THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF SOUND AND IMAGE IN DIGITAL MEDIA CAROL VERNALLIS, AMY HERZOG, and JOHN RICHARDSON, OXFORDOXFORD (Oxford Univerty Pres ta department of the University of Oxford. Ie furthers the Universi abjecive of excllence i recearch, eholrehip, ‘nd eduction by publishing wrldide, Oxford Wee York ‘Auckland Cxpe Town Dares Salaam Hong Kong, Karachi Kuala Lumpur’ Madrid Melbourne | Menzo City Nairobi ‘New Deh "Shanghai Taipel. Tovonto With ofces in ‘Asgentina Austria Brasil" Chile Czech Republic France Greece CGastemala Hungary Italy Japan Boland’ Portugal Singapore South Kores Swetzedand’ Tasland ‘Turkey Uleaine Vietam Osford is 2 registered trademark of Oxford University Press ‘nthe UK and certain other contre Published in the United States of America by (Oxford Uaivrsey Press 298 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10036 © Oxford Univesity Press 2033 All sights reerved. No part of thie publication may be reproduce, stored in a retrieval sytem, or tranated sty frm o by toy moran, without the poe permission in writing of Oxford Univesity Press, or as expressly permitted by la, by license, or under ters agred with the appropriate reproduction rights organlzation, Inquiries concering reproduction ovtsde the scope ofthe shove should be sent to the Rights e ‘Department, Oxford University Pres, atthe address above You must net dealate thi work in anyother form snd you must impose thi same condition om any aesuier (iP Dats To Come ISBN 678-o1-9-975764-0 135798642 Printed inthe United States of America ‘on acid oe paper@ CHAPTER 4 LOST IN SENSATION Reevaluating the Role of Cinematic Sound in the Digital Age WILLIAM WHITTINGTON In the 1993 Steven Spielberg film Jurassic Park, the character of lan Malcolm (played by Jeff Goldblum) lies injured in a jeep as a genetically engineered dinosaur approaches. ‘Thunderous footfalls break the silence as Malcolm looks down to see rings of water forming in a rain-filled dinosaur track, and he anxiously voices his concern: “Does any- body hear that? That’s a um...that’ an impact tremor is what itis. P'm fairly alarmed here? In a properly aligned motion picture theater, the tremors from the approaching ‘Tyrannosaurus rex fill the entire exhibition space, situating the character and the filmgo- ers ina jeep, in a jungle, alone. This scene of peril and “alarm” exemplifies many of the ‘qualities of « contemporary blockbuster. It engages new and innovative cinematic tech- nologies, specifically the new multichannel sound format Digital Theater Sound (DTS), hich the film introduced, as wells photorealistic computer- generated imagery, which the film refined; it also combines genre themes and conventions from both science fic- tion and horror, particularly with regard to the fear of the unknowns and, finally, the scene establishes an immersive spectacle through audiovisual strategies designed to cre- atea visceral impact on filmgoers- But to truly understand the integration and implica- tions ofthese developments, itis important tofistlisten. ‘The visual design of the scene denies filmgoers a clear view of the approaching T. res, hiding the creature in the shadows and leaving the soundtrack to create the ten- sion, anxiety, and drama of the scene. In crafting the sound for this sequence, sound designer Gary Rydstrom (Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Wall-E) establishes a sense of terror by implying both the size and proximity ofthe threat by creating a dense layer of low-frequency sound effects in conjunction with a pattern of rhythmic thrumming akin to the sound of an approaching thunderstorm. He also engages the mulkichan- nl format, particularly the low-frequency and surround sound channels, to fill the well ofthe theater with rumbles and reverberations that expand the off-screen space of62 WILLIAM WHITTINGTON the diegesis. In conjunction with the aesthetics of sound design, the new digital audio ‘medium delivers the sound elements with greater fidelity and dynamic range than any previous film sound format. When the T. rex finally does appear, crashing through the trees, the musical score seamlessly picks up this pattern of panic and mayhem by ‘engaging an orchestration of high-pitched and high-frequency stringed instruments in a frenetic arrangement. These combined elements set the pace for the brief chase that follows, creating. visceral and immersive experience for both the characters on-screen and the filmgoers inthe theater. Although this film is perhaps best known for its innova- tive use of computer-generated imagery (CGI) in rendering the photorealistic images of the dinosaurs such as the T: rex it is important to remember that the “alarm” that signaled cinema’ transition into the digital age was frst heard on the film soundtrack.» In the late 1980s and 19903, much ofthe critical writing about emerging digital tech- nologies and aesthetic practices related to cinema focused on the image rather than sound. The concerns that dominated the discourse centered on production econom- ics, quality control, labor displacement, spectacle and special effects, exhibition formats, and marketing issues relating to the transition between analog and digital forms, The tone was often one of trauma, crisis, and “revolution” as the vision of cinema shifted its focusto the pixel and the virtual. At the same time, the soundtrack quietly made its way into the digital era with litte notice, somewhat lost inthe critical conversation and the visual “sensations,” except for complaints that soundtracks were suddenly “too loud’ Recently, however, a new body of technologically informed sound history and theory hhas emerged to augment and, at times, counter this history of visual culture. These new audio-centered works include Lowering the Boom—Critical Studies in Film Sound (ed. Jay Beck and Tony Grajeda) and Beyond Dolby (Stereo)—Cinema in the Digital Age (Mark Kerins), and Sound Design and Science Fiction (William Whittington), as well as journals such as MSMI—Musie, Sound and the Moving Image. "The aim of this essay is to add to this growing body of work and to reconsider the prominence and primacy of sound in the development of cinema aesthetics in the digital age So, rather than concede that the majority ofthe changes in digital aesthetics have been driven entirely by visual practices both on and offthe screen, I argue that it was, in fact, sound processes, practices, and technology that led the way into the digital era and that these have been a driving force in shaping the audiovisual dynamics of contemporary «cinema, In the 1986s, for example, early three-dimensional or 3D computer animation sequences created by Pixar Animation Studios were often unified by “hyperrealistc” and highly refined sound designs when the images proved more geometric than realis- tic, More recently, in regard to labor practices, the production processes of sound design, ‘hich encourage an overlap of the previously separate duties of recording, editing, and ‘mixing, foreshadowed the labor model for digital special effects personnel, who now find themselves workingin virtual environmentsin which they are lighting, editing, and compositing computer-generated images with live action shots. To elaborate on these and other audio influences, I focus this essay on three interrelated areas of sound and mage relations Fist, trace the development of sound design strategies and how these establish audiovisual unity and continuity. Second, I consider the narrative integrationLOST IN SENSATION 63 of digital sounds and imagesas they establish spectacle within cinematic narrative. And, finally, address the cinematic move toward immersive environments and new audiovi- sal perspectives fostered by digital sound design and multichannel formats. 1am also interested in how these factors have shaped perception and critical reception of digital cinema. These fields of focus are not meant to be exhaustive in their scope, but rather are meant to provide a foundation from which to establish a critical understanding that considers both image and sound equally in establishing the history ofthe digital in cinema today. The critical method ofthis analysis combines theories from the fields of audio and visual culture, technological convergence, and works related to spectacle and the contemporary blockbuster, in order to establish a shared vocabulary. ‘The rise of sound design in cinema since the 1960s can be attributed to a multiplicity of factors. These include the introduction of new portable technologies, which allow a broader range of “raw” sound effects to be collected and manipulated, as well as a shift in the mode of film production, particulary the collapse of the duties of the film recordist, editor, and mixers into the position of one sound artisan or sound designer. “This aesthetic movement was also led by various sound personnel such Walter Murch (The Conversation, Apocalypse Now), Ben Burtt (Star Wars), and Gary Rydstrom, and promoted by prominent filmmakers such as Francis Ford Coppola, George Lucas, and Steven Spielberg, all of whom sought to shift the role of sound in cinema away from a supporting status to a more active and dramatic engagement in audiovisual relations. ‘Concurrent with the rise of sound design, Hollywood cinema shifted its emphasis to concept-driven genre films or blockbusters that relied heavily on visual effects, makeup appliances and devices, and photochemical lab processes (eg., optical compositing) to create layers of complexity within the visual field ofa shot. In many instances, sound ‘was relied on to unify these less-than-perfect visual constructions using various psy- choacoustic and recording and mixing strategies” In the opening scene of Star Wars (1977). for example, multilayered rumbles (derived from a recording of abroken aircon-