Practical Research 1

Nature of Inquiry
and Research
 Definitions of Research
• Research came from the French word
"recherche" which means to travel
through or survey
 Definitions of Research
• UNESCO (1962) defined research as the
orderly investigation of a subject matter for
the purpose of adding to knowledge.
• “Systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical prepositions
about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena”. - Kerlinger, 1973
 Definitions of Research
• “Careful, systematic, reliable and valid method
of investigating knowledge and solving
problems”. Wiersma, 1991.
• “Systematic process of collecting and
analyzing information in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon with which
we are concerned or interested.” Leedy, 1997
 Definitions of Research
• Best and Khan (1995) defined research as the
systematic objective analysis and recording of
controlled observations that may lead to the
development of generalizations, principles or
theories, resulting in prediction and possibly
ultimate control of events.
 Definitions of Research
• research can mean any sort of “careful,
systematic, patient study and investigation in
some field of knowledge
– Webster’s new world dictionary of the American
language, 2nd ed. (1984)
• methodical investigation into a subject in
order to discover facts, to establish or revise a
theory, or to develop a plan of action based
on the facts discovered
– Microsoft® Encarta® (2009)
Characteristics of Research Process

• Research originated with a question or

problem
-inquisitive mind
• Researchers require a clear articulation of a
goal
-ambiguity must be avoided
• Research requires a specific plan of procedure
-carefully planned attack
Characteristics of Research Process

• Research usually divides the principal

problems into more manageable sub-
problems
• Researchers are guided by specific research
problems; question or hypothesis
• Research accepts certain critical assumption
-the assumptions must be valid or
else the research cannot proceed
Characteristics of Research Process

• Research requires the collection and

interpretation of data in attempting to reslve
the problem that initiated the research
• Research is by its nature, cyclical or more
exactly helical.
Research Process
 Statement of the Research Problem

• The problem of a study sets the stage for

everything else.
• The problem statement should be accompanied
by a description of the background of the
problem (what factors caused it to be a problem
in the first place) and a rationale or justification
for studying it.
• Any legal or ethical ramifications related to the
problem should be discussed and resolved.
 Formulation of an exploratory
question or a hypothesis:
• Research problems are usually stated as
questions, and often as hypotheses.
– hypothesis - a prediction, a statement of what specific
results or outcomes are expected to occur.
• The hypotheses of a study should clearly indicate
any relationships expected between the variables
(the factors, characteristics, or conditions) being
investigated and be so stated that they can be
tested within a reasonable period of time.
• Not all studies are hypothesis-testing studies, but
many are.
 Definitions
• All key terms in the problem statement and
hypothesis should be defined as clearly as
possible.
 Review of related literature
• Other studies related to the research problem
should be located and their results briefly
summarized.
• The literature review (of appropriate journals,
reports, monographs, etc.) should shed light
on what is already known about the problem
and should indicate logically why the
proposed study would result in an extension
of this prior knowledge.
 Sample
• The subjects (the sample) of the study and the
larger group, or population (to whom results
are to be generalized), should be clearly
identified.
• The sampling plan (the procedures by which
the subjects will be selected) should be
described.
 Instrumentation
• Each of the measuring instruments that will be
used to collect data from the subjects should
be described in detail, and a rationale should
be given for its use.
 Procedures
• The actual procedures of the study- what the
researcher will do (what, when, where, how, and with
whom) from beginning to end, in the order in which
they will occur- should be spelled out in detail
(although this is not written in stone).
• This, of course, is much less feasible and appropriate in
a qualitative study. A realistic time schedule outlining
when various tasks are to be started, along with
expected completion dates, should also be provided.
• All materials (e.g textbooks) and/or equipment (e.g
computers) that will be used in the study
• The general design or methodology (e.g., an
experiment or a survey)
 Data Analysis
• Any statistical techniques, both descriptive
and inferential, to be used in the data analysis
should be described. The comparisons to be
made to answer the research question should
be made clear.
 Purposes of Studying Research

• To orient students to the nature of

educational research; its purposes, forms and
importance
• To provide information which helps students
become more intelligent consumers of
educational research: where to locate it, how
to understand it and critique it.
 Purposes of Studying Research

• to provide information on the fundamentals

of doing educational research such as
selecting a problem, using availabl;e tools,
organizing a project, etc
• \to generate new theories, confirm existing
ones or diapprove them, for example, the role
of punishment in discipline
 Importance of Research
• to determine the accuracy or otherwise and
validity of popular beliefs and religious practices
by submitting them to systematic scrutiny
• to enhance, modify or refine our knowledge of
phenomenon or various theories surrounding our
environment and society
• to generate new concepts and explanations of
existing rules and policies, beliefs and practices,
economics, political or social system.
• to evaluate the findings of other
researches/studies or build on where they
stopped.
 Importance of Research
• to bring the legacy left behind by early scholars as
well as the contributions of modern scholars to
the limelight.
• to seek validation or improvement for religious
doctrines and practices, social interactions,
economic improvement, politics, ideology etc.,
etc. to enhance quality of ordinary and spiritual
life of man.
• to collect and analyze data which will enable us
to provide information and advice to policy or
decision makers.
Research Ethics
 Ethics
• The term ethics refers to questions of
right and wrong.
– Webster’s New World Dictionary defines ethical
(behavior) as “conforming to the standards of
conduct of a given profession or group.”
• Research ethics deals primarily with the
interaction between researchers and the
people they study.
Examples of Unethical Practices
Examples of Unethical Practices

• A researcher asks first-graders sensitive

questions without obtaining the consent of
their parents to question them.
• A researcher deletes data he collects that do
not support his hypothesis.
• A researcher requires university students to fill
out a questionnaire about their sexual
practices.
 Fundamental principles
• Respect for persons
– requires a commitment to ensuring the autonomy
of research participants, and where autonomy
may be diminished, to protect people from
exploitation of their vulnerability.
– The dignity of all research participants must be
respected. Adherence to this principle ensures
that people will not be used simply as means to
achieve research objectives.
 Fundamental principles
• Beneficence
– requires a commitment to minimizing the risks
associated with research, including psychological
and social risks, and maximizing the benefits that
accrue to research participants.
 Fundamental principles
• Justice
– requires a commitment to ensuring a fair
distribution of the risks and benefits resulting
from research. Those who take on the burdens of
research participation should share in benefits of
the knowledge gained.
– Or, to put it another way, the people who are
expected to benefit from the knowledge should
be the ones who are asked to participate.
 Fundamental principles
• Respect for communities
– “confers on the researcher an obligation to
respect the values and interests of the
community in research and, wherever possible, to
protect the community from harm.”
– This principle is, in fact, fundamental for research
when community-wide knowledge, values, and
relationships are critical to research success and
may in turn be affected by the research process or
its outcomes.
 Informed Consent
• Informed consent is a mechanism for ensuring
that people understand what it means to
participate in a particular research study so
they can decide in a conscious, deliberate way
whether they want to participate.
• One of the most important tools for ensuring
respect for persons during research.
How do we achieve informed consent?
• In general, data collection activities that
require more than casual interaction with a
person require individual informed consent
from that person, regardless of whether
community-level permissions exist. Examples
of such activities include in-depth interview
and focus groups.
How do we achieve informed consent?
• The person should be told:
– the purpose of research
– what is expected of a research participant, including the
amount of time likely to be required for participation
– expected risks and benefits, including psychological and social
– That participation is voluntary and that one can withdraw at any
time with no negative repercussions
– how confidentiality will be protected
– the name and contact information of the local lead investigator
to be contacted for questions or problems related to research
– the name and contact information of an appropriate person to
contact with questions about one's rights as a research
participant
 Written Consent
• A person receives a written form that
describes the research and then signs that
form to document his or her consent to
participate.
• For illiterate participants, the form is read to
them, they make some kind of mark in place
of a signature, and then a witness usually
signs as testimony that the consent is
authentic.
• Documented informed consent.
 Oral Consent
• A person receives all of the information
needed for consent either verbally or in
writing and then verbally consents to
participate.
• The participant does not sign a consent form;
therefore, this is often described as waiving
the requirement for documentation of
informed consent. This does not mean that
the requirement for informed consent is
waived.
• Most ethics committees require the
researchers to maintain accurate records of
how and when consent was obtained for each
participant. Oral consent is generally
acceptable for research with minimal risk, or
where a loss of confidentiality is the primary
risk and a signed consent form would be the
only piece of identifying information for study
participation.
Approaches to Research

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
VS.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 QUANTITATIVE vs. QUALITATIVE
• Quantitative and qualitative methods differ in
their
– assumptions about the purpose of research itself
– methods utilized by researchers
– kinds of studies undertaken,
– the role of the researcher,
– and the degree to which generalization is possible.
 QUANTITATIVE vs. QUALITATIVE
Orientation Quantitative Qualitative

Assumption A single reality, i.e.,

about the can be measured by Multiple realities
world an instrument

Establish relationships Understanding

between measured situations and
Research variables ; events from
Purpose
Explain the causes of participants‘
relationships perspectives
Orientation Quantitative Qualitative
•flexible, changing
•procedures are strategies and
established before techniques;
study begins (pre-
established); •design emerges
Research during the course
•a hypothesis is of research
methods and
formulated before
processes •hypothesis is not
research can
begin; needed to begin
research;
•deductive in
nature •inductive in
nature
Orientation Quantitative Qualitative
The researcher is
ideally an
The researcher
objective observer
participates and
who neither
becomes
Researcher's role participates in or
immersed in the
influences what is
research/social
being studied (a
setting
detached
observer)
Detailed context-
Universal context-
Generalization based
free generalization
generalizations
 Qualitative Research
• may conclude with
tentative answers on
hypothesis about what
was observed.
• tentative hypotheses may
then form the basis of the
future quantitative
research
Quantitative Research
• used to answer
questions about
relationship among
measured variables
with the purpose of
explaining, predicting
and controlling
phenomena.
 Differences of the two methods of research
Sources of
Qualitative Research Method
Differences
•When in-dept hunderstanding
of a specific issue is required
•To understand behavior,
perception and priorities of
affected community
•to explain information provided
through quantitative data
When to use
it? •to emphasize a holistic
approach ( processes and
outcomes
•When assessors only knows
roughly in advance what he/she
is looking for’
•recommended during earlier
phases of assessments
Quantitative Research Method
•To get a broad comprehensive
understanding of the situation
•to get socio-demographic
characteristics of the
population
•to compare relations and
correlations between different
issues
•when accurate and precise
data is required
•to produce evidence about
the type and size of problems
•recommended during latter
phases of assessment
 •to explore, understand
phenomena
•provides in depth
understanding of specific
issues
Objectives •detailed and complete
information,
and
Features contextualization,
interpretation and
description
•perspectives, opinions and
explanations of affected
populations toward events,
beliefs or practices
•to seek precise
measurement, quantify,
confirm hypotheses
•provides general
overview
•provides demographic
characteristics
•objective and reliable
•apt for generalization
•objectively verifiable
•prediction, causal
explanation
 •data which can be
counted or measured,
•data can be observed
involves amount,
but not measured
Data format measurement or anything
•mainly textual but also of quantity
categorical
•mainly numerical and
categorical values
•Answers questions
arising during the •Answers a controlled
discussion sequence of questions
-How with pre-determined
Answers the possible answers
-Why
questions -What
-What do I need to look
for in more detail? -How many?
•Questions are generally •Questions are closed
open ended
 •Looks at the whole
context from within
•Searches for patterns
•looks at specific aspects
Perspective •lends itself to community from the outside
participation. Seeks depth
of perspective though
ongoing analysis
•Quick counting
•Individual interviews
estimates
•key informant interviews
•sampling surveys
•semi-structured
Methods •population movement
interviews
tracking
•focus group discussions
•registration
•observation
•structured interviews
Sampling •Non random (purposive) •Random

Flexible, the assessor is

Study Designs
the primary instrument fixed, standards control
and
for data collection and the assessor's bias
Instruments
analysis

checklist with open predetermined

Questionnaire questions and flexible questionnaire with
sequence sequence and structure
 •Use inductive reasoning
•involves a systematic and
iterative process of
searching, categorizing and
integrating data
•describes the meaning of •Uses deductive
research findings from methods
Analysis
perspective of the research •descriptive statistics
participants •Inferential statistics
•Involves developing
generalizations from a
limited number of specific
observations or experiences
•Analysis is descriptive
 Emphases of Quantitative Research
• Specific hypotheses or questions derived from
theory/previous research
• selecting a large, random sample
representative of the population
• using objective instruments
• presenting results using statistics and making
inferences to the population
• "Distance" between researcher and subjects
and emphasis on following the research plan
 Emphases of Qualitative Research
• Starting with general research problems and not
formulating hypotheses
• selecting a small, purposive sample which may or
may not be representative of the larger population
• using relatively unstructured instruments
• presenting results mainly or exclusively in words and
deemphasizing generalizations to the population
• Researcher awareness of their own
orientations/biases/experiences and personal
interaction in the context with an emphasis on
flexibility in research
Approaches to Quantitative Research

1. Experimental Research
– It is the only type of research that directly
attempts to influence a particular variable, and
when properly applied, it is the best type for
testing hypotheses about cause-and-effect
relationships.
2. Correlational Research
– It investigates the possibility of relationships
between two variables, but there is no
manipulation
Approaches to Quantitative Research

3. Causal-Comparative Research
– It determines the cause or consequences of
differences that already exist between or among
groups of individuals (i.e. difference between male
and female in terms of linguistic abilities)
4. Survey Research
– It aims to describe the characteristics of a population.
In essence, what researchers want to find out is how
the members of a population distribute themselves on
one or more variables (for example, age, ethnicity,
religious preference, attitudes toward school).
Approaches to Qualitative Research

1. Narrative Research
– the study of the life experiences of an individual
as told to the researcher or found in documents
and archival material
2. Phenomenological Study
– gaining some insight into the world of the
participants and to describe their perceptions
and reactions to a phenomenon.
Approaches to Qualitative Research

3. Grounded Theory
– The researchers intend to generate a theory that
is “‘grounded’ in data from participants who have
experienced the process (Strauss&Corbin, 1998).”
4. Case Study
– A case comprises just one individual, classroom,
school, program, or a situation/event/activity.
 Approaches to Qualitative Research

5. Ethnographic Research
– It focuses on the study of culture.
– documenting or portraying the everyday
experiences of individuals by observing and
interviewing them and relevant others.
6. Historical Research
– It concentrates exclusively on the past.
– systematic collection and evaluation of data to
describe, explain, and thereby understand actions
or events that occurred sometime in the past.
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
APPROACH APPROACH
1. Experimental 1. Narrative Research
research 2. Phenomenological
2. Correlational Study
research 3. Case Study
3. Causal-Comparative 4. Ethnographic
Research Research
4. Survey Research 5. Historical Research
6. Grounded Theory