This Assignment explains various concepts associated with special education.

These concepts
have been explained in such a way that a teacher can understand learners with special needs and
come up with ways to help them according to their various disabilities. The following are the
concepts which are to be explained in this essay with relevant examples; impairment, disability,
handicap, person with disability, special education and Learners with special Educational needs
,thereafter look at the types of disabilities and their causes.

Impairment is characterized by losses or an abnormality that is either temporal (e.g. myopia which
can be corrected) or permanent ( e.g. cerebral palsy CP which cannot be corrected) resulting from, any
cause, it includes the existence or occurrence of an anomaly, defect or loss in a limb, organ, tissue or
other structure of the body or a defect in a functional system or mechanism of the body including the
systems of mental function (these could be the heart, kidney, head, trunk, limbs etc.). (WHO, 1980,
p27.1. 18-22). Examples include paralysis, a hole in the ear drum, low level of intelligence, blindness,
missing or defective part of the body, myopia etc. Impairment can be caused by an accident and at
times by a disease, it could also be from birth. It is important to note that impairment unlike disability
refers to an organ and not a function. Impairments can cause functional limitations which means partial
or total inability to perform in activities which a normal human being is capable of, like walking, lifting
loads, seeing hearing, speaking, reading writing etc. the inability to do the above mentioned tasks is
what is called disability which will be looked at next hence impairment leads to disability.

Disability on the other hand is any (either physical or mental) difficulty, restriction or lack of ability
to perform in in one or more activities which are generally accepted as essential components of daily
living as a result of impairment (WHO, 1980, p.28, 1. 1-5). Due to impairment, there is a reduction in
functional ability for example due to a hole in the ear drum; the child is unable to hear properly, a
visually impaired child cannot see properly because of a faulty image formation. It’s not in every case
that impairment leads to a disability since the impairment can be corrected, depending in part on the
duration of the functional limitation; disability may be short term, long term or permanent. It reflects
the consequences of impairment in terms of functional performance and activity by the individual
(WHO, 1976). People can be disabled by physical, intellectual or sensory impairment, just as
impairment leads to disability; disability leads to impairment the concept to be explained next.

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 Impairment Disability Handicap

Handicap can be defined as a disadvantage experienced by an individual resulting from impairment or

a disability that limits or prevents the fulfillment of one or several roles that are considered to be
normal when viewed from the norms of the society (depending on age, sex, and social and cultural
factors) for that individual. It is when the effects of a disability compromise normal living routines.
Handicaps thus reflect iteration with an adaptation to the individual’s surroundings (WHO, 1976). It
means a restriction imposed/acquired by the individual’s disability which affects the efficiency of his
/her day to day activities, it refers to problems and individual with a disability or impairment
encounters in interacting with the environment. A disability may pose a problem in one environment
but not another. For example, the child with an artificial limb may be handicapped when competing
with non-disabled peers in a football match but experiences no problems in learning, thus a disabled
child is not handicapped unless the disability leads to educational , social, vocational, personal or other
problems. The effects of a disability can be reduced by corrective services and medical interventions
etc.

Special education also known as special needs education is a profession, a service with tools and
techniques to meet exceptional needs of exceptional children, it is individually planned, systematically
implemented and carefully evaluated instruction to help exceptional learners achieve the greatest
possible personal self-sufficiency and success in present and future environments, it is specially
designed instruction which meets the special educational and related needs of the exceptional child, it is
meant for those children whose needs or abilities necessitate an individualized program of education, it
is distinguished from regular education by some unusual quality, something uncommon, noteworthy.
Special training materials, special training techniques, special equipment, and special help and/or
special facilities may be required for special categories of children having special needs. For example
low vision children may require reading materials in a large print, hearing impaired children may
require hearing aid, auditory training, and lip reading etc. mentally retarded children may need skill
training. Related services such as special transportation, medical and psychological assessment,
physical and occupational therapy and counseling may be required if special education is to be
effective. Special education is sometimes differentiated from regular education by its curriculum for
example, teaching self-help skills or training in reading and writing braille is an important part of
curriculum for the blind in special education institutions which is not found in regular education, most

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often, in regular education, the school system dictates the school curriculum but in special education,
the child’s individual needs dictate the curriculum, whereas regular education is provided in a regular
classroom, special education may be provided in a special class, resource room, special school etc. it
can also be differentiated form regular education by the methods used by the teacher as one special
education teacher may use sign language to communicate with the learners, another one may use task
analysis and skill training for mentally retarded children and another may use multi-sensory approach
while teaching a learning disabled child. Despite all the differences above, special education has the
same objectives as those of regular education.

A learner with special education needs is an individual who because of uniqueness in sensory,
physical and neurological, temperamental or intellectual capacity and/or in the nature and range of
previous experience, requires an adaptation of the regular school program in order to maximize his or
her functioning level (howett & Forness, 1984).A leaner with special education needs is one who
deviates from the average or normal child in mental, physical or social characteristics to such an extent
that he/she needs modification of school practices or special education services in order to develop to
his maximum capacity (Kirk 1961). These types of learners can be noticed in one or many dimensions-
vision, hearing, movement, perceptual-motor, communication, social-emotional as well as intelligence.
Thus, the blind, deaf, orthopedically handicapped, learning disabled, speech handicapped, emotionally
disturbed, socially disadvantaged, mentally retarded, slow learner and gifted are exceptional and need
special education and as we can see from this, exceptionality can be either in the positive (as in the case
of a gifted child) or in the negative (as in the case of a handicapped child) direction. Exceptionality is
more quantitative than qualitative. A qualitative conception of exceptionality conceives of such
children as constituting separate and in many ways, distinct classes or categories of individuals, they
are considered to have traits and characteristics which make them fundamentally different from the
general run of mankind. They are supposed to learn, think and adjust in ways which are unique to them,
therefore cannot be understood in terms of principles which have been derived from and are applicable
to normal individuals. Exceptionality has variable meanings in different social contexts; social
influences are responsible for some of the patterning of traits characterizing the various categories of
exceptional people. Deviations ways from the norm in various ways labeled as “Exceptional” may not
of themselves result in characteristic personality and behavioral patterns, they do so because of the
social or personal meanings attached to the deviations as once the society perceives someone to be
different, they label him as different, treat him differently and expect him to act differently and in turn

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the individual accepts the social judgments, perceives himself differently and starts acting in
accordance with these self-perceptions ( Teleford & sawrey). Hence exceptionality should always be
understood in a particular social context in which it is being used. Exceptional learners also have depth
as well as direction of exceptionality, they differ in their mode of exceptionality and deviation meaning
they can be categorized into discreet categories in fact some learners can be exceptional in more than
one area for example there are learners who are both deaf and blind. Most learners with cerebral palsy
have speech, sensory and intellectual defects in addition to their motor handicaps. Learners who are
handicapped in one way may also excel in another for example the crippled may be a genius or an
artist. The intensity of exceptionality refers to the degree of deviation for example in the intellectual
dimension; some children may be extremely gifted while others may be intellectually inferior and the
intellectually inferior are sub divided into groups of middle retarded, moderately retarded and severely
retarded. The degree of deviation may just be as important as the facts of deviation. The intensity of
exceptionality is just as important in the intellectual area as in the physical and other areas. The
exceptionality of these learners with special education needs is also characterized by its breadth or
extensity. Extensity is indicated by the degree to which the primary deviation affects other aspects of
one’s personality and behaviors. There is belief that there is an inherent relationship between deviation
in one area and corresponding behavioral and personality deviation in other areas but such a belief is
not supported by research findings, even though there is no causal relationship between deviation in
one area and behavior in other areas, research studies regular find a greater incidence of social
withdrawal, over aggressiveness, personal unhappiness and all types of defensive behavior patterns
among individuals who deviate from the norm in ways culturally defined as undesirable than among
individuals who are either closer to the group norm or who deviate in socially approved directions.

Disabilities can be categorized into physical, cognitive and psychiatric disabilities which will be
looked at below.

Physical disabilities comprise of mobility impairments, sensory loss such as blindness/deafness,

neurological impairments such as cerebral palsy (CP) and seizure disorders, traumatic brain injury
(TBI) and musculoskeletal conditions such as such as muscular dystrophy and arthritis , dual sensory
loss (deafness and blindness), mobility impairments like autoimmune diseases, cerebral palsy, spinal
bifida and muscular dystrophies and other physical disabilities are chronic illness and health disorders
and disfigurements. Apart from physical disabilities, there are psychiatric disabilities and lastly

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cognitive disabilities like learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities (formerly termed mental
retardation) such as Down syndrome and pervasive developmental disorders such as autism and
learning disabilities.

CHILDREN WITH VISUAL HANDICAP

These are children with problems of vision; this can include total blindness from birth, the gradual
loss of vision such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP), muscular disorders such as strabismus or “crossed
eyes”. The loss of acuity across the visual field such as tunnel vision (Ronsethal & Cole, 2005), those
who wear eyeglasses or contacts are not considered here as the contacts restore their vision. Most
individuals with RP are blind at the age of 40, RP, vision loss can be caused by genetic factors such as
malformation of the eye or it may be acquired from infections, accidents or tumors and another cause of
blindness is muscular degeneration among older individuals and others are a pregnant woman
contracting germinal measles and oxygen administered to premature infants which leads to retrolental
fibropliasias hence children are born blind. Some visually impaired learners like those who are partially
sighted can be taught by large print or magnified print materials The visual acuity (sharpness of visual
image) is very low (20/70 in the better eye meaning the child can see at 20ft, their weak sight can be
because of astigmatisation or long sightedness. Those with severe vision loss cannot be taught through
visual methods; their visual acuity may fall at 2/200 and can be taught either through aural method or
by using braille.

CHILDREN WITH HEARING HANDICAP

These have damaged hearing mechanism and face difficulty in speech and language development.
There is a loss in hearing. The degree of hearing loss is less in some children while in others it is more
severe and the hearing handicap may either be deaf or hard-or-hearing, the hard-of-hearing are those
who have hearing loss but can hear if spoken loudly without a hearing aid though hearing aid will
enable them to hear better however the deaf are those who cannot hear even when spoken loudly and
require preparation in basic skills through special techniques before they can be admitted to general
schools, hearing aids can make them become more functional.

CHILDREN WITH LEARNING DISABILITY (LD)

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 This is a cognitive disability and its victims are like other children in intellectual functioning, not
mentally retarded nor do they have hearing or visual problems but they have problems in spelling,
reading, writing, arithmetic, listening and comprehension and this might be due to cerebral dysfunction,
emotional, behavioral disturbance but it is not due to mental retardation, sensory handicap or
instructional practices. Depending on the degree of disability, such children can be categorized into
mild learning disable or severe learning disabled. Such children may have severe discrepancy between
their achievement and intellectual ability. such children have discrepancy between their academic
potential (IQ) and their actual performance, the causes of LD can only be only speculated although
functional magnetic imaging has shown that children with LD have reduced physiological functioning
in the cerebellum and other suspected causes include lack of communication between the hemispheres
of the brain or one hemisphere that is larger than the other (termed asymmetrical development).

PHYSCOHOLGICAL DISORDERS

Disorders of mood or feeling states either short or long term. Mental Health Impairment is the term
used to describe people who have experienced psychiatric problems or illness and Personality
Disorders - Defined as deeply inadequate patterns of behavior and thought of sufficient severity to
cause significant impairment to day-to-day activities. Schizophrenia: A mental disorder characterized
by disturbances of thinking, mood, and behaviour (Nikolopoulos T.P & Lioumi D, 2006).

Intellectual Disabilities Characterized by intellectual development and capacity that is significantly

below average. Involves a permanent limitation in a person’s ability to learn and Causes of Intellectual
(or Developmental) Disabilities include: Any condition that impairs development of the brain before
birth, during birth, or in childhood years.

INVISIBLE DISABILITIES

Invisible Disabilities are disabilities that are not immediately apparent to others. It is estimated that
10% of people in the U.S. have a medical condition considered a type of invisible disability. Visual
Disabilities “Legally Blind” describes an individual who has 10% or less of normal vision. Only 10%
of people with a visual disability are actually totally blind. The other 90% are described as having a
“Visual Impairment.”Common causes of vision loss include: Cataracts (cloudy vision – treatable),
Diabetes (progressive blindness), Glaucoma (loss of peripheral vision),Macular Degeneration (blurred
central vision),Retinal Detachment (loss of vision), Retinitis Pigment’s (progressive blindness).

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 There is a range of inclusive teaching strategies that can assist all students to learn but there are some
specific strategies that are useful in teaching a group that includes students with a hearing impairment:
Encourage students with a hearing loss to seat themselves toward the front of the lecture theatre where
they will have an unobstructed line of vision. This is particularly important if the student is using an
interpreter, lip-reading, relying on visual clues or using a hearing aid which has a limited range, be
aware that some students may not be comfortable with this suggestion or have alternate strategies and
respect their choices. Use assistive listening devices such as induction loops if these are available in the
lecture theatre, however Hearing aids may include transmitter/receiver systems with a clip-on
microphone for the lecturer. If using such a microphone, it is not necessary to change your speaking or
teaching style, ensure that any background noise is minimised and repeat clearly any questions asked
by students in the lecture or class before giving a response. Do not speak when facing the blackboard
and be aware that moustaches, beards, hands, books or microphones in front of your face can add to the
difficulties of lip-readers; however Students who lip-read cannot function in darkened rooms. You may
need to adjust the lighting in your teaching environment, and if a sign interpreter is employed, follow
the hints for working with a sign interpreter. It is difficult for a student watching an interpreter to also
take notes from an overhead or blackboard, an interpreter is unable to translate concurrently both your
words and any information given on an overhead, therefore it is important that all information should
also be available as handouts. Provide written materials to supplement all lectures, tutorials and
laboratory sessions and announcements made regarding class times, activities, field work, and industry
visits etc, should be given in writing as well as verbally.

Allow students to record lectures or, preferably, make available copies of your lecture notes. Flexible
delivery of teaching materials via electronic media is also particularly helpful for students who have
difficulty accessing information in the usual ways. For students with a hearing loss, new technology -
and the internet in particular - can be used to bridge many gaps. Any videos or films used should,
where possible, be captioned and when this is not possible, you will need to consider alternative ways
for students with hearing impairment to access the information (Stevens G & Flaxman S, 2013).

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 REFERENCES

Barki and Mukhopodhyay B(2003) Guidance and Counselling manual. New Delhi sterling
publisher Pvt Ltd.

Bhusumane D.B.(2004) Guidance Today, Book s. Gaborone west, Collegium Educational

publisher.

kalabula D.M. (1991) Intehrarion of visually Handicapped children into Zambia Ordinary
seconday school PHD thesis, University of Birmingham.

Ministry of Education (1991) Educating our future. Lusaka: Zambia Education publishing
House.

Ministry of Education (2004) module 2, School counsellor's manual: managing learners

Behavioural and Emotional problems, Lusaka, Golden touch Graphical printer limited.

Mwantembe C. (2008), success is a journey Not a Destination: Showing Youth the True meaning
of success, Lusaka: Bookworld publishers.

Sigelman, C. Budd, F. Spahel, C. and schoenrock, C.(1984) mental retardation, London sage.

UNISCO Botswana (2000) Guidance module paris: Ag2i communication.

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