on social justice. The memory of having saved one child or one abandoned
women from even just one unfortunate day was reward enough to continue to try making
a difference in the future. Seeing the suffering of the poor and the struggles of women
in India helped students to find direction and meaning in their career choices and future
plans.
December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

476 N. Bertaux & E. Crable

5.2. Program impact on faculty

The ASL experience also had a lasting effect on faculty interaction with students in and out
of the classroom. Xavier University’s mission statement encourages our students to “be men
and women for others” and to be sensitive to the needs of people in our world. Being able
to discuss first-hand experiences concerning India’s globalization issues brings authenticity
to classroom teaching. Instead of just discussing what a text reports about globalization and
the developing world, faculty are able to provide real world experiences so that students are
more motivated to try to make a difference.
Faculty research interests with respect to women’s issues grew from working with the
different sites and especially after visiting the successful entrepreneurial women’s programs
sponsored by Meerut Seva Samaj. Seeing the excitement as the women came out from under
their longstanding oppression helped faculty develop a new appreciation for the importance
of keeping attention focused on women and their changing role in the global economy. With
careful planning and attention, which should include research, it is possible for women
around the world to experience both economic and social benefits from globalization.

6. Conclusion: What Makes a Development Project Successful?

It is important to analyze why the entrepreneurial and economic development programs
described in this case study have been successful. Obviously, the small sample size involved
in a single case study analysis implies limitations on the ability to generalize from its
conclusions, and clearly indicates the need for additional studies. Based on our analysis of
this single case study, there are four elements that were crucial in the success of Meerut
Seva Samaj.
The first is that the empowerment of women is explicitly addressed in this project.
Project organizers are cognizant of the barriers facing rural Indian women, which has led
them to incorporate a prerequisite stage to these economic development projects, whereby
women are organized and consciously empowered to at least take beginning steps to greater
agency and independence. The involvement of women and engagement on gender issues is
proving to be crucial to the success of broad-based economic development, and this project
addresses these issues head-on and with effectiveness.
The second element present in this case study is the high level of host country national
involvement, including the extensive influence and control of Indians in the design and
implementation of these programs, which marks these programs as true Indian priorities,
and not merely programs representing the ideas of outside agents as to how India should
undertake economic development.
The long-term nature of the commitment in this project is the third element of note in this
case study. The length of time Meerut Seva Samaj has been active in this area speaks for itself
as to its commitment to development in the area. This kind of long-term engagement builds
trust among local people and allows time to build sustainable foundations of development.
These foundations include building networks of communication and action, as well as
physical and human capital enhancements. Human capital is of particular importance, since
over time, building up the area’s human capital begins to generate returns that make the
December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

Learning about Women. Economic Development, Entrepreneurship and the Environmnent in India 477

programs blossom, for example by having those trained in an initial period to be trainers
themselves in the next period.
The fourth element present in this case study is the village-level focus of these develop-
ment programs. The emphasis on the village level ensures local relevance to the project, thus
increasing program effectiveness, as well as enhancing levels of commitment and trust that
are so important to the success of economic development efforts. Grass-roots projects have
a superior potential for lasting development because they are tailored to local conditions,
needs and priorities. “Home-grown” projects increase the level of economic democracy,
since there is greater opportunity for a broad-based group of those who know the situation
best to have a real impact on the shape of economic development in the area.
These four elements — the empowerment of women, the involvement of host country
national government, long-term commitment, and a village-level focus — could be consid-
ered individually and in combination with one another in future case studies of economic
development, both in India and elsewhere. These elements should be further studied in order
to advance our understanding of the processes of grass-roots development and to determine
if they are consistent indicators of successful entrepreneurial and economic development
projects.

References
Beneria, L (2003). Gender, Development and Globalization: Economics as if All People Mattered.
New York: Routledge.
Campus Compact Project (2003). Introduction to service-learning toolkit: Readings and resources
for faculty, 2nd ed. Providence, RI: Campus Compact.
Dana, LP (2000). Creating entrepreneurs in India. Journal of Small Business Management, 38(1),
86–91.
Dawson, LM (1985). Marketing to less developed countries. Journal of Small Business Management,
23(1), 13–19.
Dowry in India (n.d.). [www.indianchild.com/dowry_in_india.htm].
Dugger, CW (1999). India’s high-tech, and sheepish capitalism (17 May 1999). New York Times, A1.
Dutt, E (1991). Credit for women and the poor (5 Apr 1991). India Abroad (New York edition), 18.
Esim, S and M Sims (2000). Home-based work in Turkey: Issues and strategies for organizing. The
International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 20(9, 10), 95–104.
Gilman, CP (1998). Women and Economics (reprint). New York: Dover Press.
Goldstein, J (2004). Making a reality of biogas potential. Business, 26(6), 15.
Goulet, D (1989). The Uncertain Promise: Value Conflicts in Technology Transfer. New York:
New Horizons Press.
Goulet, D (1990). Development ethics and ecological wisdom. In Ethics of Environment and Devel-
opment, JR Engel and JG Engel (eds.). London: Belhaven Press.
Hisrich, RD and SA Ozturk (1999). Women entrepreneurs in a developing economy. The Journal of
Management Development, 18(2), 114.
Hymowitz, C (1995). World’s poorest women advance by entrepreneurship (3 Feb 1995). Wall Street
Journal (Eastern edition), B1.
Kabeer, N (1996). Reversed realities: Gender hierarchies in development thought. New Delhi:
Kali for Women.
Kripalani, M and P Engardio (2002). Small is profitable: What will work in the developing world is a
focus on inexpensive, downsized, simple-to-use products (26 Aug 2002). Business Week, 112.
December 20, 2007 10:29 WSPC WS-JDE SPI-J076 00075

478 N. Bertaux & E. Crable

Laichena, JK and JC Wafula (1997). Biogas technology for rural households in Kenya. OPEC Review:
Energy Economics & Related Issues, 21(3), 223–244.
Mahmud, S (2003). Women and the transformation of domestic spaces for income generation in Dhaka
bustees. Cities, 20(5), 321–329.
Meerut Seva Samaj (2002). Meerut Seva Samaj Silver Jubilee [Brochure]. Meerut, India: Meerut Seva
Samaj.
Prystay, C (2005). With loans, poor South Asian women turn entrepreneurial (3 Mar 2005). Wall Street
Journal (Eastern edition), B1.
Sen, A (1999). Development as Freedom. New York: Anchor Books.
Serril, M (2005). An angel for Delhi’s street vendors (22 Mar 2005). Business Week Online, 2.
Sharma, SD (2003). India’s economic liberalization: A progress report. Current History, 10(2), 176.
Shiva, V (2005). Earth Democracy: Justice, Sustainability, and Peace. Cambridge, MA: South End
Press.
Shiva, V (1999). Stolen Harvest: The Hijacking of the Global Food Supply. Cambridge, MA: South
End Press.
Small Sums, Big issue (20 Nov 2004). Economist, 78-79.
Srimalee, S (2003). Biogas initiative promises big savings (23 June 2003). The Nation, Thailand, 3.
Warner, M (2000). The Indians of Silicon valley. Fortune, 56.
Woodworth, WP (2000). Third world economic empowerment in the new millenium: Microenterprise,
microentrepreneurship, and microfinance. S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal, 6(4), 19.
Yunus, M (2006). Nobel Lecture. [nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2006/yunus-lecture-
en.html].