Biology

Chapter 5
Intro:
 Cells reproduce by dividing and passing copies of their genes to ‘daughter’ cells.
o Cells can copy themselves accurately (whole cells)
o The nucleus always divides before the cell (each daughter
cells has its own nucleus).
 The nucleus controls the cell’s activity through the genetic material, DNA, a set
of instructions.
o Nuclear division combined with cell division allows the
whole organism to reproduce itself, multicellular
organisms grow this way.
o Each DNA molecule in the nucleus makes an identical
copy of itself
 All cells except gametes are all identical, in humans the all come from the
zygote.
Chromosomes:
 Just before a eukaryotic cell divides, chromosomes (thread like structures)
become visible in the nucleus.
o The number of chromosomes is specific to the species, in
humans 46.
 The behaviour of chromosomes in animal cells is identical to that in plant cells.
o Although pant cells do not contain centrosomes and
during cell division a new cell wall is formed between the
two daughter nuclei.
Parts of a chromosome:
 Telomeres are located at all tips of the
chromosome (4 in total); it allows continued
replication and prevents the loss of genes during
cell division.
o Telomeres are made out
of DNA with short base
sequences that are
repeated many times.
o Its main role is to ensure
that when DNA is replicated, the ends of the molecule are
included in the replication and not left out.
o If part of DNA is not copied those genes are lost. In each
division a small section of information is lost and
eventually the cell dies.
o Telomeres shorten in every division until the vital DNA is
no longer protected, and the cell dies.
  The centromere hold two chromatids together.There are no genes in this
region.
o Its position is characteristic to each chromosome.

 Two identical chromatids make one chromosome, each chromatid contains on

DNA molecule.
o The chromosome at that stage has a double structure,
formed by two identical chromatids attached together.
o Each chromatid contains one DNA molecule
o Two DNA molecules in a sister chromatid are identical,
one chromatid goes to the daughter cell and one to
another. This makes the cell genetically identical.

 Two meters of DNA is packed into a six um wide nucleus.

 To prevent DNA from tangling scaffolding is used; it’s made of protein molecules.
o The combination of DNA and protein is called chromatin.
o Most proteins are basic (opposite to acids) and a type
known as histones. Since they’re basic they can interact
easily with DNA which is acidic.
 DNA is coiled, these coils can further coil themselves forming
‘super coils’.
o This is called a nucleosome, which is
where the DNA wraps itself around.
o The nucleosome IS cylindrical in
shape and about 11 nm wide by 6
nm long.

o DNA is warped round this cylinder.

 Chromosomes seen just before division represent the most tightly coiled
(condensed) form of DNA.
o Chromatin is at its most condensed form in chromosomes
during metaphase (a stage of mitosis).
 Between nuclear division, some uncoiling occurs.
 Two types of chromatin:
o The euchromatin is loosely coiled.
o The heterochromatin is tightly coiled as chromosomes
seen at nuclear division.
 During interphase most chromosomes are in the form of euchromatin.
o This is where active genes are located.
o Genes in heterochromatin are mostly inactive due to tight
coils and stains densely.
 It is easy to see chromatin under a light microscope (the tighter a chromatin is the
more it stains).
 With an electron microscope you can see the difference between euchromatin and
heterochromatin.
 Centromeres and telomeres are essential for cell division.
Cell cycle
 The cell cycle is the regular sequence of
events that take place between each cell
division.
 The length of the cell cycle is very variable,
depending on the environment conditions
and cell type. In epithelial cells (humans) it
occurs every 10h.
 There are three main phases:
Interphase
 Interphase where the cell
grows to its normal size and carries out its regular functions.
o At some point during this period the cell receives a
signal and divides again.
 Interphase has three sub-stages referred to as:
o G1 where the cell makes RNA, protein for growth.
At the end of this sub-stage the cell becomes
committed to dividing or not dividing (not all cells
have to divide).
o The S phase is the synthesis phase where the DNA
is replicated.
o G2 where the cell continues to grow and any
errors in the DNA are repaired. Preparations are
also made for cell division, so there is an increase
of protein tubolin (microtubules) needed for the
miotic spindle.
Nuclear division
 Nuclear division by mitosis (also known as M phase) follows
interphase.
o During mitosis the growth stops temporarily.
o After nuclear division the cell divides to create two
identical cells.
Cell division
 In animal cells, the division consists on the constriction of
cytoplasm between the two nuclei, this is also known as
cytokinesis.
 In plant cells it consists on the formation of a new cell wall
between the two nuclei.
Mitosis
 Mitosis is the nuclear division that produces two identical daughter nuclei with
the same number of chromosomes as the parent nuclei.
 It forms part of the cell cycle and has four main stages:
 Prophase
o Early prophase
o Late prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
o Early anaphase
o Late anaphase
 Telophase
Centromeres
 The centromere is needed for the separation of chromatids in mitosis.
o They are visible and are also the site of attachment of spindle
microtubules.
 Each metaphase chromosome at its centromere has two kinetochores, one on
each chromatid.
Kinetochores
 Kinetochores are made out of protein
molecules which bind specifically to DNA
and microtubules.
o Microtubules are spindle fibres;
they extend from the
kinetochores to the spindle
poles during mitosis.
 The construction of kinetochores begins
during the S phase (synthesis phase)
before nuclear division starts.
 Microtubules attached to a kinetochore
pull it with the rest of its chromatid
dragging behind.
o This is achieved by the shortening of microtubules from each
pole end.
Centrosomes
 The centrosome is an organelle found in animal cells. It acts as the centre
microtubule, creating the spindle.
 Each centrosome consists of a pair of centrioles surrounded by a large number
of proteins.
o These proteins control the production of spindle not the
centrioles.
 About 70% of the spindle microtubules that extend form the centrosome aren’t
attached to kinetochores and have free ends.
o These microtubules may have not found a kinetochore to attach
to, and may be involved in chromatin movement.
 Plant mitosis occurs without centrosomes.
Biological significance of mitosis
 Growth. The two daughter cells formed are genetically identical to the parent
cell, allowing growth of multicellular organisms from unicellular zygotes.
o Growth may occur over the entire body or be confined to certain
regions like in plants (in the meristems).
 Replacement of cells and repair of tissues. This is possible using mitosis
followed by cell division. Cells are constantly dying and being replaced by
identical cells.
o Cell replacement is particularly quick in the skin.
o Some animals can regenerate whole parts of their bodies.
 Asexual reproduction. Mitosis is the base of asexual reproduction, producing
new individuals of one species from a single parent organism.
o Used in unicellular organisms where cell division results in
reproduction.
o Used in multicellular organisms where new individuals produced
bud of from the parent (plant buds for example).
  Immune response. The cloning of B- and T-lymphocytes during the immune
response is depending on mitosis.
Stem cells
 A stem cell is a cell that can divide an unlimited number of times by mitosis.
o When it divides each new cell has the potential to remain a stem
cell or to develop into a specialised cell (blood cell, muscle cell
etc.)
 Potency is referred to as the variable power of a stem cell to produce different
types of cells.
 Stem cells that produce any type of cell are described as totipotent
o They are found in very early mammalian embryos and can form
placenta cells.
 Stem cells that can produce all the cells that lead to the development of the
embryo but cannot make placenta cells are called pluripotent.
o They are found in embryos and adult cells (post-birth cells).
o Adult cells have already lost some of the potency associated
with the embryonic system and are no longer pluripotent.
 These cells are then called multipotent which are stem cells that can
differentiate into a few types of specialised cells and replicate any number of
times.
o They are found in bone marrow and they can form red and white
blood cells.
o Blood cells have a short life span so the existence of these stem
cells is essential.
 Stem therapy consists on introducing new adult cells into damaged tissue to
treat disease or injury.
Cancer
 Cancer is a result of uncontrolled cell division (mitosis).
 Cancerous cells divide repeatedly and form a tumour.
o These cells are usually abnormal in shape.
 Cancers are thought to start when changes occur in the genes that control cell
division.
o This is called a mutation.
o Mutations are not unusual and they rarely lead up to cancer.
o Most mutations usually result in an early death or are destroyed
by the body’s immune system.
 Cancerous cells manage to escape both fates and the mutation is passed on to
all the descendent cells.
o Any agent that causes cancer is known as carcinogen and is
described as carcinogenic.
 There are two types of tumours:
 Benign tumours
 Malignant tumours spread through the body, invade other
tissues and destroy them causing cancer.