The Biyak na Bato Republic

Emilio Aguinaldo – schoolteacher, respected, rich, elite

Military Reverses in 1897

 Unity as indispensable
 Dec. 31, 1896 – assembly called in Imus to determine whether the Katipunan should
be superseded by another form of government
o Magdalo (Aguinaldo in Cavite) – formalized government
o Magdiwang (Bonifacio) – remain as it is; had Consti and by-laws
 Legal authority of a government is in its Consti and by-laws
 Bonifacio suffering losses in the field but popular with the masses
 Richer Katipuneros betraying Bonifacio

Tejeros Convention – March 22, 1897

 Failed to unify the movement
 Tirona protested; Secretary of Interior should have requisite knowledge of legality
 Acta de Tejeros of the Magdiwang faction declared the elections null and void
o Bonifacio declared himself as leader
 Naik military agreement – government separate from and independent from that
established at Tejeros
o High treason in Aguinaldo’s eyes
o Bonifacio should have left Cavite
o Aguinaldo’s group acted immediately
o Split in the revolution
 May 10, 1897 – execution of the Bonifacio brothers

Constitution signed on Nov. 1, 1897

Features of the Constitution:
1. Copied almost word for word from the Cuban Jimaguayu
2. Supreme Council: president, VP, Sec of War, Sec of Treasury
3. Article VIII – Tagalog as official language
4. Religious liberty, freedom of education, freedom of the press, freedom to exercise
any profession

Truce of Biyak na Bato and the Betrayal of the Revolution

Nov. 18 – Dec. 14 – Dec. 15

Pedro Paterno
 Dual loyalty
 Unpopular rich guy
 Lived in Spain, hispanista
 Wanted to “stop the bloody conflict”
 Negotiated between Aguinaldo and Primo de Rivera
 Offered self as negotiator
Aguinaldo was “forced” to betray the revolution
Conditions of the Truce:
1. Voluntary exile of Aguinaldo and company
a. Leave via Pangasinan to HK
b. Volunteer-basis exile
c. Hong Kong good for strategic communication
2. 800,000 pesos in three installments
a. 400,000 pesos upon departure
b. 200,000 upon surrender of 700 arms
c. 200,000 upon arrival at HK
d. LAST TWO INSTALLMENTS NOT GIVEN
3. Additional 900,000 as war reparation, not given
a. Church bells signalled the end of hostilities

Failure of the Truce – all parties guilty

1. Periodic clashes bet. Fil and Span.; not everyone laid down their arms, felt betrayed
2. Mutual suspicion
3. Entire amount was never paid – arms did not reach 700, no money reached HK

“A Splendid Little War”

Spanish-American War of 1898

America grew from buying land and waging war

 Set sights on China
 Acquired Puerto Rico, Cuba, Hawaii
 Never fought overseas, testing the navy
 Supplied arms to Cuba
 Hawaii as naval base

Foothold in Asia – watching Spain weaken

Defense Secretary suggested involvement against Spain

April 15, 1898 to Aug 12, 1898

 100 day war
 Minimal casualties on American side
 Gained Cuba, Puerto Rico and the PH
 Guam administered through PH
 Moral obligation
 War of public opinion

American Designs on the Philippines

 Cuban revolution drew Americans to the rebels
 American economic interests in Cuba
 As early as 1896, wanting to go to war with Spain
 Planned coming of the Americans – deceit, no written records of correspondence
with Aguinaldo
Roosevelt Sr. Secretary of Navy
Dewey commanded Asiatic Squadron
In HK With his fleet
War would not have happened without journalists; Spain had palabra de honor

Remembering the Maine – Feb. 18, 1898

 Excuse for war, interventionism
 Parked in Havana harbor
 Height of Cuban insurrection
 Exploded
 Put the blame on Spain

Battle of Manila
 Aguinaldo not in Manila
 More Spanish ships than American, but all sunk
 Sangley Point, Cavite – where ships were
 Made America a superpower

The War Lovers: William Randolf Hearst and Yellow Journalism

 Hearst owned newspapers and magazines, was a lobbyist
 Great conspiracy
 Disrobing the propaganda did not get support
 Expansionism was the norm, PH was in the oil route, thus ripe for picking

Benevolent Assimilation – American policy in the PH, “better than Spain”

Manila Capitulates – Aug. 14, 1898

Aguinaldo returns to Cavite – May 17,1898
Mock battle of Manila – Aug. 13-14,1898
Protocol of Peace signed – Aug. 16, 1898
Treaty of Paris – Dec. 10, 1898

Spanish-American Secret Agreement

 Filipinos cannot take part
 Spaniards only surrender to Americans
 Filipinos in the back lines
 Spanish and Americans will trade a few shots

Washington Peace Protocol – Aug. 12, 1898 unconditional surrender

The Malolos Republic

Declaration of Independence – June 12, 1898

Aguinaldo returns to Manila

Dictatorial Government – put the house in order

  May 24, 1898
 Advised by the Americans upon leaving HK
 All power from Aguinaldo – rule by decree
 Advised by Mabini to change it to a republican form
 Nullifies Biyak-na-Bato republic

Declaration of Independence – June 12, 1898

 Apolinario Mabini – lawyer, trusted advisor, against independence mov e
o Reorganize government, convince foreign power of stability and competence
 Key positions: War, Finance, Foreign Affairs
 Write a Constitution
 Aguinaldo was not allowed to go to Manila

Brains of the Revolution

 Mabini was well-loved by the people
 Never took the oath of allegiance – only did so when he was dying so that he could
die in the country

Dictatorial to Revolutionary Government – June 23, 1898

 Creation of a Congress at Malolos
o Congress – delegates from each province forming an advisory body to the
President, even non-pacified provinces were represented
o Convened on Sept. 15, 1898, ratified declaration of independence
 Creation of a Cabinet
 Malolos Constitution
o Paterno and Calderon copied the 1869 Spanish constitution
o No state religion, separation of Church and State
o Not anti-church but anticlerical
o Spanish consti, American-style democracy
o Mabini saw the republic as one with a strong executive, Congress was not to
frame the constitution but to support the President
o Congress did not see itself as an advisory body
o Rift between Mabini and Paterno
 Events in Malolos also celebrated elsewhere
 Official gazette features the Constitution

Otis – American general in Manila, saw Aguinaldo as provocative

Filipino-American Hostilities
The Philippine-American War
Feb. 5, 1899 to April 16, 1902

War ended with Aguinaldo’s capture

Casualties:
20,000 Filipino soldiers, >200,000 civilians
4,390 American soldiers
Treaty of Paris – Dec. 10, 1898 ratification
 Peace agreement preparations
 Sealed the fate of the PH
 Felipe Agoncillo and Felix Roxas snubbed
 3 page decision

African-Americans sided with Aguinaldo. Low level soldiers thought they were helping a
country achieve independence.

Gen. Meritt – naval and commercial value of the PH

Agoncillo gave statements to the press to hype the war

Maj. Gen. Elwell Otis- US Expeditionary Forces

Escalation: Feb. 5-6,1899

First battles in the suburbs, trenches outside Malate

Propaganda: war would end quickly, intended to capture Aguinaldo

1906: Malvar surrendered but prisoners were not treated well

Assassination of Luna – June 5, 1899

 Brilliant general, went to a military academy
 Both Luna brothers had bad tempers
 Crumbling resistance upon his death
 Luna distrusted the elite
 Killed in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija
o Called by Aguinaldo for a meeting, wasn’t there
o Had a regiment disarmed for disobedience
o He was killed in the convent
o Aguinaldo blamed because he ordered no investigation

Mabini is captured – Dec. 10, 1899

Aguinaldo’s #2 guy, DFA founder
 Bounty on Mabini and Aguinaldo, both given better treatment than most prisoners
 Refused to swear allegiance
 Exiled to Guam
 Best legal mind of his time
 Died in May 1903

Balangiga, Samar
 Wilderness
 Men and boys above the age of 12 captured and executed because they could hold
bolos
 Americans killed at Balangiga, massacre as revenge
 o General who ordered the attack was court-martialled
o Soldiers took the town bells

Capture of Aguinaldo – March 23, 1901

 Funston bought the services of Pampanga mercenaries, the Macabebe, indians from
Mexico
 Aguinaldo and family taken to Malacañang
 April 1 – took the oath of allegiance, given VIP Treatment and became the face of the
country
 Gen. Arthur MacArthur – general of the Fil-Am war
 Not all hostilities ceased – Sakay, Malvar, etc.

Compromise with Colonialism

William Howard Taft – governor-general of the Philippines

Involvement during Military Phase, 1899-1913

 Schurmann Commission, First Philippine Commission 1899
o Dr. Jacob Schurmann – civilian and military
o Nonmilitary approach – cooperate with the elite
o Response of the elites – enthusiastic
 Maintain their status quo, patron-client relationships, inquilino /
cacique
o Institutions have to be weeded out because of corruption / patronage but
preferred U.S. civilian rule over military

Filipino Involvement
 Landowning class vs. peasants and workers
 Municipal governments in Luzon and Visayas
 Except in the Muslim South
o Moro, neutral and acceptable term in the PH
o Military government
 Why the elite? Natural fear of losing interests, basic orientation of the elite

Cultural communities
 Role of the American teachers and missionaries (Episcopalians)
 American benevolent policy through schools, missions and med work
 Mindanao
o Dealt with local datus and leaders
o Islam unified the communities and leadership
o Treaty Traps
 Two languages: Tausug/Arabic and English
 Muslim leadership divided regarding acceptance of American
presence in 1899
 Sulu sultanate accepted their presence but not their sovereignty
  Treaty signed between Gen. John C. Bates and Sultan of Sulu, Jamal-ul
Kiram. Aug. 20,1899

Manong Generation
 Not allowed to go to the US, stayed in Hawaii
 Asian-Americans not yet existing

Hawaiian – native is a minority

Big Strike
 Led by Filipinos, put industries at a standstill
 Oahu Sugar Strike 1920 for benefits
 Communist scare

Filipino in California – San Fran and LA

 Picking vegetables, strawberries
 In the mainland, better life
 Allowed to organize
 Suffered from racial discrimination
 Favored due to hard work, English proficiency, didn’t complain

Blue collar jobs

 African-Americans and other ethnic groups
 Filipinos taking the jobs of whites
 Recession causes xenophobia
 Filipinos told to leave
 Blatant racism against Filipinos

Pensionado Act of the Philippines 1903

 Attract Filipinos, pension --> scholarship, promising, bright not necessarily wealthy
 Ivy league / state universities esp. Columbia and Yale
 Usually public administration / engineering / education
 Educated by colonial administration – first class seats
 1903 – St. Louis Exposition, showcase the PH
 Few female pensionados, women can’t vote

Philippine Exposition 1904

 Spent $ 1.5 million, taking 1300 tribesmen
 Igorots gained the most attention

Moving towards Autonomy

Colonial Politics 1919-1934

Two Phases
1. 1898-1935
 Tutelage and eventual independence to the country
 Bicameral legislature, Philippine Assembly and US appointed Philippine
Commission
 Interest in Filipinizing the government
o Republicans – conservative – hard time dealing with DC for Filipinos
o Democrats – liberal – talks with Washington DC for Filipinos
2. 1935-1941
 The Commonwealth
 Japanese occupation in WWII

Increase in Filipino Participation

 Political change in the United States
o New democratic government 1912
 Election of Woodrow Wilson for President
 First Democratic Governor-General Francis B. Harrison – most loved by the Filipinos
o Active Filipinization, participation

Rapid Filipinization
 Substantial participation of Filipinos in government
o Too quickly given power, not sure whether Filipinos knew what they were
doing
o Oligarchy will cling to power
 Filipino majority in the Philippine Commission in 1913
 1913 – 70% Civil Service workers were Filipino
 1918 – Council of State (Gov.-Gen) and Board of Control (major industry)
 1916 – Jones Law legislative power in the hands of the Filipinos; Bicameral legislation

Democracy Filipino Style

 Democracy vs. traditional values
o Americans saw these as counterproductive
o Rule of law subordinated to ritual kinship, nepotism, utang na loob, patron-
client bonds and other values
 Corruption in government
 Common perception that rapid Filipinization was disastrous to the colonial
administration
 Filipino democracy was dangerous
o Meritocracy / egalitarianism / equality of opportunity not fully given by
America
o Democracy not equal to liberalism

Findings of Wood-Forbes Mission

 Republican administration of Warren Harding sought to verify country’s readiness
for independence
 Harrison – Filipinized but sacrificed efficiency and good government
 Lack of free press to ensure sound public opinion
 Finances, nepotism scandals as early as 1920s
 Delay in administration of justice
  Need for teachers
 Inadequate care and treatment of minorities
 Recommendation: general status continues until people have had time to master the
power in their hands

Campaign for Independence

 Guarantee freedom in a long time
 Grand old statement thought that independence needed time
 Independence missions active during WWI
o Loyalty to American during WWI, usually from Hawaii, support troops
o Citizenship after WWI

Jones Law of 1916

 Initial success of independence campaign
 Nacionalista Party – Quezon and Osmeña
 Philippine Commission and Assembly – make laws
o Ratified by Senate and passed by U.S. President
 Not a perfect law but enough

Evolution of American policy towards independence – 1919-1934

 Heightening of Philippine activities towards independence
 Stance on independence not always clear
o Bickering between politicians
 Nacionalista – patriotic, independence
 Democrata / Federal – not for immediate independence
o Bases and listening stations
 Premise of independence, stable government to be established, Commonwealth
independent except for army and foreign affairs
 WWI agitation was avoided to show loyalty

PH during WWI 1914-1918

 US initially didn’t want to get involved, European
 German U-boats sinking U.S. Ships, got involved
 Brits – Malaysia, Dutch – Indonesia, French – Indochina, German – Pacific
 Neutrality of PH – allied to the US
 Philippine National Guard 1917
o For Filipinos who wanted to fight with the Americans
 25,000 people either in the PH or Europe
o National Army
 Recognized presence of Filipinos, but not as frontliners unlike most
colonial powers
 Only Hawaii-enlisted Filipinos saw action, individual decision
o Enlistment is not equal to citizenship
o Federal Party – grant statehood or grant citizenship to Filipinos born before
1940
 First Filipino to die in the War: Tomas Mateo Claudio, France 1918
 Transition to Independence
The Commonwealth
Nov. 15, 1935

Tydings-McDuffie Act, March 24, 1934

 Ratified by Philippine assembly, signed by Roosevelt
 Autonomy, not independence
 Senators Tydings and McDuffie

Ratified by PH Legislature – election of 202 delegates to the May 1, 1934 Constitutional

Convention to draft Consti – July 10, 1934

March 23, 1935 – ratified the Constitution (Roosevelt’s 2nd term)

Quezon as unanointed leader

Constitution
 Con-Con approved Feb. 8, 1935
 96% voted yes May 14, 1935
 Elections in September: Quezon & Osmeña vs. Aguinaldo & Aglipay
 Commonwealth – powers, composition & organization
o Principle of separation of powers
 Executive – President, single, six-year term
 Legislative – unicameral National Assembly
 Judicial – Supreme
o Commonwealth to Republic of the Philippines, 1950s, 2 terms, 4 years each

Skeletons in Aguinaldo’s closet

1. Bonifacio and Luna’s deaths
2. Hong Kong money

Quezon double-crossed Osmeña

Battle of who gets the law home

1934 Mission with MLQ

MLQ Tradition
 Arriving in Malacañang, go up the stairs
 Based on Doña Teodora Alonso’s apparent climbing of the steps on her knees

Philippine Independence Reexamined

Quezon saw himself as a Father of a Nation

 Fairly authoritarian
 Autonomy is a risk worth taking

Concerns:
  Secure foundation for a new PH
 Policies to ensure security and well-being of Filipinos
o Army, Navy – MacArthur
 Adjustment of national economy
o Need for military presence, unstable war
o Agricultural economy, no major industries

National Security / Defense

 Commonwealth Act 1 – National Defense Act
 Phil. Defense system
 Gen. MacArthur as Field Marshall of the Army
 Preparatory Military Training – all school levels, ROTC

Douglas MacArthur
 No one was ever given such power
 Supreme Commander – Fil-Am soldiers all under him
 Same temperament, arrogance, imperiousness as Quezon
 Well-loved
 WWII – reserve and regular army

American Caesar: Jan. 26, 1880 – April 5, 1964

 Victory of Japan
 Top graduate from West Point / US Military Academy
o Spent military life in Asia
o Secretary / clerk: Dwight Eisenhower – Victory over Europe
 Ran for Republican presidential ticket, but lost
 MacArthur returned in 1962
o All soldiers never die, they just fade away.

National Language
 Article 2 – Common language based on existing languages
o Nov. 9, 1937 – Tagalog as basis of the national language
o One of the three official languages of the country
 Rationale
o Quezon was Tagalog
o Manila used Tagalog
 English as national language / official language

Other concerns
 Economic development
 Trade relations with the US
 Alien control of the economy, anti-Chinese/Japanese
o Economic nationalism
o State-directed state economy

Japanese Migration to the Philippines 1900-1940

Partyless Democracy
 Commonwealth government – Quezon
 Patronage system –intervention and manipulation since 1916
 Eliminated elite opposition within Nacionalista party
 Fascist / totalitarian ideals

PH and Spanish Civil War 1936-1939

 Fil soldiers independently involved, European / Spanish immigrant base
 Precursor to WWII
 Manila as city for Europeans and Asians
 Anti-fascists in Spain; Italy and Germany fell to fascism
 UST and Letran – Fascist members
 Zobel, Elizalde, Aboitiz

Jews in the PH
 Jews from Germany going to New York, turned away by the US
 US hands off on Europe
 Quezon offered places in Mindanao
 Germans, Italians, Spaniards not arrested by Japanese, seen as friends
 1940 – Quezon dedicated a hall for Jews in Marikina, part of his own land

Japanese Migration – Davao and Baguio

The Japanese Occupation

World domination of the Axis – meet in India

Pearl Harbor – Dec. 7, 1941

 Oil embargo on Japan to take away its power
 Americans taken by surprise
 First Wave – airfields and battleships
 Second Wave – ships and shipyards
 Third Wave – aircraft carriers, but not destroyed
 Japanese were putting war as a contingency plan if negotiations failed
o Ambassador of Japan to the US kept in the dark
 Aircraft carrier – most important weapon of WWII
 Tactical success, operational and strategic failure
o Failed to destroy aircraft carriers, fleet repairs, fuel reserves
o Two-theater battle, Europe and Pacific
o Galvanized American support for the War

After Pearl Harbor, other PH bases bombed. Japanese blitzkrieg via 14th army
Thais remained neutral

Fall of the PH
Main landings – Dec. 22
Dec. 24 – withdraw to Bataan, April – Bataan surrenders, May – Corregidor surrenders

Malinta Tunnel – air raid shelter, office, residence

Manila fell on Jan. 2, 1942

Bataan, Jan. 7 – April 9, 1942

 Four month battle, last stand
 Aguinaldo called on people to surrender
 Artemio Ricarte – sought by the Japanese because he never surrendered to the
Americans
 Corregidor, Caballo and El Fraile protected Manila and Bataan
 Gen. Wainwright surrendered

Fall of Corregidor, May 5-6,1942

 Government in exile
 Pacific War Council
 Death March

Second Philippine Republic, Oct. 14, 1943 – Aug. 17, 1945

 “Liberators” – Asia for Asians
 Invasions ended colonialism but defeated peoples made sure that the conquerors
did not return
 Quezon: “Never take the oath of allegiance to the Japanese” and to “save the
people”
 PH President: Dr. Jose P. Laurel

PH Executive Commission, Jan. 1942

 Vargas
 Abad Santos’ death was useless, he could have collaborated

KALIBAPI, Dec. 9,1942

 Had a version of this in all conquered nations
 Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas
 All existing political parties banned
 Support occupation and generate nationalism
 Filipino version of governing party in Japan
o Taisei Yojusanki
 Nationalist, pro-Japanese, anti-American, fascist
 Pretense of Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Benigno Aquino, Sr. – head of KALIBAPI

MAKAPILI, Nov. 1944

 Makabayang Katipunan ng mga Pilipino
 Founded by Benigno Ramos of the Sakdal movement and Artemio Ricarte
  Laurel refused to conscript Filipinos for Japan
 Puppets of occupation forces

Collaborators
 Used to settle scores, abuse of government policy
 Guerillas killed collaborators
 Politicians spared, ordinary people killed

Resistance and Liberation

Battle for Manila, Feb. 3 – Mar. 3, 1945

 “Command responsibility”
o Supreme Military Commander can be tried for war crimes under the Geneva
convention
 Japanese made civilians human shields, forcing Americans to shoot them even when
they refused
 Foreigners interred, aware of their capture, organized
o UST as prison
o UP Los Baños as feared prison
o Americans feared the massacre of the foreigners

Leyte Gulf, Oct. 23-26,1944

 Japanese fanatical devotion to nation and Emperor
 Secret weapons
 Kamikaze
o 12th, 13th century tactic against Mongol and Chinese invaders
o Both invaders destroyed by wind and storm
o Believed the gods would save Japan again
o Born in Clark, Pampanga
 Island hopping strategy of the Americans
 Almost bypassed the PH but MacArthur said that PH had to be saved
 American war room wanted to bomb Japan to expedite the end of war
 Navy of Japan destroyed in the PH
 Strategy: cut communication between North and South fleets of Japam

Guerillas sheltered American soldiers and Death March escapees

HUKBALAHAP, Mar. 29,1942

 Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon
 Became the NPA
 Socialist-Communist organization founded by Luis Taruc – CPP members
o Peasant underground movement, anti-Japanese above all
 Luis Taruc
o Played a role in the Marcos era
 Pampanga, Tarlac bases due to haciendas
 Japanese had problems in Central Luzon due to 40,000 underground Huks
  Objectives:
o Political – Communism, change of government, countryside appeal
o Economic – social justice for peasants, rebellion bound to happen, Japs and
landlords as enemies
o Military
 Women Huks – Amazonas
 Peasant to intellectual movement

Guerillas were good at information, united resistance movement, integrated with the
Americans

Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita

 Supreme commander of Japanese forces
 War crime prototype / precedent
 Mistrial – he was innocent of the crimes
 MacArthur planned his vengeance

Rear Admiral Sanji – refused to obey Yamashita’s order to surrender

Japan surrendered unconditionally at Tokyo Bay on Sept. 1945. Yamashita surrendered on

Sept. 2, 1945

Reconstruction and Collaboration

Theories:
 Americans deliberately bombed Manila to make it economically dependent
 1,000,000 killed, large proportion during final months, Manila 95% damaged

Collaboration divided the nation

 High treason punishable by death
 Split the country and poisoned political life
 Tried cases on their own merits
 MacArthur: any collaborator above schoolteacher cannot vote, purged
 Stigma in collaboration
 Promoted vigilanteeism
 Amnesty across the board except for MAKAPILI because of blood on their hands

1. Forced to collaborate – shield people and families from harsher aspects of Japanese
rule
2. Opportunism
3. Resentment of the elite, especially in the provinces
4. Collaboration, entwined with agrarian grievances, violent results

American granting of independence seemed to early because of the need for reconstruction