Professional Documents
Culture Documents
lightning and
HV electrical
installations
Benoît de Metz-Noblat
Note: The acronyms EHV and UHV, though occasionally used, have never been
officially defined by a standard. In this document, EHV is used for voltages greater
than 300 kV.
Lightning is a major source of distur- availability, continuity of service, etc.) knowledge on lightning mechanisms is
bances for all electrical installations and must be taken into account, as well as available.
can affect them in several manners: the permanent necessity to minimise The two steps are:
■ all power and voltage levels are the costs of the production and the use ■ anticipate what can happen in a given
concerned, ranging from EHV of electrical power. It may be said that installation and recommend
transmission systems to integrated in the efforts to improve the above improvements. This is possible using
circuits and including LV power factors, lightning has come to dedicated software, validated by
supplies and data transmission circuits, constitute an obstacle. That explains experience, that simulates installation
■ it can cause transient disturbances to why it is now one of the major behaviour.
■ carry out an engineering and cost
the continuity of service, thereby preoccupations of everyone in the
study on insulation coordination, taking
reducing the quality of the power supply sector, whether they are distributors
into account the cost of installations,
system, (EDF, private companies),
maintenance and disruptions in
■ it can damage equipment and result manufacturers (Merlin Gerin, etc.), operation.
in long interruptions in installation designers (design offices, engineering
firms) or installers. Note: insulation coordination consists in
operation,
defining, on the basis of the voltage
■ it can be dangerous for life (pace A study on the effects of lightning and overvoltage levels likely to occur in
voltage, increased potential of exposed comprises two steps, but first requires an installation, one or several levels of
conductive parts and earthing circuits). in-depth knowledge of the protection against overvoltages, then in
Lightning has always been a source of phenomenon. Starting in the 1970's, selecting installation equipment and
disturbances for users of electricity, yet major international research programs protection devices. This subject is
the fairly recent and growing demand were initiated, notably by EDF in covered in the «Cahier Technique»
for quality electrical systems (reliability, France, and today, sufficient n° 151.
Following a few general indications on The cloud-to-earth electrical field may ■ ascending lightning strikes, in which
atmospheric electrical phenomena, this reach up to -15 to -20 kV/meter on flat the leader runs from the earth to the
section presents: terrain. However, the presence of cloud (mountainous terrain),
■ the main characteristics of lightning, obstacles locally increases and ■ negative lightning strikes when the
considered from an engineering point of deforms the electrical field by a factor negatively charged part of the cloud
view, of 10 to 100, or even 1,000, depending discharges (80 % of lightning strikes
■ information on forecasting, on the form of the irregularities under temperate climates),
■ the impact mechanism using the (sometimes referred to as the point ■ positive lightning strikes when the
electro-geometrical model. effect). The air ionisation threshold positively charged part of the cloud
(approximately 30 kV/cm) is then discharges.
reached and discharges due to the
general corona effect take place. For relatively
The earth and the electrosphere large objects (skyscrapers, main characteristics
(conductive zone of the atmosphere, smokestacks, towers), these Wave form
ranging in thickness from roughly 50 discharges may result in lightning Lightning, as a physical phenomenon,
to 100 km) constitute a natural, strikes or orient them. corresponds to an impulse current
spherical capacitor which charges by Classification of lightning strikes source, that is a series of discharges of
ionisation, producing an electrical field, A lightning strike between a cloud and a quantity of electricity over a short
some several hundred V/m (Volt/ the earth comprises two phases, first period of time.
meter) in strength, directed toward the the development of a predischarge or The actual wave form is quite variable
earth. leader (an ionised channel), which and comprises a steep front to the
In that air being a poor conductor, provokes the lightning strike itself, a maximum amplitude (ranging from a
there is a permanent conduction discharge of a visible, high-current arc. few to 20 microseconds), followed by a
current associated with the electrical Two main criteria distinguish lightning long decreasing tail of several tens of
field, of approximately 1,500 A for the strikes, their direction and their polarity: microseconds (see fig. 1).
entire earth. Electrical equilibrium is ■ descending lightning strikes, in which The associated spectral field covers a
maintained by discharges via points, the leader runs from the cloud to the band ranging from 10 kHz to several
rain and lightning strikes. earth (relatively flat terrain), MHz.
The formation of storm clouds, in effect
masses of water in the form of
aerosols, is accompanied by
electrostatic phenomena in which
differently charged particles separate. 0 25 50 75 100 125 150
The light, positively charged particles 0
are drawn upward by ascending air time
currents and the heavy, negatively - 20 in µs
charged particles fall under their own
weight. There may also be clusters of
positive charges at the bottom of
- 45
clouds where there is intense rainfall.
On the overall macroscopic scale, a
dipole exists.
When the limiting gradient of the
breakdown voltage is reached, a I in kA
discharge takes place in the cloud,
between clouds or between the cloud
and the earth. The latter case is called fig. 1: oscillogram of a lightning impulse current.
lightning.
,,,,,,,,
and the end (discharge) of a lightning
,,,,,,,,
channel (i.e. the striking distance), on
the one hand, and the amplitude of the zone I
lightning strike, on the other: ground strikes
This section deals with lightning strikes Direct lightning strikes At the towers, the voltage increases
on a line, wave propagation and the (on phase conductors) and propagates:
effects of lightning. When lightning hits a phase conductor ■ as a full impulse, reaching its
of a line, the total current i(t) at the maximum value
point of impact is split in two and the I max
lightning strikes on a line U max = Z
two halves are propagated along the 2
On the basis of the electro-geometrical conductor in opposite directions. when
model, the frequency of lightning strikes The wave impedance Z of the
can be calculated using the capture I max
conductor is 300 to 500 Ω (see fig. 7). Z < Ua
range of the considered object. 2
The result is an associated voltage
Figure 5 indicates, for a density N = 4 wave: where Ua = impulse flashover voltage
(4 lightning strikes per km2 and per of the insulators string or of any
year and a corresponding keraunic i(t)
u(t) = Z protective spark-gap devices that may
level of approximately 30), the 2 be present. This voltage is roughly
frequency of lightning strikes (number
of strikes per year) for a vertical rod
with a height h and for a horizontal
conductor with a length of 100 km and strikes/year
a height h. N1
The general empirical formula for
calculating lightning strikes (total
number per year) on a line (towers,
30
phase and earth wires) is the following:
N1 l L (2)
NL = Nk + α
30 70 100 20
where:
Nk = keraunic level,
NL = strikes on a line, (1)
10
N1 = strikes on the highest horizontal
conductor (see fig. 5),
L = lenght of the line in kilometers,
l = width of the line in meters (distance 0
2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 40 50 70 100 200 500 1,000 h in
between outside conductors),
meters
α = influence coefficient taking into
account the influence of towers and
earth wires (see fig. 6). fig. 5: lightning frequency for a density N = 4 lightning strikes per km2 and per year:
This formula takes into account: ■ curve 1: vertical rod with a height h (with N1 x 10-3),
■ lightning trikes on a conductor (N1), ■ curve 2: horizontal conductor, 100 km long, at height h (with N1).
■ presence of outside conductors (l),
■ distribution between the tower and
the line depending on the structure of number of earth
the line (α), wires 0 1 2 3
■ length of the line (L) :
■ for insulation coordination lightning strike on tower (%) 55 35 20 10
calculations, L ≈ 1.5 km is generally on wires 45 65 80 90
selected because over greater (earth or
distances, the effect of the lightning phase)
strike becomes negligible, influence coefficient α 1.65 1.40 1.20 1.05
■ for continuity of service calculations,
the important factor is the total length of
the line exposed to strikes, therefore to fig. 6: distribution of strikes between towers and wires.
interruptions in service.
,,
ÀÀ
@@
low (< 15 Ω), thus reducing the
usefulness of earth wires.
,@À
wave propagation R
R i + L di
U = k
Propagation of lightning impulse waves dt
is a concept with which electro-
technicians are rarely confronted in day fig. 8: lightning strike on an earth wire.
to day work.
4. protection
Following a few general remarks on Effective protection therefore requires These are based on energy levels:
protection, this section discusses in the lowest possible earth impedances. ■ level 1, consisting of diversion of the
greater detail the means to ensure This can be ensured by creating major part of the impact to earth and
protection, both primary (direct earthing networks and interconnections initial clipping. This level applies
discharge) and secondary (limitation of between earthing electrodes wherever primarily to objects likely to be struck by
the transmitted disturbances). possible. On high voltage B systems, lightning (lines and substations).
an earth impedance of less than 1 Ω at ■ level 2, consisting of limitation of the
power frequency is commonly residual voltage by further clipping. This
general specified for substations, whereas for level is intended to protect substation
The best protection, in particular of towers, an impedance of 10 to 15 Ω is equipment and/or installations against
human life, is provided by directing a strived for. conducted overvoltages. Several pro-
maximum of the disturbance to earth at There are several levels of protection tection devices distributed throughout
the closest possible point to the source against lightning currents and the the installation may be required to
of the disturbance. resulting increases in potential. dissipate the clipped energy.
protection level 1
The purpose of level 1 protection is to
limit the effects of direct impacts on
electrical installations by diverting the
lightning current to the desired
locations.
Controlled diversion of lightning
current to precise points is possible
using:
■ lightning rods implementing the
striking distance principle. These thin
rods are placed at the top of the leader
structure requiring protection and
connected to earth by the most direct
path (via conductors descending d = critical
around the protected structure and striking distance
connected to the earthing network).
Observations have shown that a good
protection against direct lightning
strikes is provided in a cone with its
summit at the top of the lightning rod
and extending downward at 45° angles
with respect to the vertical.
■ Faraday cages or shields which
consist of closed grids of horizontal protected fictive
zone sphere
and vertical conductors connected to
an earthing network. The mesh size (cone)
must be less than 15 m and vertical
rods are placed at the nodes on the lightning rod
top part. Coverage of the zone
requiring protection is equivalent to
that provided by a multitude of 45°
lightning rods.
,,,,,,,,,,,
In either case, lightning rods or cages,
,,,,,,,,,,,
the electro-geometrical model
determines the protected zone using
the fictive sphere method.
The point of impact of the lightning
strike is determined by the first object
on the ground falling within the striking fig. 9: determining the protected zone using the «fictive sphere» method.
distance d of the leader.
,,,,,,,,
h
actuates upstream breaking of the
,,,,,,,,
concerned line.
■ a lightning arrester (or more generally
zone I
a surge arrester) is a semi-conductor
with non-linear resistance ranging from
a few Ω to several MΩ. It is generally
made of zinc oxide (ZnO), a material fig.10: different cases for lightning strikes on an overhead line. Note that protection
whose characteristics are well angle θ = θopt.
understood.
@,ÀÀ@,
■ earthing-network design and 2 (see pages 14, 15 and 16).
(interconnections, sizing, etc.), Example Zc
■ coordination of overvoltage limiters If the maximum permissible impulse
with overload, short-circuit and voltage for the transformer is set at
differential protection devices, A
1.3 x Vp, then
■ parallel-connected protection to limit lightning arrester
r D
impulse voltage using surge arresters: 1. 3 x Vp ≥ Vp + 2 Zc D, v, τ
gas spark gaps, varistors (SiC, ZnO), v
avalanche diodes, RC filters,
It follows that the arrester/transformer B
■ series-connected protection to limit
distance must not exceed:
the power transmitted using wave
absorbers (or HF filters), shielded Vp v
D ≤ 0.15 = 0.15 T v transformer
isolating transformers, network r
conditioners or UPS systems. Using the applicable figures: A and B: measurement points
Vp = 1,200 kV,
v = 300 m / µs, fig. 11: circuit diagram (line and transformer
protection distance r = 2,000 kV / µs, substation) for study of lightning overvoltage
The concept of protection distance is ⇒ D ≤ 27 m. wave propagation.
illustrated in the example below, which
Note:
has been voluntarily simplified. V
In reality, the following elements must be
Example taken into account:
Consider an overvoltage impulse wave ■ lightning arrester connections to
travelling down a line and arriving at a equipment and to the earth, Vp
substation comprising a transformer ■ actual lightning arrester
protected by a lightning arrester (see characteristics,
fig. 11). ■ network configuration with impedance
The various elements are defined as breaks and the different propagation
velocities, T t
follows:
■ capacitive elements, including the fig. 12: overvoltage wave diagram.
■ line:
■ surge impedance: Zc,
transformers.
■ wave propagation velocity: v,
■ distance between arrester and case criteria maximum overvoltage comments
transformer: D, on transformer
■ propagation time between A and B: 1 v Vp 2 Vp steep front slope r, long distance D.
D >
τ = D / v, 2 r Arrester distance has no effect on the
maximum voltage on transformer, the
■ lightning arrester with perfect i.e.: T < 2 τ
characteristics, i.e. for all voltages arrester limits the voltage to 2 Vp.
greater than Vp, conduction is 2 v Vp r D steep front slope r, long distance D.
instantaneous and the voltage is limited D < Vp + 2 Arrester presence limits, by the distance
2 r v
to precisely Vp, r D effect, the maximum voltage on the
■ earthing electrode with an impedance i.e.: T > 2 τ overrun = 2 transformer. Overrun of threshold
v
equal to zero, Vp is proportional to D and to r, hence
■ arrester/equipment and arrester/earth 2τ the «protection distance» concept.
= Vp
connections zero in length, T
■ transformer with an input impedance, r D 2 τ
⇒ Vp + 2 = Vp (1 + )
at the considered frequencies, much v T
higher than Zc. An arriving voltage
3 v Vp r D limit case between 1 and 2.
wave is almost totally reflected (voltage D = Vp + 2
doubles at point of reflection), 2 r v
■ incident overvoltage wave with a
i.e.: T = 2 τ = Vp + Vp = 2Vp
constant-slope (r = dV / dt) front and a
constant tail voltage where T = Vp / r is fig. 13: maximum overvoltages on the transformer, a practical example.
the front duration up to Vp (see fig. 12).
t=0 t=0
Vp wave arrives at B Vp wave arrives at B
t=τ t=τ
Vp wave reflection at B Vp wave reflection at B,
reflection reaches A
t=T
t=2τ
reflection reaches A
Vp Vp
t=2τ t = T/2 + τ
2 Vp arrester produces a arrester produces a
wave to maintain at Vp
wave to maintain at
Vp A a constant voltage A a constant voltage
equal to Vp equal to Vp
t=T+τ t=3τ
2 Vp wave from the
2 Vp wave from the
arrester arrives at B Vmaxi arrester arrives
Vp at B
Vp
t=3τ t = T/2 + 2 τ
wave from the wave from the
Vp arrester reflected at B Vp
arrester reflected
at B
t=T+2τ -Vp
t=4τ
Vp wave from the Vp wave from the
arrester reflected at B arrester reflected at
reaches A B reaches A
-Vp t = T/2 + 3 τ
t=4τ
Vp arrester produces a
Vp arrester produces a
second wave to
second wave to
maintain at A a
maintain at A a
constant voltage constant voltage
equal to Vp -Vp equal to Vp
t=T+3τ -Vp t=5τ
Vp second wave from the Vp second wave from
arrester arrives at B the arrester arrives
at B
t=5τ -Vp
t = T/2 + 4 τ
-Vp
D, v, τ
A B
line
transformer
lightning arrester
case 1
2 Vp ÀÀ
@@
,,6
5
4
1 2 3 45 6
2
Vp
1
0
0 τ 2τ 3τ 4τ 5τ 6τ
T T+τ T+2τ T+3τ T+4τ T+5τ
case 2
2 Vp
5
4
3
2
Vp
1
0
0 τ 2τ 3τ T 4τ 5τ 6τ 2T
T/2 + τ T/2 + 2 τ T/2 + 3 τ T/2 + 4 τ T/2 + 5 τ
fig. 15: voltages on the line protected by the lightning arrester as a function of time, for cases 1 (steep front slope) and 2 (low front slope)
described in figure 13.
A B
line line
transformer
lightning arrester
,@À
T=2τ
2 Vp
T=3τ
T=4τ
T=5τ
T=6τ
T=7τ T = 10 τ T = 12 τ T = 14 τ T = 16 τ
T=8τ
Vp
0 τ 2τ 3τ 4τ 5τ 6τ 7τ 8τ 9τ
fig. 16: maximum overvoltage at transformer input (point B) as a function of T for a given τ (case 2 in figure 13).
network operation and non- Automatic reclosing cycles differ, ■ implementing auxiliary sources such
depending on the voltage level: as UPS systems for control/
availability monitoring applications, computer
■ > 300 kV: high-speed reclosing on
In public distribution networks, lightning single-phase systems (< 0.5 s) or slow systems, etc.,
is one of the causes (50 %) of voltage ■ designing and implementing correct
on 3 phase systems (1.5 to 5 s),
dips and brief interruptions. discrimination between the protection
■ 50 kV < U < 300 kV: 3 phase
These interruptions in the supply of reclosing and the use of shunt circuit devices on the user’s network, to
power, provoked by the protection ensure rapid clearing of faults caused
breakers on single-phase systems
devices, are required to clear the fault by lightning,
(end of spark gap discharge or stop of (0.15 s),
■ preventing isolating of priority
insulator flashover). ■ 1 kV < U 50 kV: high-speed and
consumers during storms. Sensitive
slow 3 phase reclosing (0.35 s, 15 s). loads can then be supplied by an
To improve continuity of service,
interruptions are shortened by automatic Interruptions are troublesome for internal power supply, while other
reclosing of the protection devices users and may be alleviated or loads continue to be supplied by the
(circuit breakers). eliminated by: public distribution network.
10-3
σg = 40 %
5
10-4
5
10-5 γ
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
fig. 19 : correlation between the risk of a fault (R) and the statistical safety coefficient (γ) for
various distributions of lightning overvoltages (σg = standard deviation), as defined by IEC 71.
This section outlines the procedure for lightning strike, the intensity and point second line tower (most unfavourable
a lightning study, the methods used of impact, the existence and location of case).
and the practical conclusions. It deals lightning arresters, earth impedance, ■ lightning impulse on the earth wire:
in particular with calculation methods, etc. ■ peak value: 200 kA,
substation modelling using the ■ secondly, calculations on lightning ■ triangular shape: 2 / 50 µs.
calculation assumptions, deterministic frequencies and the corresponding
■ length of the struck line taken into
simulations, statistical aspects and the risks, on the basis of lightning statistics,
conclusions. ■ finally, calculations on substation
account is limited to 1.5 km from the
withstand capacities expressed in substation (see section 2).
probabilistic terms. ■ phase subject to flashing:
general ■ farthest from the struck earth wire,
Deterministic calculations
This study deals with insulation ■ with a negligible power voltage.
■ substation modelling
coordination for an extra high voltage ■ substation configuration: GIS
The operation of each network element
GIS (gas-insulated switchgear) configuration with the maximum length
and its configuration (physical
substation. Adequate dielectric of in-service busbars (most
interconnections) in the network
behaviour must be ensured for the unfavourable case).
topology are described by equations
various elements in the chain
comprising the electrical system. The based on the applicable electrical laws. ■ modelling frequency: 1 MHz.
elements have different BILs and Modelling requires prior analysis of the Main technical data
practically speaking, the question is network to limit the description to
■ 500 kV line:
whether lightning arresters are required pertinent aspects.
■ 4 wires per phase, 2 earth wires,
and if so, how to define their The equations are solved by computers
■ impedance data:
characteristics (location, ratings). using dedicated software, for example
EMTP (Electromagnetic Transient Zdirect ≈ 300 Ω
This type of study is becoming Program).
increasingly common for large Zzero − sequence ≈ 500 Ω
substations. Customers require that ■ simulation of lightning current waves
and the associated voltages for each ■ towers:
installers and suppliers of turn-key
proposed solution. Stepwise equation ■ surge impedance: 120 Ω,
installations provide numerical data
solving makes it possible to express ■ height: 43 m,
justifying sizing decisions.
virtually continuously the evolution of ■ earth resistance 25 Ω.
This type of study must be carried out
by teams of specialised engineers with current/voltage variables at each point ■ insulators:
sufficient experience and know-how in the network as a function of time. ■ chain of 29 elements (cap and pin
and using specific computer software. The simulation reproduces actual type),
operation analogically. Lightning is ■ flashover voltage: 2,600 kV,
Note: The example presented here was
represented by a supply of current ■ discharge delay depends on the
drawn from a true study concerning the
supply of a 500 kV substation, carried comprising a triangular or bi- shape and the level of the overvoltage
out by the Network Research Section exponential wave with adjustable front/ defined by a typical voltage-time curve.
(a part of the R&D Department), on tail durations and peak values. ■ GIS:
request from the Contracting ■ surge impedance: 70 Ω,
Department of Merlin Gerin in charge of substation modelling ■ substation earthing electrode
the project. impedance: < 1 Ω.
Modelling in this example is limited to a
general description that should suffice ■ capacity:
calculation methods for a basic understanding of the ■ power transformer: 7 nF,
procedure and does not include a ■ instrument transformer: 4 nF.
A number of successive and
complementary calculations are made: number of details required only by ■ lightning arresters: the U = f(I)
1 sub- 2 3 transfor-
station mer
b)
2 2
instrument
transformer
lightning arresters:
n° 1 = incoming line,
circuits: n° 2 = for substation,
energised 1 1 n° 3 = for transformer
de-energised source n° 1 source n° 2
fig. 21: safety coefficients for each element of the studied equipment. The valid figure for the overall installation is 40.5 %.
kA kA
200
a d
12
150 10
8
100 a
6 c
b 4
50 b
c 2
d 0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
µs µs
a = lightning current portion of lightning current flowing:
portion of lightning current flowing: a = to earth via the lightning arrester at the head of the line (1),
b = to earth via the struck tower, b = to earth via the lightning arrester for the substation (2),
c = to earth via the last tower before the substation, c = to earth via the lightning arrester for the transformer (3),
d = to the substation via the phase subject to flashover. d = to the substation via the phase subject to flashover.
MV MV
0 0
-0.2 a b c -0.2 a b c
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.6
-0.8 -0.8
-1.0 -1.0
-1.2 -1.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
µs µs
a = voltage at the lightning arrester at the head of the line (1), a = voltage affecting the instrument transformer,
b = voltage at the lightning arrester for the substation (2), b = maximum voltage affecting the substation (see fig. 20),
c = voltage at the lightning arrester for the transformer (3). c = voltage affecting the power transformer.
This document sums up the main discussed in an effort to provide a The lightning study, broken down into
aspects concerning lightning in maximum of information, both its component parts, shows how the
electrical installations, thus constituting quantitative and qualitative, including risk of damage to equipment by
a basic introduction to this often the physical aspects of lightning itself, lightning can be calculated.
obscure, but nonetheless increasingly its effects on electrical installations,
important subject. The electrotechnical community is
currently available means of protection
today increasingly aware of the
It deals primarily with medium and high and standards. However, from all the
information contained in this document, problems caused by lightning and such
voltage installations. Lightning is a
two main points should be remembered: studies are increasingly carried out for
major constraint on equipment and is a
decisive factor in ensuring insulation ■ the concept of the lightning-arrester major international projects.
coordination. protection distance, corresponding to The current trend to take lightning
In the low-voltage field, lightning is but wave propagation phenomena at very phenomena into account starting from
one of many possible electrical high frequencies (MHz); the initial installation design phase will
disturbances (see the bibliography). ■ the example of a lightning study, continue to grow in coming years, thus
In this «Cahier Technique» publication, based on an actual study carried out by contributing to further improve the
the main practical aspects are Merlin Gerin for a 500 kV installation. quality of electrical power.
■ IEC 694: Common clauses for hifh- Merlin Gerin «Cahier Technique»
publications
voltage switchgear and controlgear
■ Protection of LV wiring against
standards (French standard:
NF C 64-010). electromagnetic interference in the HV/
EHV electric substations.
■ NF C 17-100: Protection against Cahier Technique n° 137
lightning - Rules governing installation B. CAVALADE.
of lightning arresters.
■ Les perturbations électriques en BT.
EDF (French electrical authority Cahier Technique n° 141
specifications) R. CALVAS.
Series HN 65 : ■ EMC : Electromagnetic compatibility.
■ protection against overvoltages in HV Cahier Technique n° 149
applications, F. VAILLANT.
■ spark gaps in HV installations,
■ Surtensions et coordination de
■ lightning arresters in HV applications.
l'isolement.
HN 112: Insulation coordination on Cahier Technique n° 151
400 kV networks. D. FULCHIRON.
HN 115: Design and execution ■ Calcul des courants de court-circuit.
guidelines for earthing systems. Cahier Technique n° 158
HN 119: Insulation coordination on B. DE METZ NOBLAT
225 kV networks. G. THOMASSET.