Beyer OS Curriculum Development in Language Teaching Jack C. Richards Southeast Asian Ministers of Edveatio Organization Regional Language Cente, Singapore [BRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS‘The Fie Building, Trumpington Stes, Combridge, United Kingdom ‘The Edinburgh Belling, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Stee, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oaldeigh, VIC 3166, Austalia, Raia de Alsreén 13,8014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Watefroat, Cape Town 8001, South Attica bepuwwscambridge.org (© Cambridge Univesity Press 2001 This book isin copjight Subjectto samstory exception and tthe provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, to repeoduction of any pact may take place without the wien permission of Cambridge Universi Press. First published 2001, Printed in the United States of Ameria ‘Typeface Times Roman 104/129¢ (AG) Library of Congress Cotaloging-in Publication Data Richards, Jack C (Carrculime development in language teaching /Jack C. Richards. > pen ISBNO-s21-80060-9 1 Language and languages ~ Seody and aching 2, Cesvicalum planing, Tie. 55.295 .R53 2001 aea0n- a, oovossin1 1583052 80608 mutta SSewosaisoolequpemer SF2IF “RSS Ceduepearonrters 790 / 279416Contents Series editor's preface ix Preface xi 1 The origins of language curriculum developmeat 1 Historical background 2 Vocabulary selection 4 Grammar selection and gradation 9 Assumptions underlying eacly approaches to syllabus design 15 Discussion questions and activites 16 ‘Appendix 1 Entries from A Gevieral Service List of English Words 17 Appendix? Entries from Cambridge English Lexicon 18 ‘Appendix 3. Partof an early English grammatical syllabus 20 References 22 2. From syllabus design to curriculum development 23 “The quest fornew methods 23 Changing needs for foreign languages in Europe 26 English for specific purposes - 28 Needs analysisin ESP 32 Communicative language teaching 36 Emergence of a curiculum approach in language teaching 39 Discussion questions and activites 43 ‘Appendix 1 Example of scientific writing 45 ‘Appendix 2 Words found often in academic reading materials 47 References 48 3. Needs analysis 51 ‘The purposes of needs analysis 52 Whatare needs? 54vi Contents ‘The users of needs analysis 55 ‘The target population 57 ‘Administering the needs analysis 58 Procedures for conducting needs analysis 59 Designing the needs analysis 63 ‘Making use of the information obtained 64 Discussion questions and activities 67 Examples of needs analyses 68 Appendix 1 Designing questionnaire 72 ‘Appendix 2. Needs analysis questionnaire for Cantonese Keamers 73 Appendix’ Needs analysis questionnaire for non-English- ‘background students 80 References 89 i 4 Situation analysis 90 Societal factors. 93 Project factors 95 Institutional factors 97 ‘Teacher factors 99 Leamer factors 101 ‘Adoption factors 103 Profiling the factors identified in the situation analysis 105, Discussion questions and activities 106 Appendix 1 Situation analysis profile 108 ‘Appendix 2 Matrix for identifying factors in curriculum renewal process 108 References 111 5 Planning goals and leaming outcomes 112 The ideology of the curriculum 113 Stating curriculum outcomes 120 Nonlanguage outcomes and process objectives 133 Discussion questions and activities 137 Appendix 1 Behavioral objectives 139 ‘Appendix 2 Listening and conversation skills. 140 ‘Appendix 3 ESOL standards for grades 4-8 141 References 142Contents vi 6 Course planning and syllabus design 145 Thecourse rationale 145 Describing the entry and exit level 146 Choosing course content 147 Determining the scope and sequence 149 Planning the course structure 151 Preparing the scope and sequence plan 167 Discussion questions and activities 168 Appendix 1 Proficiency descriptions for the domain of speaking 170 Appendix 2 Description of performance levels; writing 174 Appendix 3 Band descriptors for oral interaction skills “176 ‘Appendix 4 Grammar items and their sequence in a fist-year English course 178 Appendix S Threshold level sylabus 179 ‘Appendix 6 Skills syllabus for listening and speaking 182 Appendix 7 Designing course from texts 185 Appendix 8 Avnitfrom Passages] 187 ‘Appendix 9 Partof the scope and sequence chart from ‘New Interchange, vol.1 195 References 196 Providing for effective teaching 198 ‘The instivation _ 198 ‘The teachers 209 The teaching process 216 The learning process 223 Discussion questions and activities 225 Appendix 1 Institutional mission statement 227 ‘Appendix 2 Best practice in English language teaching 228 ‘Appendix 3 Assessment criteria for teaching practice 231 ‘Appendix 4 Checklist for evaluating a teacher's lesson 232 ‘Appendix 5 Qualities and competencies of a good English teacher 236 Appendix 6 Self-evaluation of a teacher's lesson 240 Appendix? Student appraisal form — 244 ‘Appendix 8 Peer appraisal form 248 References 249Contents § The role and design of instructional materials 251 ‘Authentic versus created materials 252 Textbooks 254 Evaluating textbooks 256 ‘Adapting textbooks 260 Preparing materials for program 261 Managing a materials writing project 267 Monitoring the use of materials 270 Discussion questions and activities 271 ‘Appendix 1 Guidelines for developing reading activities, 272 ‘Appendix 2 Checklist for evaluation and selection of course books 274 ‘Appendix 3 Case study of materials development project 277 References 284 9 Approaches toevaluation 286 Purposes of evaluation 288 Formative evaluation 288 lurninative evaluation 289 Summative evaluation 291 Issues in program evaluation 294 Procedures used in conducting evaluations 299 Discussion questions and activities 304 Appendix Examples of programevaluations 305 References 309 Author index 311 Subject index 314Series editor's preface ‘The activities of language teaching have ofteabeea viewed froma very nar row perspective. This is evident from the fascination with teaching methods nat has characterized the history of language teaching until relatively 1 cently, Methods have often been regarded as the most important factor in determining the success of a language program, and advances in language teaching have sometimes been seen as being dependent on the adoption of| the latest method. A perspective often missiag from the method-based view of teaching is that of how methods interact with other factor in te teach- ing-leaming process. Who are the learners and the teachers? Whet expecta- tions do they have forthe program? What learning and teaching styles do they bring to the program? For what purposes is the language aceded? What goals dots the program have, and how are these goals expressed? In what settings will teaching take place, and what organizational structure is in place to support and maintain good teaching? What resources wil be used, and what are their roles? Wat isthe role of textbooks and other materials? ‘What measures will be used to determine the success of the program? Choice of teaching method cannot therefore be made unless a great deal is ‘kxown about the context fr the language program and the interactions be- tween the dfferet elements involved, Itis this perspective that characte izes a curioulum-based approach to language teaching. “This book presets an approach to the teaching-leaming process that sees successful language as being dependent upon the activities of curiculum evelopment, that is, the use of a variety of planning and implementation processes involved in developing or renewing 2 language program. These processes include determing l2amers’ needs, analysis ofthe context for the program and consideration ofthe impact of contextual factor, the plan- ning of learning outcomes, the organization of a course or set of teaching rnatedals, the selection and preparation of caching materials, provision for and maintenance of effective teaching, and evaluation of the program. These elements constitute a set of interrelated elements, and their nature and fune- tion form the focus of this book. The book seeks to survey key istues and practices within language curriculum development in order to provide thex. Series editors preface ‘basis for more effective planning and decision making in language program development, implementation, and review. I hope that teachers and other language teaching professionals will find that this book helps them better understand and use the skills involved in developing effective language Pro- grams. Jack C, RichardsPreface Like many language teaching professionals, I entered the field of language teaching as a classroom teacher, aticipating that as I accumulated experi- cence and professional knowledge, I would become abetter teacher. As many others have discovered, however, I soon came to realize that being an ef- fective teacher meant much more thaa becoming a more skillful and know!- ‘edgeable classcoom practitioner Irmeant learning how to develop and adept materials, to plan and evaluate courses, to adapt teaching to surdents” needs, ‘and to function within an insttstional setting. It became clear that effective teaching was dependent on understanding the context for teaching, the needs of teachers and leamers, the careful planning of courses and matedi- als, as well as the monitoring of teaching and learning, In shor, it was neo- essary to try to understand teaching asa part of an interrelated set of factors and processes that are often referred to as curriculum development. “This book seeks co describe end examine the processes of curriculum de- velopment in language teaching in order to acquaint language teachers and teachers-in-training with fundamental issues and practices in language Fulum development, Curriculum development is an essentially practical activity since it seeks to improve the quality of language teaching through the use of systematic planning, development, and review practices in all as- pects of a language program. The book tres t0 provide as many examples as possible of how some of the practical problems in language program de~ ‘velopment have been addressed by practitioners in many pars ofthe world, ‘At the same time, the practices employed in developing and renewing lan- ‘guage programs themselves reflect ongoing theories and developments in language teaching pedagogy, second language acquisition theory, educs- tional theory, and related fields; heace the book also seeks to highlight im- ‘portant theoretical issues that can have a significant impacton language cur- ‘iculum practices. ‘The book is planned for use in in-service courses and workshops as well as to provide a scurcebook for teachers, program administrators, and other language teaching professiona’s. The book as 2 whole examines the key processes ia curriculum development, including needs analysis, planning xxii Preface goals and outcomes, course planning, teaching, materials development, and Evaluation. In the eaclier chapters, | have provided a historical perspective fon how the field of curriculum development in language teaching has volved, since I believe it is important for language teaching professionals to have some sense ofthe history of the issues that have shaped the devel- ‘opment of language teaching, The subsequent chapters seck to survey Key jgoues related to curriculum development issues and processes, ustrating different poinss of view and providing detailed practical examples by Way of illustration. Discussion questions atthe ead of each chapter provide op- portunities for further refleeion end application of some of the issues is- cussed. “The book reflects my own 30 years of experience as a teacher, teacher educator, program director, aed materials writer in many different pats of the world, Any expertise I can claim to have in curriculum development is a result of learning through the practical experience of developing curricu- Jum and materials and directing language programs. My initial explorations in language curriculum development rook me from New Zealand, where I received my initial reacher training, to Quebec, where I completed my doc- foral research in syllabus design with W. F. Mackey in the 1970s. Subse- Gquendly, have spent periods of time in universities and teacher taining cen- is in Indonesia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Hawaii, and New Zealand, ‘working in all aspects of language teaching from curriculum and materials evelopment, to teaching, to program administration. Ihave also served 25 fs consultant to a number of curriculum projects and institutions indifferent parts of the world. A recent 10-year annual consultancy with the Ministry 2f Edveation ofthe Sultanate of Oman also provided an invaluable oppor tunity 19 provide input to curriculum and materials development projects at ‘national level. At the same time, experience as a writer of commercial lan- guage teaching materials with a worldwide markethas provided opporuni- ties to work regularly with teachers and teacher trainers in more than twenty ‘countries, an expetience that has given additional perspectives on problems {volved in developing and using teaching materials, In recent years Lbave ‘been in the pleasant position of being able to divide my time between class- room teaching, eacher training, and writing, from the congenial eavizon- neat provided by the Regional Language Center in Singapore, whose unique library resources and materials collection proved invaluable daring the preparation of this book. ‘Earlier versions of this book have been used in postgraduate and in-serv- ice courses at the University of Arizona ia the United States; the University of Auckland, New Zealand; the National Institute of Education, Singapore; the Regional Language Center, Singapore; and the SEAMEO RegionalPreface xii ‘Training Center, Ho Chi Mink City, Vietnam. I am grateful for the com- ments and suggestions received from teachers and students at these institu tions. I am also grateful for detailed comments on the manuscript from Dr. Jun Liu, University of Arizona, Dr. Ted Rodgers, University of Hawaii, Geoffrey Crewes, CEO of the Indonesian-Australian Language Foundation, Jakarta, Indonesia, and several anonymous reviewers. Jack C. RichardsCredits Page 17: Appendix 1 Entries from A General Service List of English Words. Reproduced by pecrission ofthe University of London, Incnute of Bdu- agon. Pages 20 and 21: Appendix 3 Part of an early English grammatical Syllabus, Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press. From Trashing Structural Words and Sentence Paterss by A. S. Horaby ‘© Oxford University Press 1959. Pages 45 and 46: Appendix 1 Example of scientific writing. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education Lim- {ted, Pages Mf] and 142: Appendix 3 ESOL standards for grades 4-8. From TESOL (1991). ESL Standards for Pre-K=12 Students (p. 71). Alexandcia, ‘Vaz Author. Copyright © 1997 by Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. Reprinted with permission, Pages 174 and 178: Appendix 2 Description of performance levels; writing, Reprinted from ESP Journal, vol, 11, B, Paltsidge, EAP placement testing: Aa integrated approach, pages 243-268, copyzight 1992, with permission from Elsevier Science. Pages 187 to 194: A unit from Passages 1. Page 187 (cop 'rows let 10 right) © David Henover/Tony Stone Images; © Pete Saloutos/The Stock Market, © Mikki Ansia/Liaison Agency; (bottom row, left right) © Mike Malys2ko/BGP International; © Rober E. DaemmriciyTony Stone Images; © Christophe LepetivLizison Agency. Page 188 © Mug Shots/The ‘Stock Market. Page 189 (cop) © Ariel Skelley/The Stock Market; (bottom) © Davie Young Woltf/Tony Stone Images. Source (cop): From Eccenics by David Weeks and Jamie James, Copyright © 1995 by David Weeks. Reprinted by permission of Villard Books, a Division of Random House Ine. Page 191: (Gottom left) Photo courtesy of 3M Company; Postit is a registered trademark of 3M; (ail otkers) © Richard Bachmans. Page 192: © Rick Rusing/Leo de Wys. Page 194: (leftto right) Couresy of Sony Blec- tronies Inc. Pages 231 to 232: Appendix 3 Assessment criteria for teaching practice, Reproduced by permission of the University of Cambsidge Local Examinations Syndicate. xiv irhe origins of language ~ curriculum development i course of language instruction, Second and foreign language teaching is one ofthe world’s largest educational entepeses and millions of children and adults worldwide devote large amounts of time and effor 10 the task of mastering a new language. Teachers too invest a great deal of ‘their energies into planning language courses, prepariag teaching materials, ‘and teaching their classes. What educational principles are these activities based on? What values do these principles reflect? Whose interests do they sgrve? And can our practices be improved through feviewiag te penciples ‘e operate from and critically examining the practices that result from ‘hen? The goa] ofthis book ist provide some of te fol for this process ing language programs and language fectngs mae Sine Lancs curriculum development deals with tons, which provide the framework for this book: + What procedures can be used to determine. the content of language “ + Whats the nature of aims and objectives in teaching and how can these be developed? + What factors are involved in planning the syllabus and the units of or- ganization in a course? + How can good teaching be provided in a program? + What issues arc involved in selecting, adapting, and designing instruc- ‘tos materials? ree + HoW cin ofie measure the effectiveness of a language program?2 Chapter 1 Language curriculum development is an aspect ofa broader field of educa- tional activity known as curriculum development or curriculum studies. Cur- ealum development focuses on determining what knowledge, skils, and values students learn in schools, what experiences should be provided to bring boot intended leaming outcomes, and how teaching and learning in schools tr educational systems can be planned, measured, and evaluated. Language Curriculum development refers to the field of applied Linguistics that 2d- ‘Seesses these issues, It describes an interelated set of processes that foouses oon designing, revising, implementing, and evaluating language programs. Historical background ‘The history of curriculum development in language teaching starts with the notion of syllabus deSign. Syllabus design is one aspect of curriculum de- ‘elopment but is not identical with it A syllabus is a specification of ‘content of a course of instruction and lists what will be taught and tested. ‘Thusthe syllabus for a speaking course might specify the kinds of oral skills that will be taught and practiced ducing the course, the functions, topics, or ‘other aspects of conversation that will be aught, and the order in which they ‘will appear inthe course. Syllabus design isthe process of developing 2 sy!~ fabus, Current approaches to syllabus design will be discussed in Chapter 6, Cureiculum development is a more comprehensive process thaa syllabus design: It includes the processes that are used to determine the needs of a group of leamers, to develop aims or objectives for a program to address those needs, to determine an appropriate syllabus, course structure, teach- {ag methods, and materials, an to cay outa evaluation of the language program that results from these processes, Curriculum development in lan~ Buage teaching as we know it today really began in the 1960s, though is- Sues of syllabus design emerged as a major factor in language teaching auch earlier. In this chapter we will look at the approaches to syllabus de- ‘Sgn that emerged inthe fist part of the twentieth century and that laid the foundations for more broadly based curriculum approaches that are used in language teaching today. ‘Ewe look back atthe history of language teaching throughout the sven eth century, much of the impetus for changes in approaches to language teaching came about from changes in reaching methods. The method con- cept in teaching - the notion ofa systematic set of teaching practices based con « particular theory of language and language learning ~is apowecful one fand the quest for better methods has been a preoccupation of many teachThe origins of language curriculum development 3 cers and applied linguists since the beginning of the twentieth century. Many ‘methods have come and gone in the last 100 years in pursuit of the “best method,” as the following chronology illustrates, with dates suggesting pe- riods of greatest dominance: Grammar Translation Method (1800-1900) Direct Method (1890-1930) ‘Structural Method (1930-1960) Reading Method (1920-1950) ‘Audiolingual Method (1950-1970) ‘Situational Method (1950-1970) Communicative Approach (1970-present) Mackey (1965, 151) ommenred tat although there has been a preference for paricular methods at diferent imes, mctbods often continue in some form Tong afer they have fallen out of favor this observations sill tue today, with grammar translation stil alive and well in some parts ofthe world. Common bat paceded Toe charters of many ofthe methods sted above have ‘Been described elsewhere and need not concern us Further here (2.8. and Rodgers 1986). But tis important to recognize that although methods are specifications forthe BES i quedtions of how ~ they also make tugh eis te ten finizaon Forexampe, or ass eiod Jnown as the Disect Method, which developed in opposition to the Gramma “Translation Method inthe late nineteenth century prescribes not only the way language should be taught, withan emphasis on the exclusive use ofthe tr- get language, intensive qiesion-and-answer teaching techniques, and ‘demonstration and dramatization to communicate meanings of words; i aso prescribes the vocabilary and grammar to be taught andthe order in which it should be presented. The Direct Method hence assumes a particular type of| syllabus. However, as new methods emerged to replace the Grarmmar Trans- lation Method, the initial concera was not with syllabus, questions but with approdGei Wo teaching and methodological principles Abe used support an oral-based target language-driven methodology. Harold Palmer, the prominent Betish applied linguist who laid the foundations for the Seruc- tural Method inthe 1920s, summarized the principles of language teaching methodology at that time as follows: 1. Initial preparation ~ orienting the students towards language learning 2. Habit-forming — establishing correct habitsWn, E 4 Chapter? Accuracy ~ avoiding insecurate language ._ Gradation ~each stage prepares the student for the next Proportion ~ each aspect of language given emphasis ‘Concteteness ~ movement from the concrete to the abstract Interest ~ arousing the student's interest at all times | Order of progression — hearing before speaking, and both before writing ‘Multiple line of approach ~many different ways used to teach the lan- guage (Palmer (1922] 1968, 38-39) Once a consensus had emerged conceming the principles underlying an oral-based methodology, applied linguists then turned their ateation to is- sues of the content and syllabus design underlying the’ Structural Method. Initial steps in this direction centered on approaches to detersnining the vo- cabulery and grammatical content of a language course. This led to proce dures that were known as selection and gradation. Tn any language program a limited amount of time is available for teach- ing. One of the first problems to be solved is deciding what should be se- “ected from the total corpus ofthe language and incorporated in textbooks dad teaching mates: This came to be known asthe problem of seleein. Mackey (1965, 161) comments: “Selection is an inherent characteristic of ‘methods. Since itis impossible to teach the whole of a languagé, all “nethods must in some way or other, whether intentionally or no, select the part of it they intend to teach." The field of selection in language teaching deals with the choice of appropriate units ofthe language for teaching pur- ‘poses and withthe development of techniques and procedures by which the Tanguage can be reduced to that which is most useful tothe leamer (Mackey 1965). All teaching, of course, demands a choice of what willbe taught from the total field of the subject, and the teaching of a language at any level and under any circumstances requires the selection of certain features ofthe Lan- guage and the intentional or unintentional exclusion of others. Two aspects Of selection received primary actention inthe first few decades ofthe twen- beth century: vocabulary selection and grarimar selection. Approaches to ‘these two aspects of selection laid the foundations for syllabus design in lan- guage teaching. Vocabulary selection ‘Vocabulary is one of the most obvious components of language and one of the frst things applied linguists turned their atention to. What words shouldThe origins of language curriculum development 5 and the amount of ine available for teaching Educat thought to have a recognition vocabulary of some 17,000 words but tis is aa much larger numberof words than canbe taught ina language course, Not all the words that native speakers Know are necessatily useful for seSond age learners who bave only a limited time available for leaming. ~STiGULd they ser ot to Tear 5007 1,000, or 5,000 words? And if so, which? ‘ones? This is the issue of vocabulary selection in language teaching. Is se- lection something that should be left entirely to the intuitions of textbook writers and course glanners or are there principles that can be used t pro- dace 2 more objective and rational approach? Leaving selection issues to the intuitions of textbook wrers can lead to very uncelisble resuls For ex- ample, Li and Richards (1995) examined five introductory textbooks used for teaching Cantonese (the language spoken in Hong Kong) inorder to de~ termine what worts the textbook compilers considered essential for for cigner to learn andthe extent to which textbook writers greed on what constitutes te basi vocabulary of Cantonese as a second language. Each of the books was designed for a similar type of student and assurned a0 background knowledge of the language. Esch se: ott to tezch basic com- runicative skis, hough the methodology of each book varied. Tt was ound thatthe five books introduced a total of approximately 1,800 dffe- ene words, although not al ofthese words occurred in each of the five tex The distibation of words in the five books is as follows: Words occurring in one of the texts 1,141 words = 63.4% Words occusring in two of the texts’ 313 words = 17.4% Words occurring in three of the text 155 words. = 8.6% Words occurring in fourof the texts 114 words = 63% ‘Words occurring inl of the texts = 77 words = 4.3% (Liand Richards 1995) From these figures itcan be seen that a substantial percentage of the corpus (63.4 percent) consists of words that occurred in only one ofthe five txts. “These words could not therefore be considered to belong tothe essential vo- in whic ore Eluaion_—-5 new » evoebel, ‘As Lawton (1973) pointed out, this cather naive view of the curriculum process was ct really intended by Tyler himself, whose book was a re sponse to his observation that many teachers ser eto explain what40 Chapter 2 the goals of thei teaching were, except in the most asked 10 ‘eplaia their objectives, they might say, “We are trying to produce well-ed- uucated and well-rounded students.” Such a statement, however, does not help identify the kind of teaching that might contribute to this goal or the kind of learning that would result from it. Tyler argued. Lob rehoal esos ener bebavior (Got Tacher behavior) and should oa Thave come about in leamers as a result of teachin: ‘Tyler's model or variations of soon Pemeware “OT education: thought and practice and curriculum and waining manuals were soon full of models such asthe following (Inglis 1975): 2. PLAN 1. veep Alms Objectives, Strategies Tactics 3. DMPLEMENTATION 4. REVIEW e Methods Techniques ‘Evaluation Consolidation Cities of the Tyler model (of which there were maay) raised a number ‘of objections, some arguing thatthe notion of objectives represents a lim ited view of knowledge (see Chapter 5) and some criticizing the technical and rationalist approach of the model, witich seemed better suited to busi- ness of industry than education. Others criticized the linear approach im- plied by the model, which leaves evaluation as the finsl stage rather than building it in at every stage. In its place they proposed a cyclical model. Nicholls and Nicholls (1972, 4), for example, desribe curriculum de ‘élopment as involving our stages; (a) The careful examination, drawing on all avaiable sources of knowledge and informed judgement, ofthe objecves of teaching, whether in paricular subject courses or over the curiclum asa whole. (0) Thedevelopment and wal use in schools of those methods and matecais whic are fudged most kel to achieve the objectives which teachers agreed pen. 7 (ch The assesszent ofthe ext to which the development work asi et achieved its objectives. Tis par ofthe process may be expected to provoke sew thought about the objectives themselves. 14) The final element is therefore fodbeck of al the exgedence gained to provide a stating point fr further sud “This view of curiculum development processes bas been widely adopted in language teaching from the 1980s. It has been described as an ends ‘means model because it tarts witha determination ofthe kinds of language ‘lls the Jeamec needs in order to accomplish specific roles and tasks and then sets out to teach the language needed to get there. Jn the field of curFrom syllabus design to curriculum development 41 riculum studies the approach was sometimes reduced to a mechanistic set of procedures and rules known as a systeans-design model. A system in this ‘context is “an integrated plan of operation of all components (sub-systems) ofa system, designed to solve a problem or meet a need” (Briggs 1977, 5). ‘The systems model belongs to an approach to educational planning that sees, curriculum development as a rational and somewhat technical process. Its practitioners believed that chis was the key (othe design of successful edu- cational programs. Inthe 1980s, funding for large-scale curriculum projects in many parts of the world was often dependent on their being couched in this framework, Rodgers (1989, 27) observes: “The curriglarsystems-design model has beea prescriptive and rale-driven I describes a linear sequence of events comprising formulation of objectives, sélection of content, ask analysis, design of learning activities, definition of behavioral outcomes and evaluative measures for determining the achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes. ‘The Munby model has many of the same characteristics a a systems ap- proach and was found to be cumbersome, nrealsti, and impractical in a- tual practice Howeve, since te 1980s the view tax cucu develop. tment processes are ceial elements in language program design hes become more widely accepted in language teching, thosgh notin the nar- ro presoripive form ofthe systems model. In many couatls, language Cunieulum development units have been established in minisaies of edo- ation since the 1980s witha mandate to review and develop naoaal la frage teaching curiuluma based one curiculum development perspective For example, Lim (1988, 2, cited in Ho 1998) comments on sch an inte five in Singapore and notes that cuiclum development now incudes “needs analy, goal sting, syllabus design, materials desig, language programme desig, teacher prepertion, implementation of programmes ix Echools, monitoring, fedbeck and evalvaton,” The debates over teaching rethods tat were common inthe 1970s have been replaced by a focus on the inetnkad processes thar compose cutialum development, of which Imethodoogy is simply one element. “Curiam development” is used in fcto he rns rt esses imvolved in developing orreaeting planning learn SS USE Sg zatin, selecting Br prEpaNT Engen eg tans TSR Te Eran ae viewed as forming a netwock of interacting systems. The ne- ton of yet suggests that change in ove part ofthe system as ees on cher pars of he system, For example, whether or not teacher are provided42. Chapter 2 ‘with textbooks to teach from, itself reflecting 2 policy decision, may affect the kinds of classroom discourse and learning input that teachers are able to provide. Similarly, the amount of attention students give to learning ac- tivities may reflect their judgment of the relevance of the kinds of learning ‘experiences they encounter, which may depend on the adequacy of a needs analysis, Tn this book, no attempt is made to present the classic systems ap- proach fo curriculum development. Such an approach typicelly depicts teachers a5 on the receiving end of a process controlled and directed by oth ‘es, The approach taken here secks to place teachers and language teaching ‘professionals at the center of the planning and decision-making process. ‘While the products of these decision-making processes are easy to identify and analyze because they exist in the form of policy documents, syllabuses, tests, teaching materials, teaching programs, textbooks, and teaching and earning acts (Johnson 1985), the processes that lead to them are more dif- ficult to identify and analyze because they often reflect the contributions of a variety of people with different roles and goals. Johnson (1989, 3) xepre- seats these different decision-making roles and products in the following diagram: TABLE 1 Stages, decision-making roles and products in curriculum, evelopment (from Johnson 1989) Developmental stages | Decision-making roles | Products 1. carriculum planning | poliey makers policy docurnent 2. specification: needs analyst ends syllabus means methodologists materials writers teaching matecials 3. programme implementation aes teachertraiiing programme teacher teaching acts 4, classroom implementation learner Tearing acts Clarke (1987) emphasizes ths ses of ers and curriculum planners are engaged mroagoing processes of review andFrom syllabus design to curriculum develooment 43 evaluation in order to bring about curriculum renewal and change. Clazie identifies the follow ‘of curriculum renewal + the review of principles to guide the language teaching/leaming process in the light of applied linguistic theory and classroom experience + the reworkiag of sylibuses embodying aims, objectives, content, and broad methodology + the review of classroom teaching/leaming strategies + the choice, adaptation, and creation of resources embodying appropriate leaming experiences «the review of assessment designed to monitor, record, report, and provide feedback on leamer progress «+ thereview of classroom schemes of work lating all ofthe above together + the review and creation of strategies designed to assist teachers to evalu- ate classroom practices and co improve them the identification of areas for esearch to determine possible ways forward in any of the above areas «+ the review or devising of in-service education designed to assist teachers to widen their conceptual and pragmatic base in particuac areas, and to find solutions to their ow classroom problems (Clark 1987, xi-xiil) ‘The aim of the following chapters is to survey concepts, issues, and prec tices in each of these arees i order to better facilitate the kind of planning and decision making that is involved in developing berer language pro- grams. Discussion questions and a 1. Way were “new methods" criticized as a response to changing language teaching aceds from the 1960s? ‘Wats the rationale behind the ESP approach to language teaching? In what ways is this approach different ftom earlier approaches to language teaching? 43, How did the ESP movement contribute to the concept of needs analysis? 4, How can cegister analysis and discourse analysis contsbate to ESP? Suggest situations wheee they might be particularly important 45, Examine the sample of scientific English in Appendix 1 andthe lists of features of scientific English from Ewer and Hughes-Davies givenin this cchaptze, Which of these features are exemplified in the sample? »44 Chapter2 6 Examine the Monby profile of communicative needs in this chapter. How might this apply to determining the needs of fight attendants who require training in English (or learners in another situation you are fa- riliar with)? Give examples of the Kind of information that would be sought and suggest possible answers. . What is the difference between grammatical competence and commt- nicative competence’ How is this difference relevant1o syllabus design? ‘What is meant by an ends-means model of curriculum development? ‘What are the limitations of this approach? Explain a “systems approach” to curriculum development. What criti ccisms have been made of this approach?From syfiabus design to curriculum development 45 Appendix 1 Example of scientific writing (from Ewer and Latorre 1969) Scientific method and the methods of science Tt is sometimes said that there is no such thing as the so-called ‘scientific method’; there are only the methods used in science. Nevertheless, it seems clear that there is often a special sequence of| procedures which is involved in the establishment of the working principles of science. This sequence is as follows: (1) a problem is recognized, and as much information as appears to be relevant scol- Tecied; (2) a solution (ie. a hypothesis) is proposed and the conse- (quences arising out ofthis solution are deduced; (3) these deductions are tested by experiment, and as a result che hypothesis is accepted, modified or discarded, ‘As anillustration of this we can consider the discovery of air-pres- sure. Overtwo thousand years ago, men discovered a method of rais- ing water from one level to another by means ofthe vecuum pump. ‘When, however, tis machine passed into general use in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, it was discovered that, no matter how per fect the pump was, it was not possible to raise water vertically more than about 35 feet. Why? Galileo, amongst others, recognized the problem, but feiled to solve it. “The problem was then attacked by Torricelli. Analogizing from the recently-discovered phenomenon of water-pressure (hydrostatic pressure), he postulated that a deep ‘sea of sir’ surrounded the earth; twas, he thought, the pressure ofthis sea of air which pushed on the surface of the water and caused it to rise in the vacuum tube of a pump. A hypothesis thea, was formed. The next step was to deduce the consequences ofthe hypothesis. Torricelli reasoned that this ‘ait pressure’ would be unable to push a liquid heavier than water as high as 35 feet, and that a column of mercury, for example, which weighed about 14 times more than water, would rise to only a four- teenth of the height of water, ie, approximately 2.5 feet. He then tested this deduction by means of the experiment we all know, and found that the mercury column measured the height predicted. The experiment therefore supported the hypothesis. A further inference was drewn by Pascal, who reasoned that if this ‘sea of as’ existed, its pressure at the bottom (ie. sealevel) would be greater than its ‘pressure further up, and that therefore the height of the mercury col- uma would deecease in proportion to the height above sea-level. He48 Chapter2 then carried the mercury tube to the top of a mountain and observed thatthe column fell steadily as the height increased, while another mercury column a the bottom ofthe mountain emained steady (an txample of another ofthe methods of science, the controlled exper- ment), This futher proof aot only established Torsiceli’s hypothe- tis more securely, but also demonstrated tha, in some aspects, air behaved like water: his, of course, stimulated further enquiry.From syllabus design to curriculum development 47, Appendix 2 Words found often in academic reading materials Words not found in the General Service List but that occur frequently in academic reading materials, with frequencies of occurrence in ten first ‘year university textbooks (from Praninskas 1972). see anindicaoe ro indicate 98 an indication sie anincerprezation —_tointerpret__—_ interpretive 5 amisinerpreation reinterpretation areinterpreton sn involvement involve 103 aninvolvement __toinvolye amethod ‘methodolical 1a = methodology methodological egative negatively 68 ESE ETE errr t Pe tSece eee SEES er 7 obvious obviously 45 EEE ESE Eee Eee eP Steet te eee primitiveness prime primaly 135 primary peimitive primeval Pe procedure to proceed n proceedings 3 ‘a publication vo put a publisher veo publicize publisher “we publicize arange orange 70 arenge eng) region regional regionally St inveregional _——r—T a requirement roreguice 149 arequiremest _forequie asimitsiey similar similarly 13 asiniterty ee specification tospenity. specific specifically 199 ~speciiccy specifable Tosuffice sufficient suficiealy 56 insuficient EEE Gee rece eee48° Chapter 2 References ‘Allen, P, and H, Widdowson (eds). 1974, English in focus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bloomfield, L 1942. Outline guide for he practical study of foreign languages. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America. Briggs, L. (ed.). 1977. Instructional design: Principles and applications. En ‘lewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. (Chiu, R. 1972. Measuring register characteristics: A prerequisite for preparing ‘advanced level TESOL programs. TESOL Quarterly, 6(2) (1972): 129-141 Clark, 1.1987, Curriculum renewal in school foreign language learning. Ox- ford: Oxford University Press. Council of Europe, 1969. The work ofthe Council of Europe in the eld of mod em lenguages. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Darian, S. 1972. English as a foreign language: History, development, and methods of teaching, Norsban: University of Oklahorna Press. Ewer, J.R, and G. Latoree. 1969. 4 course in basic selene English. London: Longman, Ewer, J. R. and G. Hughes-Davies, 1971. Further notes on developing an En- ‘lish programme for students of science and technology. English Lan- ‘guage Teaching 261): 65-10. Halliday, M.A K. 1978. Language as social semiotic. London: Arnold. Ho, W. K. 1994. The English language curriculum in perspective: Exogencous influences and indigenization. Ia Gopinathsan, A. Pakir, H.W. Kam, and YV, Sazavanan (eds,), Language, socieny, and education in Singapore (23 ed). Singapore: Times Academic Press. 22-244. Hoey, M. 1919. Signaling in discourse: A functional analysis ofa common dis- course paster in writen and spoken English. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, English Language Research Unit. ‘Hoey, M. 1983. On the surface of discourse. London: Allen and Unwin. Iaglis. E1975. Meology and te curriculum: The value assumptions of systema builders. In M. Golby, J. Greenwald, and R. West (eds.), Curriculum de- sign. London: Croom Helm. Howat, A.P.R. 1984. A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Johnson, R. K. 1989. The second language curriculum. New York: Cambridge University Press Jordan. R. 1997. English for academic purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press Jupp, T.C., and S. Hodlin, 1975. industrial English. London: Heinemann. Kingsbury, R. 1971. A proposed model for critical discussion and study of aFrom syllabus design to curriculum development 49 possible uniteredit system ia modern language learning ard teaching for Adults in Europe. In Councit of Europe, Linguistic content, means of eval uation and their interaction inthe reaching and learning of modern lan- ‘guages in adult education. Council of Europe, Strasbourg: 10-16. Lado, R, 1978. Lado English series. New York: Regeats. 'D. 1990. A bluepciat for a teacher development program. In J. C. Richards and D, Nunan (eds_), Second language ceacher education, New Yorks Cambridge University Press. 245268. Lawton, D. 1973. Soctal change, educational theory and curriculum planing. ‘London: University of London Press. Mackay R., and J. Palmer, eds.) 1981. Languages for specific purposes: Pro- ‘gram design and evaluation. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Momis, P. 1995. The Hong Kong school curriculum. Hong Kong: Hong Kong, University Press. Munby, 1978. Communicative syllabus design. Cambridge: Cambeidge Uni- versity Press. Nicholls, A. and H. Nicholls. 1972, Developing curriculum: A practica guide. Londoa: Allen and Unwin O'Neill, R. 1978. Kernel one, London: Longman. Gzolins, U.1993. The polities of language tx Australia. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ‘Praninskas, J. 1972. American University word list. London: Longman. Richards, J C., and T. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and methods in language teaching. New York: Cambeidge University Press. Richtemtich, R., and J. L. Chancerel. 1978. Identifying the needs of adults learn ing a foreign language, Strasbourg: Council for Cultral Co-operation of the Council of Europe, ‘W. 1964. The psychologist and the foreign language learner. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Robinson, P, 1980. ESP (Englisk for specific purposes). Oxford: Pergamon. ‘Rodgers, T. 1989. Syllabus design, curriculum development and polity deter~ ‘mination. In R. K. Johnson (ed.), The second language curriculum. New York: Cambridge University Press. 24-34. Schutz, N., and B. Derwing, 1981. Toe problem of needs assessment in En- ‘lish for specific purposes: Some theoretical and practical considerations. Ta Mackay and Palmer (1981), 29-44, ‘Stern, H. 1974, Directions in language teaching theory and research. InJ. Qvi aard et al. (eds.). 1974, Applied linguistics: Problems and solutions. Heidelberg. 61-108 ‘Stevens, P1977, Special-purpose language learning: a perspective. Survey ax- ticle. Language Teaching and Linguistics Abstracts 10(3): 145-163. ‘Swales, 11971. Writing scientific English. London: Nelson, Rive50. Chapter2 ‘Tylen, R. 1949. Basie principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press. Van Ek, J. L., and L. G. Alexander. 1975, The threshold level in a European uni/credit system for modem language learning by adults. Oxford: Pers amon. ‘Van Els, TT. Bongaerts, G. Extra,C. Van Os, and A. Janssen-van Dieten. 1984. “Applied linguistics and the learning and teaching of foreign languages. London: Amolé. ‘White, R. 1988, The ELT curriculun. Oxford: Blackwell. Wilkins, D. A, 1916. Notional syllabuses. Oxfocd: Oxford University Press. ‘Yalden, I. 1987. The communicative syllabus. Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Prentice- Hall.3 Needs analysis ‘One of the basic assumptions of curriculum development is that a sounded- cational program should be based on an analysis of leamers needs, Pro- sees tse to soles: information abort learuers nents ace Kania as Heads analvsis, Needs analysis ae # isGncT aid necessary phase ia planning ‘educational programs emerged in te'1960s as par of the systems approach tw curriculum development and was part ofthe prevalent philesophy of ed- rucational accountablity (Stufflebear, McCormick, Brinkerhof, and Nel- son 1985). If providers of training programs we “is of funding Th order to provide different kinds of trainin 2 were reaui ate that a propose was ‘genuine need (Pratt 1980). Subsequently needs analysis developed into something of an industry. Berwick (1989, 51) comments: “The need for convincing precision in educational needs assessment was also seiaforced during this period by the “behavioral objectives” movernat in ‘educatoeal planing, paiculasly ia North America, which insisted on specifying in measurable form all goals of imporeance within an educational system. The emphasis on precision and accountability clearly influenced the appearance of| reeds assessment as a form of educational technology end its diversification into 2 collection of educational research methodologies. Nezds analysis was introduced into language teaching throu ment (see Chapter 2). From the demand for specialized Tanguage programs grew and applied linguists increasingly began to eni- ploy needs analysis procedures in language teaching. By the 1980s, iamany parts of the world a “aeeds-based philosophy” emerged in language teach ing, particularly in relation to ESP and vocationally oriented program design (Brindley 1984). In this chapter we will examine approaches to needs analysis and consider the purposes of needs analysis, the nature of needs, who needs analysis is intended for, who the target population is, who collects information, what procedures can be used, and how the informa- tion collected can be used. (Examples of two different needs analyses are given on pages 68-21.) st82. Chapter3 The purposes of needs analysis 1 pacity guarks sees BL Cred Needs dnalysis in language teaching may be used for a number of different purposes, for example: 1o find out what language skills aleamer needs in order to perform a par- ticular role, such as sales manager, tour guide, or university stadent + to help determine if an existing course adequately addresses the needs of potential students he determine which students from a group are most in need of waining in ~ particular language skills « to identify change of direction that people in a reference group feel is imporant (Ci toitentty a gap berween what students rable to do and wha they ned tobe able to do + to collect information about 2 particular problem leamers are experi- encing G, Inthecase of K-12 ESL programs (e.g. for ESL students in pubic schools) 1 Hise (1993 dents the following purpose for ext nays: "+ to compile a demographic profile of all the Janguages and language ‘groups represented by the students + 10 astess their level of language acquisition in their native language and in English + 10 determine their communicative abilities in English to determine their focal knowledge of English * to find out how students use language on a daly basis + 10 determine what English language skills are necessary to enablé students to participate in all school and community zctivities in English + 10 find out what prior experiences suudents have hed with formal educs- tion - + to determine the arinudes of the students and their families toward formal schooling and education to find out what preliteracy and literacy skills the smidents possess to ascertain the students” level of cognitive development and acquisition fof academic skills in their native language(s) + to ascertain what cognitive and academic skills students have acquired in English + to determine the cultural, political, and personal characteristies of students ids analysis is therefore to decice exactly of ‘Fhe first step in con restaurant emDIS}Needs analysis 53 19 determine curtent levels of language proficiency of employees to determine how many employees are in need of the language training 10 identify senior restaurant staff's perception of language problems em- ployees have on the job + to identify employees" perceptions of language difficulties they face on the job + to ascertain the types of transactions employees typically perform in En- lish to determine the language characteristics of those transactions ‘to assess the extent to Which employees’ needs are met by curreatly avail- able programs and textbooks Jn many cases, leamers’ language needs may be rel rine, particularly if léamers need to learn a language for very specific pur- poses, for example, employment in fields such as tourism, nursing, or the hotel industry. In this case the tasks employees typically carry out in Ea- zlish can be observed and the Janguage needs of those tasks determined. ‘The information obtained can then serve as a basis for planning a training ‘program. In some cases, “needs” also includes students” rights. Linse com- ments: ly easy to deter Ics the schoot’s responsibility to take ino account the cultural, politcal, and personal characterises of students asthe cusiculum is developed in order to plan activities and objectives that are realistic and purposefbl. tis not the Fesponsbiity ofthe school to act on political maters, but tis the schoo!'s ‘esponsibility to provide equal access to school opporcnites and to validate the experiences ofall students, regardless of their politcal andor euleural backgrounds. (Line, in Hudelson 1995, 26) Tn other cases, leamers’ needs may not beso immediate ~for example, t- dents learning English as « secondary schol subject in an EFL context. Here English may be a compulsory subject that is considered an imporant pert of child's general education. However, even though the swudents may hothave any immediate perceptions of needs, curriculum planners will gea~ emily have consulted employers, parents, teachers, and others to find out ‘what knowledge of English they expect high school graduates ro achieve. In many countries, the introduction of English or another foreign language in elementery or secondary school is based on what curiculum planners consider best for students to study a school inthe same way that math, his tory. and pysical education ae included inthe school curriculum Learns aso whether they perceive a need for such knowledee84. Chapter 3 ‘Needs analysis may take place prior to, during, or after & language pro- ‘gram. Much of te ltrarue on needs analysis is bated on the assumption that it is par ofthe planning that kes place as part ofthe development of| a course. It assumes that time and resources are available to plan, collect, and analyze relevant information for a planned program of instruction. This “a prion” approach to needs analysis requires long-term planning and as- sumes adequate time an resources to devote co needs analysis. Example 1 (pages 68-70) is a needs analysis ofthis type. Ta some cases, however, long-term planning is not an option, Little may bbe krown in detail abou group of learners apar from the fat that a group of forty-five Mexican civil secrants willbe arriving in3 weeks’ imeand want to work on their language skills. In these circumstances, needs analysis has to be carried out as patof the delivery ofthe course, Goals, content, andthe teaching approach are shaged by information collected during the teaching ofthe course. Example 2 (pages 70-71 i a needs analysis of this kind. ‘At other times, the bulk of the information that constitutes the needs analysis may be collected after the course is finished, The information col- ected is then analyzed in order © obtain a more comprehensive view of the learners’ needs as a basis for evaluating and revising the program (see (Chapter 9). | What are needs? “The term needs is notes straightforward as it might sppear, and hence the team is sometimes used to refer to wants, desires, demands, expectation, motivations, lacks, constaints, and requirements (Brindley 1984, 28), Needs are often deseribed in terms of a linguistic deficiency, thats, as de- scribing the difference between what a leames ean presently do in 2 lane guage and whathe or she should be able co do. This suggests thet needs have Objective reality and aze simply thece wating tobe identified and analyzed. Porcher (1971, in Brindley 1984, 9) offers a different perspective: “Need is nota thing tharexists and might be encounteced ready-made onthe street Te is a thing that is constructed, the center of conceptual networks and the product of a number of epistemological choices (which are not innocent themselves, ofcourse.” Whats identified as 2 need is dependent on juds- ment and reflects the interests aad values of those making sucha judgment. ‘Teachers, lamers, employers, parents, and other stakeholders (discussed in the next section) may thus al have different views as to whet needs ace, For example, in considering the aceds of immigrant, representatives ofthe mar jority population may see che immigrants’ needs as achieving culteral andNeeds analysis 55 linguistic assimilation as quickly as possible and hence may want a ne=ds, analysis to identify the language skills immigrants require in order to sur- vive, end ultimately, assimilate into the dominant culture. The immigrants themselves, however, may see their goals as concemed with communica- tion for survival and independence, particularly economic survival, but may have no wish to assimilate into the dominant culture (Burnes: 1998). Auer~ ‘bach (1995, 9) has pointed out that English language teaching has often been viewed as a “neutral wansfer of skills, knowledge, or competencies” and that such an approach i based on the needs of social institutions, rather than language leamers, and ignores questions of power: Pedagogical choices about curriculum development, content, materials, classroom processes, and language use, although appesrng tobe informed by apolitical professional considerations, ae infact inherecly ideological in aarre, with gaificanc implications for learners’ socioeconomic roles. (Auerbach 1995, 9) [Needs are often described in terms of language needs, that is, as the lan- guage skills needed to survive in an English-dominant society. But as Auer- ‘bach (1995) and others bave pointed out, in many cases, particularly thet of migrant minorities in English-dominant societies, such persons also have “other Kinds of needs. These relate to housing, health care, access to school- {ng for their children, access to community agencies and services, and ways of addressing exploitation and discrimination in the workplace. How can the curriculum give learners the linguistic and other resources they need 10 understand and access resources they have the sight to make use of in the ‘community and to articulate end defend their own rights and interests? Pla ‘ning en ESL curriculum inthis case not only involves identifying students’ Ianguage needs, but seeks “to enable them to critically examine (the exist- ing order] and become active in shaping their owa roles in it” (Auerbach 11995, 15). This issue rill be examined in more detail when we consider al- ternative curriculum models and their value, in Chapter 5. The users of needs analysis Acneeds analysis may be conducted for a variety of different users. For &x- ample, in conducting a needs analysis to help revise the secondary school English curriculum in a county, the end users include: + curriculum officers in the ministry of edueation, who may wish to use the information to evaluate the adequacy of existing syllabus, curriculum, end materials56 Chapter 3 + teachers who will each from the new curriculum + Teamers, who will be taught from the curriculum + writers, who are preparing new textbooks + testing personnel, who are involved in developing end-of-school assess- ments + staff of tertiary institutions, who are interested in knowing what the ex- pected level will be of students exiting the schools and what problems they face In the case of a needs analysis conducted by a private instirute of language needs of trainee accountants in international accounting firms, the target users might be + twainers responsible for designing training programs and materials + funding body, such as the local professional society for accountants who are interested in seeing a concrete product as an outcome of their funding + employers who are interested in improving the job performance of new suff ‘With small-scale needs analysis such as that carried out by a single teacher con his oz her class, the audience might consis of the teacher, other teach- ers, and the program coordinator. In cases of large-scale necds analysis, thece will be multiple audiences forthe results of a needs analysis. Deter- ining the likely audiences is an important first sep ia planning a needs analysis in order to ensure thatthe information they need is obtained and that the needs analysis will have the impact itis designed to have. Stuifle beam etal. (1985, 25) comment: “It is important to remember that not al key audiences are likely tobe identified a the srcof a study. Als, itis ex- trely possible thatthe relative importance of various audiences will change during the study.” ‘Needs analysis can thus havea political dimension. Itan be used to sup- port a particular agenda, for example, by giving priority to one group to the exclusion of others within a population or in order to justify 2 decision that has already been made on economic or other grounds. For example, an employer might want to use information from a needs analysis to justify replacing certain staf rather than investing in providing for retaining. Ia any simation where needs analysis is being undertaken, there are thus dif ferent stakeholders, that i, those who have a particular intecest or involve- ‘ment in the issues or programs that are beIng examined, and it ig important inn 0.988, 128) define a sakeholder 5a person ar mroup af pans MENeeds analysis 57 sn schools.” Different stakeholders will want different things from the cur~ riculum. Connelly and Clandinin (1988, 131-132) suggest that when a group of persons are workiag on a curriculum committee or rying to solve ‘a curriculum problema they should think of the planning process as a cur- oulum stakeholder situation and ask the following questions: 1. Whats the purpose of the curriculum situation? 2. If there is a group, what isthe mekeup of the group? 3. Who set up the project? 4, How were the group's membership and purpose established? From the answers to these questions, further questions follow: 1, How accountable am To this stakeholder? 2. How much will this stakeholder be affected by my decision? 3. How much risk is there in ignocing this stakeholder? 4, How much right has this stakeholder to direct my action? The target population ‘The target population in a needs analysis refers to the people about whom information will be collecved. Typically in language programs these will be language learners or potential language learners, but others are also often jnvelved depending 0a whether they can provide information useful ia ‘meeting the purposes of the needs analysis. For example, in conducting @ needs analysis to determine the focus of an English program in public sec- ondary schools in an EFL context, the target population might include: + policy makers ministry of education officials teachers | students academics employers vocational taining specialises parents influential individuals and pressure groups ‘academic specialists community agencies Within each target group, subsategories of respondents might be needed 9 provide different perspectives on needs, For example, in conducting aneeds88 Chapter3 analysis of students studying foreign languages at a New Zealand univer~ sity (Richards and Gravatt 1998), the following categories of students were included to help determine students’ motivations for selecting @ Tanguage ‘course, dropping a language course, or choosing not to take 2 language eoree + students currently enrolled in 2 foreign language course + students previously enrolled bot no longer studying a language RE who have never studied a foreign langvage ‘a determining the target population, an important issue is tha of sampling. Tn some cases, the population is small enough for every learner to be ia- cluded in the sample. In other cases, this approach is not feasible and 50 decisions mist be made about the size of the sample to be included in needs analysis, Sampling involves asking a portion of the potential popula- tion instead of the total population and seeKS-o create a sample that i ep resentative ofthe total population. Eley (1984) points out that a number of factors influence the approsch to sampling, such asthe homogeneity ofthe population in terms of the kinds of skills, anitudes, or knowledge being Sought or the need to study subgroups within the sample ~ for example, based on sex, language group or oer factors. Where te target population is large, specialized adviee is ofen needed to determine wht approach to ‘sampling best suits the purpose ofthe study and the sources of information available, Administering the needs analysis Planting a needs analysis involves deciding who will administer the needs analysis and collect and analyze the results, Needs analyses vary in their scope and demands, from a survey of a whole school population in a coun try toa sudy of group of tiny leamers ina single istration. Sometimes 2 team of personnel is assembled specifically for the purpose of doing the ‘analysis; at other times two or thre interested teachers may be the only ones {nvolved. For example, in a needs analysis ofthe language needs of non- English-background students sudying ata New Zealand university (See AP- pendix 3), the following were involved: + the research team made up of two academics and a research assistant + colleagues in different departments who discussed the project and re- viewed sample questionnaires + seudents who piloted the questionnaireNeeds analysis 59 academic staf of the university who administered some of the question- naires: seoretarial support involved in preparing questionnaires and tabulating daz Jn some language programs, informal needs analysis is part of a teacher's ongoing responsibilities. Shaw and Dowsett (1986) describe this approach in the Australian Adult Migrant Education Program: Informal needs assessment deals mith the informal negotiations tht take place between clas teachers and students ia the fonn of chats with cither individual students, groups of stadects, of the whole class i onder to select a focus forthe ‘lass and create grocp cohesion by establishing 2 coincidence of learing needs. Tnformal needs assessment is cocmally the main task of the classroom teacher uring weetc one ofthe cours... lt) is a necessary component of information retieval on students” learning ceeds and should be recorded. Itcan subsequently ‘be used as an input for aims and objectives seting and for devising course utlnes, (Shaw and Dowser 1986, 47-49) Information collected in this way may complement information collected ‘through more formal means. Procedures for conducting needs analysis. A vacety of procedures can be sed in conducting needs analysis and HP ‘Gus of mformaton obained is often dependent onthe ype of procedure cca Since ay one sure of information Is ely to be incomplte r Hangalarapproseh (e, oleang information fro 07 ere SERIE May ctferent sources of information should be ogne ror example, when a needs analysis ofthe wig problems en- SaBtiad by foley sens ewolle in Amedtean universes 1 con Sheed focus could be ebained fom the following sures + samples of student writing + test data on student performance «+ reports by ceachers on typical problems students face ‘opinions of experts information from students via interviews and questionnaires analysis of textbooks teaching academic waiting survey or related literanure ‘examples of weiting programs from other institutions ‘examples of writing assignments given to first-year university shadeats60 Chapter3 Procedures for collecting information during a needs analysis can be s@- lected from among the following: Questionnaires Questionnaires are one ofthe most common instruments used. They arerel- atively easy to prepare, they can be used with large numbers of subjects, and they obtain information thet is relatively easy o tabulate and analyze, They can also be used to elicit information about many different kinds oféssues, such as language use, communication difficulties, preferred learning styles, preferred classroom activities, and attitudes and beliefs. ‘Questionnaires are either based on set of structured items (in which the ‘respondent chooses from a limited number of responses) or unstructured (in ‘which open-ended questions are given thatthe respondént can answer as he for she chooses). Structured items are much easier to analyze and are hence rornally prefected. Appendix 2 iustrates 2 questionnaire designed as a ba- tis for planning courses in Cantonese for non-Chinese residents of Hong Kong. It seks information on the following: + situations in which Cantonese could be used + self-assessment of curreat proficiency level in Cantonese «+ previous experience of Cantonese courses ‘views on textbooks for leaning Cantonese + views on approaches to teaching Cantonese + learning-siyle prefereaces + views on Cantonese as a language fugitives however is thatthe information obtained ‘may be fairly superficial or imprecise and will often need follow-up to gain fuller understanding of what respondents intend. It should also be recog nized that there are many badly designed questionnaires in educational re- search, and it is advisable to become familiar with the principles of good {questionnaire design to ensure thatthe information obtained is reliable. Pi- Toting of questionnaires is essential to identify ambiguities and other prob- lems before the questionnaire is administered. Some issues iavolved in the design of questionnaires are given in Appendix 1. Self-ratings ‘These consist of seales that students or others use to rate their knowledge or abilities. (Self-ratings might also be included as part of a questionnaire.) For example, 2 student might cate how well he or she can handle a job inNeeds analysis 61 tecview in English. The disedvantage of such an instrument is that it provides only impressionistic information and information thet is not very precise. Interviews Interviews allow for a more in-depth exploration of issues than is possible witha questionnaire, though they take longer to administer and are only fea sible for smaller groups. An incerview may ofte be useful atthe prelimi nary stage of designing s questionnaire, since it will help the designer gota sense of what topis and issues can be focused on in the questionnaire. A structured interview in which a set series of questions is used allows more consistency across résponses fo be obtained. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face or over the telephone. Meetings ‘A mecting allows a large amount of information to be collected ina fairly short time. For example, a meeting of teachers on the topic “students” prob- lems with listening comgrehension” might generate a wide range of ideas, “However, information obtained in this way may be impressionistic and sub- jective and reflect the ideas of more outspoken members of a group. Observation Observations of leamers’ behavior ina target situation is another way of as- sessing their needs. For example, observing clerks performing their obs in 1 bank will enable the observer to arrive at certain conclusions about theic language needs. However, people"often do not perform well when they are being ob- served, so this has tobe taken into account. In addition, observation is asge- cialized skill. Knowing how to observe, what to look for, and how to make ‘use of the information obtained generally requires specialized training Collecting learner language samples Collecting data on how well learners perform on different language tasks (eg., business leers, interviews, telephone calls) and documenting the typ- ical problemé they have is @ useful and direct source of information about leamers’ language needs. Language samples may be collected through the following means:62 Chapter? + written or oral tasks: Examples of students writen or oral work are col- lected. + simulations or role plays: Students axe given simulations to carry out and their performance is observed or recorded. + achievement tests: Students are tested for their abilities in different do- mains of language use. + performance tests: Students are tested on job-related or task-related behaviors, such as “how well a job interview can be cartied out in English” Task analysis ‘This refers to analysis of the kinds of tasks the leamers will have to camry cout in English in a foture occupational or educational setting and assess- rent of the linguistic characteristics and demands of the tasks. For exant- ple, 2hotel employee might have to perform the following tasks in English: + greet hotel guests Inguire about their accommodation needs form them of accommodation available at the hotel + help them make a suitable choice of accommodation + handle check-in procedures Berwick (1989, 57) observes: “The emphasis of target sitvation analysis is fon the nature and effect of target language communications in particular sit- uations (in offices, oa assembly Lines, in meeting rooms, in content-area classrooms, for example). Expert analysis of communication establishes standards against which current performance can be gauged.” Once target tasks have been identified cher linguistic characteristics are determined as 1 basis for designing a language course or training materials. Case studies 7 With a case study, a single student ora selected group of students is fol- Towed through a relevant work or educational experieuce in order to deter- sine the characteristics of that situation. For exaraple, a newly azrivedira- rigrant might be studied for three months, during which time the student keeps a log of his or her daily language experiences in English, the situa- {ons in which the language is used, and the problems he or she encounters. ‘Although itis generally not possible wo generalize from a case sucy, it pro- vides 2 very rie source of information that may complement information obtained from other sources.Needs analysis 63 Analysis of available information In any situation where a aceds analysis is needed, a large amount of rele- vant information is generally available in various sources. These include: + books + joumal anicles + Teports and surveys + records and files ‘An analysis of available information is normally the first step in a needs analysis because there are very few problems in language teaching that have rot been written about or analyzed somewhere. Designing the needs analysis Designing ¢ needs analysis involves choosing ftom among the various op- tions discussed above and selecting those that are likely to give a corapre- pensive view of lexmers’ needs and that represent the interests ofthe dif- focent stakeholders involved, Decisions have-to-be-made on the practical ‘procedures involved in collecting, organizing, analyzing, and reporing Toemation Colesee 1 Tiportan to make sure that the needs analysis “Gees Hot produce an information overload. There. needs to be aclear reason. for kinds of i vaso a5 to ensure talon infor-— seeson tat wl abtually be used is colleced. In investigating the language Fade of non Eeglab-baceground seudens at a New Zealand university (Gravat, Richards, and Lewis 1997), the following procedures were used: literature survey analysis of a wide renge of survey questionnaires contact with others who had conducted similar surveys interviews with teachers to determine goals identification of participating deparuments presentation of projet proposal to participating departments and iden {ification of liaison pefsoa in each department development ofa pilot student and staf questionnaire review of the questionnaires by colleagues piloting of the questionnaires Selection of staff and sudent subjects 11. developing a schedule for collecting data 12, administration of questionnaires64 Chapters 13, follow-up interviews with selected participants 14, tabulation of responses 15. analysis of responses 16. writing up of report and recommendations In smaller-scale needs analysis such as that of e teacher or group of teach- exs assessing the needs of new groups of students in # language progtam, needs analysis procedures may consist of: + initial questionnaire follow-up individual and group interviews + meetings with smudents + meetings with other teachers += ongoing classroom observation + tests Making use of the information obtained ‘The results of a needs analysis will generally consist of information taken from several diferent sources and summarized in the form of ranked lists of different kinds. For example, it might result in lists of the following Kind: + sinvations in which English is frequeatly used « situations in which difficulties are encountered comments mest often made by people on learners’ performance frequencies with which different transactions are carried out perceived difficulties with different aspects of language use + preferences for different kinds of activities in teaching + frequencies of errors made in different types of situations or activities + common communication problems in different situations + suggestions and opinions about diferent aspects of leamers” problems + frequencies of linguistic tems or units in different texts or situations One of the findings of a needs analysis of problems of ESL students at~ tending university lectures was a list of the frequency with which students experienced difficulties with speaking and listening skills (Gravett et al. 1997, 36). The most common difficulties reported were (by rank): 1, laege-geoup discussions 2, class discussions 3. interactions with native speakersNeeds analysis 65 ‘out-of-class projects 5. small-group work 5. demonstrator interactions class participation However, such a listing provides litde useful information about the precise oe ee prion weschoven ben ae eee oat ge aroun Conssion. esl Ft a Pave bce soght fron cha foes listing might have resulted - the most difficult aspects of taking part in ng a ae a iar gor) groan sch a becom feeds analysis of problems students have with discussions. The most fre- quent difficulties were: 1. comprehension of spoken English (‘they speak too fast’; “they mumbte"; “vocabulary is idiomatic’) 2. the pressing need to forraulate @ contribution quickly (‘Lcan’t think what tosay’) 3, shyness about the value of a contribution (‘I might say something wrong’) 4, inability o formulate an idea in English (I don't know how to say it in English’) 55, awareness thet a given function may be realized in different ways (T don’t know the best way to say it) 6, frustration about being unable to enter the Giscussion (‘some students speak o0 much’) (Johns and Johns 1977) ‘Yet even with this more detailed breakdown no direct application to pro~ gram design is possible. In order to develop aims and objectives that ad- dressed each problem, more analysis and research would be needed to fur- ther understand what is implied by “comprehension of spoken English” and befoce the information obtained could be used in course planning. The point, ere is that there is no direct application of the information obtained eeds analysis. Alihough the information gatheree it 10 de biected “Hierpremation Before it can be usefully applied program planning. Th the course of carrying cut a needs analysis, a large number of potea- tial leeds may be identified. However, these needs will have to be prior- tized because not all of them may be practical to address in & language pro- ‘gram, or perhaps the time frame available in the program is suitable for aadéressing only a portion of therm. And the mere fact that needs have been.66 Chapter 3 {identified does not automatically imply that changes will have to be made in the curticulum. First, the existing curriculum (when there is one) has to be examined to ste to what extent the needs that have been identified are being met. Decisions will theefore have to be made conceming which of the needs are critical, which aze important, and which are merely desirable Yn addition, some needs will be immediate and others longer-term. For some, solutions wil be feasible; for others, they may be impractical {salsoimportantto remer " objective facts but subjective interpretations of information froma! ‘ory, Stufflebeam ef al (1985, 111) remind ws “The process of analysis [of the results of a needs. analysis) involves efforts that tre cought, investigatory, eystemasc, and carefully ecard so that hey can Peplicted and veviewed. Te primary gol of analysis st bring meaning to the obtained information ané todo 30 inthe context of sme pbilosophy, relevant perspestives, and value posions that may be in conics, “Thus, for example, in a needs analysis 2s part of curriculum renewal in state education system, different views of problems in the curriculum ‘emerged. A number of different points of view emerged as to what should bbe changed: + leamers' view: more suppor for learning needed and reduction of the ‘amount of materials they had to study + academics’ view: beter preparation for tertiary studies needed in terms of reading and writing skills «+ employers’ view: beste preparation for employment required in terms of ‘basic communication skills «+ teachers’ view: better grasp of grammar needed by Jeamers Brindley (1989) discusses differences between leamers’ and teacheis' views of needs and suggests the need for a negotiation process in order to satisfy ‘and clarify each othet’s assumptions. The same is true of other stakehold cers in the curiculum, "Where there are several different audiences for the needs analysis (e.g, teachers, administrators, a funding body), the information obtained will ‘have to be analyzed — and analyzed in a form that suts each group's inter- ests. One group may require a brief overview of the findings while another ‘may be interested in detailed findings. The format for reporting the findings ‘may also vary. For example, it might include:Needs analysis 67 + a full written document + ashort summary document + amecting + a group discus + anewsleter [Needs analysis ths produces information that can be used indifferent ways. For example «= Temay provide the basis for the evaluation of an existing program of @ ene TT Femay provide the Batis for planning goals and objectives fora future pro- gum. = Trimay assist with developing tests and other assessment procedures, + It can help with the selection of appropriate teaching methods in a pro- gram. + Temay provide the basis for developing a syllabus and teaching materials fora course. + It may provide information that can be used es part of a course or pro- gram report to an external body or organization. Ta none of these cases, however, is there 2 direct route from needs analysis to application, Some of these applications will be discussed in the chapters that follow. Although a major application of needs analysis is in the desiga cof language programs, before a program can be designed additional infor- ‘mation is needed on factors that can have an impact on the program. The {identification ofthese factors and the assessmeat of their likely impact form 2 focus of Chepter 4. Discussion questions and activities 1. Needs analysisis very applicable in situations where students have very specific language needs, However, ican also be used in situations where eamers’ needs are not s0 specific, 26 in the case of students learning [English as a foreign language in a school setting, What might the focus ofa needs analysis be ia this situation? 2. IF you were planning a needs analysis for the situation in which you teach, what information would you seek to obtain’? 43, Discuss the concept of “stakeholders” in planning a needs analysis inre- lation to a context you are familiar with. How can the concems of dif- ferent stakeholders be addressed?68 Chapter3 4. Tk.you were designing a needs analysis for secretaries working in busi- ness offices, what target population would you include in the needs ‘analysis? What kind of information would you need from each mem ber ofthe target population? ‘5. Suggest four different needs analysis procedures that could be used t0 collet information about the language needs of hotel telephone oper Sstors, What are the advantages and limitations of each procedure? 6. Suggest situations in which a case study would provide useftl infor- ration during a needs analysis. 7. Design short questionnaire designed to investigate the language needs of tour guides. What isoues will the questionnaire address? What type of items will you include inthe questionnaire? 8. Critique the questionnaires in Appendixes 2 and 3 and suggest any ira- provements you think could be made to them. 9, Prepare a set of questions fo be used in a structured interview for use in a needs analysis of the language needs of immigration officers at an apo. 10. Choose an cecupation that you are familiar with or that you would be able to obsecve and prepare a task analysis of the tasks typically car~ ried out by people in that oscapation. Suggest the language require- ments of each task. Examples of needs analyses Example 1: Needs analysis of non-English-background students and their English language needs at the University of Auckland ‘Thisis an exaruple of needs analysis conducted in order to evaluate whether currently available language courses meet the needs of noa-English-beck- ground learners at the university context “The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. The largest of New Zealand's seven universities with a student population of some 26,000 in 1997. BACKGROUND ‘The number of students for whom English is a second language hes in- creased steadily since 1990, and continues to do so. In some faculties as ‘many a8 30 percent of the students are ESL students.Needs analysis 69 + The English competence of these students on entry varies considerebly. + A previous small-scale report within the university, addressing the issue (of English-language skills of students and entrance requirerneats, strongly indicated that more data were needed regarding the problems experienced by ESL students + This prompted a needs analysis initiated to assess these problems, using two questionnaires to survey staff and ESL students’ perceptions across the university. + The study looked at the lenguage demands placed on ESL students, prob- lems, experiences, and suggestions for improving the situation. METHOD Staff questionnaire” This included some questions from similar instra- ‘ments developed in other institutions as well as others specific to issues at the university. The questions were organized into the following sections. background information concerning the course or paper the lecturer was describing overview of problems experienced by ESL studeals in the course/paper Tinguistic demands of the course/paperin the areas of listening, speaking, reading, writing, as well asthe difficulties experienced by the students in these areas suggestions as to which language skills should be focused on in courses for ESL students ‘modifications made ia teaching or in examinations as 2 result of the dif- ficulties experienced by ESL students ‘The questionnaie was piloted and revised before it was distributed, Re- spondeats were identified by the heads of all fifty-one departments at the ‘university. The results were analyzed overall and by faculty. ‘Student questionnaire (see Appendix) The student questionnaite was, ‘a modified version of the staff questionnaire. The structure was similar but ‘with lese emphasis on language expectations and greater emphasis on prob- Jems being encountered. The questionnaire was piloted before distribation. ‘The questionnaire was distibuted to students enrolled ia all courses thet ‘were identified in the staff questionnaire as having ahigh proportion of ESL_ students. In all, 302 student questionnsires were completed. pRooUCT [A fifty-seven page report was produced that described the results of the wo survey questionnaires together with a series of recommendations.70 Chapter 3 Example 2: A curriculum guide and teaching kit for tutors of English as @ second language teaching Vietnamese refugees jin London “Thisis an example of needs analysis “on the run," that is, conducted as part of the process of teaching and developing a course. ‘conTexT ‘As a result of the arrival of large number of Vietnamese refugees in Lon Gon, the Kensington Institute in conjunction with the Inner London Educa tion Authority Language and Literacy Unit planned an ESL program for the refugees. Six teachers and 2 tutor in charge were appointed to manage the program, with time budgeted to plan a syllabus, develop materials, and co- ‘ordinate the program. - METHOD ‘Syllabus frameworks On the basis of experience of students with similar needs, ten topic areas were chosen as the basis for the program. Persone information Work Shopping Services Health and welfare Education House and home Sociat Travel Food and drink “This was a staring point for the program tobe revised in the light of ongo= ing information about the snadens' needs identifed during th teaching of the program: Situations were then sclected from the top areas and the an guage nevis ofeach situation prediced. Ths resulted in provisional ey Inbus frameworks organized by topic dent profiles Inocderto develop the program, records were kt of in- oration patheed ducing teachin, resulting in the building up of student nd cats profiles. Te cass profiles documented previous learing exper toce, suengths and wealmess ofeach student, coaimon areas of iterest, ia ‘vidual and group needs, and reflected areas that would be usefel to focus on in that class. CCuttural comparisons Information was also collected through observa Gon, discussions, and interviews on cultural differences between Viet~ namese and British people with regard to such things 2s family relationNeeds analysis 74 ships, old age, work, and leisure to help identify differences between the so- cial norms inthe to cultures. This information then fed into he course con- tent, PRopucT ‘The project resulted in the preparation of a 156-page tutors’ kit that con- tained che following elements: 2) description ofthe planning process 3) splabus frameworks ©) discussion of teaching techniques and activitics @) lieraty guidelines e) worksheets: f) aids and mateia's ') discussion of problem areas in English fr speakers of Viemamese72. Ohepter3 Appendix 1 Designing a questionnaire “The following questions need to be considered in designing a questionnaire. 1. Preliminary questions 2) Willitbe useful to cary out some interviews before designing the ques tionnaire, in order to get a sense of appropriate topics and issues? ) How large will che sample be? Is it representative of the whole popula- tion information is needed about? ©) How will the questionnaire be piloted? 2) How will it be administered (e-g., by mail, selfadministered, or group- administered)? 2. The types of information asked for a) Is the question really necessary? How will the information it provides be used? 1b) Are other questions needed on this issue? ‘c) Can the respondents answer this question? Do they have sufficient in- formation (e.g. to answer a question such 5 “How much English do your students use outside of class?")? ) Should the question be made more specific and more closely related to the respondents’ personal experience? 4) Isthe question biased in one direction? (E.g., “Do you agree that a com- ‘municative approach is the best way to teach a language?") |) Will the respondents be willing to give the information asked for? (E.g. “Does your teacher ksiow how to teach English?”) 1g) Js itappropriate to ask this question? (E.g., “How old are you?") 3. How the questions are worded + 4) Can the question be understood? Is the wording unambiguous? 5) an the question be shorted? (Aim for not more than 20 words) 2) Does it contain vocabulary Likely tobe knowin by te leamer? ‘Dees the question contain any unstated assumptions? (Ez. "Ia youreol- lege Enalish course, did you...” 2) Arpthere any prestige questions, thats, which students are Likely to try co answer to give a good impression of themselves? (E-., "Have you used the things you have been taught out of class? {f) Ts the wording based or emosiorally loaded in any way?Needs analysis 73 8) Would a more personalized (or less personalized) version of the ques- tion be beter? 2 Is the answer to the question likely to be influenced by the content of| preceding questions? 4, The type of items in the questionnaire 4) Open question: one that can be answered freely and where no kind of choice is required in the answer by Closed question: one thatis answered by choosing altematives provided. c) Checklist: a set of terms that describe different attributes or values 2) Rating scale: a value is given on 2 scale (e.g,, between “strongly agree’ and “strongly disagree”) 2) Rariking: items are ranked (e.g.. from 1 to 9) according to some criteria, ‘AP Inventory: a list that the respondents mark or check in some way Appendix 2 Needs analysis questionnaire for Cantonese learners Questionnaire used in needs analysis of leamers of Cantonese in Hoog, Kong (from Li and Richards 1995). Part In what situations is Cantonese (or would Cantonese be) useful for you? Please check the appropriate column, sty we ho tills acai aaiseeeeaa! cinerea iments Hog peal feetedoredendrempnoroeoeaevaaa] maces Eg SS egestas tae org aa ooo hale ese og0g an pag aren ooo Aer tematic aod Sali pa ma pte pas 10, Talking to neighbours74 Chapters an. Al. AB. Als AIS. Als. Au. ALB. ANS. 420, Aut An. Ans, Aas, 26. am, Pant B very Not usefol Usefal useful eal dae gag ae el cceaeaeeas pena HHH Ge arose ooo nities Cua eae ooo joe See ree eG Paeppareepcretas oeo ening ence ooo arena aos Tey oe gee Recgmenntrecronnmncon GO coer ae foo qo oo8 “aon = fagcuresn werent Ciel ae ee eri: ‘From th list above please choose five that are the most important for you, Wits the numbers below.Needs analysis 75 Porc Ifyou already speak some Cantonese, please indicate your preseat level of ability in Cantonese: Cl. Basic (lower): know a few words and fixed expressions; cannot manage con= versational exchanges; respond to question and answer exchanges on afew topics: vey limited vocabulary, grammar, and knowledge of idioms; pronun- ciation heavily inftuenced by mother tongue. C2. Basic (upper): know 2 limited number of common words and expressions able to manage limited, shox conversations on afew predictable topes; sur- vival level knowledge of vocabulary, grammer, and idioms; pronunciation heavily influenced by mother tongue. C3. Intermediate lower): reasonable Hueacy on a restricted range of topics but difficulty outside a limited range of topes; many problems with words, id- fome, grammar, and pronvaciation. (C4 Tnterinediate(upger): can manage comfortably ia familiar situations and with familiar topies, tough stillsomedificlty with vocabulary, idioms, gramme, and pronvnciation. C5, Advanced: able to converse fuendy and naturally on most topes; Lie df= culty with vocabulary, idioms, gramsosz, and pronunciation, (06. Ifyou have sided Cantonese, please indicate under what circumstances, (@) Tiook a couse, (0) Tstudied with a private rtor (©) Ipicked up Cantonese informally. Otter: (C7. you atended a formal cours, please indicate the length and frequency of the course (eg. 6 weeks, 3 hours per week). C8. How useful was the course? (Please circle your choice) Very useful Somewhat useful Notuseful Please explain: See ee Ee eS e eee e78 Chapter 3 (09. you have used one or more textbooks, please indicate the name ofeach ‘ext and how useful or otherwise it was: vey Not Name of text useful Useful useful @ oa eo ep oes eeeenenarg CST eH eet Q 0 © Q o0o00 fa) eee ree ee Te (C10, To what would you atsibute your preseat level of ability in Cantonese? ‘Very Somewhat Not (4) Tatended a useful course, () Tstudied with private tor. (©) I make every effort to se Cantonese. @) Tenjoy staying Cantonese, (@) Lneed Cantonese for my job. (© Tama good language leaer, (@ Iget alot of help from Cantonese-speaking frends. () Ispend a lot of ime on Cantonese. Go oooonod oO oooo0o0o0n% Oo oonn0000% Ober; SO Se eee Oe C11, Whatactvites or experiences were most helpful in Your stad of Cantonese? Please elaborate en Perr ee eee eee eeeeeeee eee eee eee eae SE ee See Ce rr PEP ee See SSE ee eee SPoReo eer reece ete eeeForD I you have studied Cantonese before, bt have since stopped studying Cantonese, please complete Pax D below by checking the appropriate box. Needs analysis 7 have studied Cantonese before, but I stopped because ofthe following reason(s) Di D3. D4, ps. D6. D7. 1 did not have ime to continue, 1 felt hat I was aot making any progress. was aot given any opportunity o use Cantonese outside the classroom. “The lessons were hot usefl because: (@) We were not taught things that Teoutd use (8) Tfound te language too difficult to master, (©) Hound the prosunciation too dificult (@ I found the grammar to dificult to master (© Hound the vocabulary too difficult to ‘The teacher did not know how to teach Canuooese. 1 didnot like the teaching methods used, ‘The materials were (@ too dificue () not relevant to my needs. (©) not interesting. (© cotchallenging. Other: ooo oo000 0 0 00 ooo tou onpo00 0 oOo coo 6[6ooO Very Somewhat Not qooo noo 00 oFpo coo78 Chapter3 Ponte $ave you ever usd the folowing actives in staying Cantonese? you indicat vyes, how useful were they? vey Not sefil Useful useful Practising dialogues from book. Practising drills on tones, sounds, and grammatical pater. Free conversation with native speakers. Free conversation with other leamers of ‘Cantonese, ‘Memorizing bilingual vocabulary lists. ‘Srudying Cantonese textbooks at home. ‘Studying the grammar of Cantonese. ‘Studying the tone system of Cantonese. Seudying the difference between Eni BE eg BEAR ge Cantonese. E10. Doing palework exercises. ELL, Doing group-work exercises. E12. Doing translation eneccses. E13, Weidng down Cantonese system, E14, Watching TV in Cantonese athore. EIS, Watching ce listing t people speaking Cantonese around me. E16, Using casters at home. EIT, Talking to fiends in Cantonese, E18, Trying to use Cantonese whenever Thave the opporunity. E19, Putting myself in situations ia which [will be Forced to speak in Cantonese. E20, Making myself understood even if make & locof misakes. EDL. Speaking 2 good Cantonese without making ‘mistakes in grammar or pronunciation E22, Scadying with a private euor ing a romanized oo00 800 oO Oooo coooo oo oO oOo0 0-000 oO oo00 OO000 co OO oo00 0° oo Oooo ooooo oO oONeeds enalysis 79 Other, PrReeeeE eer PEE Ee rete cere Erb eee re ee eee eee ee cae Pon F Tn class or witha tutor, I would lke my teacher to: FI, explain new grammar points before No Alishy Gaol Best practising tem, FL, practise before explaining new grammar No Allo Goot Best poinss. FB. Conectany mistakes I madein frontof Ne Alike Gond_—Best others immediately. A, comeet my mistakes of grammar. No Allie Goat Best FS. comectmy mistakes of ronurciation, «No Allie oo Best 6, use Cantonese only. No Alitle Good Bast FV. use both English and Cantonese No Alise Goo Best Port “What are your feelings about Cantonese as a language? Gi. Cantooese is alanguage with arc Vayu Toe Nettie vocabulary. G2. Cantonese is made up of many colloquial Yeyime Tae Naxtue expressions G3, Cantonese is made up of may idioms, Verve Tus Notte Ge. Canonese is avery cificultlanguage. Veryime_ Tas Native G5. Cantonese is alanguage with alocof — Vayee © The Natine grammar. G6. Cantonese is alanguage where promun- — Veryte Te Note ciation is very important Gt. Cantonese isalanguage whererhyhm = Vays Toe Nettie ‘and inconation are imporent. G8. Camoneseis avery useful language in Veryme True Note Hong Kong. G9, Cantonese i a fascinating language. Veytue Te Nottie G10, Cantonese is a beautiful sounding language. Veryeve Tae Nett GIL, Cantonese isa potie language. Vegine Tne Net Gi2, The maythm and intonation of Cantonese Veyrve © Tue Nitin are pleasing 0 my ears, G15. Cantonese is aharsh sounding language. Veryue Tus Net tue Gis, Canboese is avalger sounding language. Veryme Tae Net te Otte, SE eee eee eS eee80 Chapters Appendix 3 Needs analysis questionnaire for non-English-background students ‘Student questionnaite used at the University of Aveldand, New Zealand (Grom Gravatt, Richards, and Lewis 1997). Institute of Language Teaching and Learning NEEDS ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE STUDENT ~ STUDENT VERSION “This questionnaire is part ofa project being carried out by he Iastrwte of Language “Teaching ané Learning to determine what the language needs of students whose fist cof dominant language is nat English (ESL students) atending the University are, ‘whether these are being adequately metand, not, what caa be done beter. For this ‘porpose che opiaions of bots staff and smudents ina variety of departments arc be~ fing surveyed, It would be appreciated if you could complete this questionnaire, ‘which should take approximately 20 minutes. “The term ‘N/A’ fs used in this questionnaire. It means ‘Not applicable? and is the appropriate response if question does not apply to You. Soe ee eee et eee eee “With which ofthe following groupe do you idemsty? (please tick the appropriate bon 1) rsise tintin? (By Asian—which country? [ OF cnt ease seniy: (ld ow many years have you been stdying at AveKland Univesity Gacludng 1997)? ca ‘Whats your curenteouse of dy? [Td ‘Please complete this questionnaire with regard to the course you have speci fed here. POPPE ere eee cee eee A. Overview of Skills Needed and Difficulties Encounteréd In your couree of study, how often ae you expected t0 use the folowi (please circle: Veryoften Oiten Somedimes Rarely Never Readiag 1 2 3 4 3 ‘Writing 1 2 3 4 5 Speaking 1 2 3 4 5 Listening 5 2 3 4 3Needs analysis 81 How often do you have dffculry with each ofthese skills? (please cirele): Veryoften Often Sometimes. Rarely Never Reading 1 2 3 ¢ 5 Writing 1 2 3 4 3 Speaking 1 2 3 4 3 Listening 1 2 3 4 5 B. General Statements Please circle the appropciate respons: How important to success in your course of sui are the following abilities? ~ Higt Moderate Low 1. Listening to Eoglist Yr o203 4 «§ 2. Speaking English ieee EtHseeteta ets: 3. Waiing English ia Pa eee eS: ieee ese a tees: 4, Reading English How important to success in your field after graduation ae the following abilities? : High Moderate Low 1, Listening t0 English ieee erste tHa ites 2. Speaking English ieee eat Hates 3. Waiting English 1 2 3 4 5 4, Reading English ieee ees ees Eee eee Cee eco ereeeeo ©. Speaking and Listening Skits How often do the following happen 1 you? ‘Always Often Sometimes Never NIA 1. Receivelow gradesin 1 2 3 4 5 tasks iavolving class participation. 2. Have dificalty working 1 2 3 4 5 fn small groups during class. 3. Have difficuley working 1 2 3 with other students oft outof class projects, 4, Have trouble leading 1 2 3 4 5 class discussions. ‘5. Have difficulty panic 1 2 3 4 s pating in large group ‘iseussions or in debates.82. Chapters Always Often Sometimes Never NIA 6. Have aiticuly inter with student demonstrators in labs, utorals, ec, 7. Struggle with outof-class 1 2 3 4 5 assignments whieh require interaction with native speakers of English. 1 2 3 4 5 D. Speaking Stile How often do the following happen 10 you? ‘Always Often Sometimes Never NA 1, Havedifficuly giving 1 2 3 4 5 oral presentations. 2, Have trouble wording = 1 2 3 4 5 ‘what you want say quickly enough. 3. Worry about saying 1 2 3 4 3 something in ease you ‘make a mistake ia your English, 4 Notknowhowosy = «1 3 acre Something in English. 5. Notkowthebestwayto 1 2 3 45 ‘ay something in English 6 Have ifieuty wie your 12 3 acts pronunciation of words. 7. Find itdificultwoenter 2 3 7 . discus 8. Other (possess = 1 ae eS Listening Skits How often do the following happen to you? Always Often Somesimes Neves NA 1. Have trouble under sanding leetares, 1 2Needs analysis 83 Always Often Sometimes Never NIA 2. Have rouble aking 1 2 ‘cffective notes. 3. Have to ask staff questions. 1 2 toclarify matedal you bbave beoa taught, 4, Have eouble uncer 1 2 3 4 3 sanding lengthy descriptions in Enis 5. Have qouble under- 1 3 4 5 sanding spoken instructions. fave wouble undet- 1 2 3 4 3 standing informal language. 17, Have wovble under- 1 2 3 4 5 standing the subject ratter of a talk, ie. whats being talked about. 8, Talsobave difficulty 1 2 3 ‘ 5 with (please specify) “Thave problems understanding leearers or other students because: Ofen Sometimes Never, 9. They tall very fast 1 2 3 10, They ull very quietly. 1 2 3 LL, Theirsccents er pronun- 2 3 ciation ae differen from what Iam used to. 32, More than one pessonis 2 3 speaking, eg. in soup discussions. 13. Otber (lease speify}: 1 2 384 Chapters writing Stats ‘With regard to wren assignments, please indicate for each of the following: 1, How important the sili, and 2. How often you have problems with the kil: Importance Frequency 7 of problems BEBe 8 > 2 gis 2228 Sage 12.3 4 Usingeorectpuncnaion anéspeing, «1-23 1.2.3 4 Srucming sentences . 1234 12.3 4 Using appropriate vocabulary. 1234 12.3 4 — Orpeisng pergrarts 1234 12.3 4 Ornising the overall asignent 1234 12.3 4 Expressing dss appropaty. 1234 1.2.3 4 Developing ideas 1234 {2.3 4 Exprestinguhatyouvanttosayeeay. = 1-23 4 12.3.4 Addessing opie. 1234 12.3 4 Afoping appropriate tone an se 1234 12.3 4 Following inamvecions and drecdons. 1234 1.2.3 4 Bralaiag and revising your writing 1234 12.3 4 ‘Overll wideg shy 1234 123 4 Completing oniten asks eg, exans,tes) 123 4 wii the dive avaiable. 12.3.4 * Oter(gease spect): 1234 pee eee ee G. Reading Skills : ‘The following questions concern the reading tasks required of you during the ‘course, Please indicate: 4) which ofthe following types of material you are expected wo read, and 'b) how often you have difficulty doing so (plese circle): Expected Frequency of diculties toresd? Often Sometimes Never 1. Journal antcles Yes/No I 2 3 2, Newspaper anticles Yes/No t 2 3Needs analysis 85 Expected Frequency of dffculies woread? Often Sometimes. Never 3, Woeks of fction YesiNo 1 2 3 4, Entire reference ortext Yes/No 1 2 3 books 5, Selected chaptersof Yes/No 2 3 books 6. Photocopied notes Yes/No 1 2 3 7. Workbook oriaboratory Yes/No 2 3 insteutions 8. Computerpresened Yes/No 2 3 reading materials 9, Other (please specify): Yes /No 1 2 3 Indicate how often you have difficulty with exch ofthe following: Very often Sometimes Never 10, Understanding the main points of text. Nee tga eS, U1, Reading a text quiely in order to 123 4 5 establish a general idea ofthe coatent (Geimming) 12. Reading # text slowly and carefully ia 123 4 5 ‘order 1 understand the details ofthe tex. 13, Looking dough acext quickly inorder = 12 aos to locate specific information (scanning). 14, Guessing unknown words in a text. aa FH SCA 15, Understanding txt organisation. 123 4 5 16. Understanding specialist vocabulary 123 4 5 17. Reading peed. 123 4 5 18, Reading in order to respond critically. 123 4 5 19, Understanding a writer's arttuce and 123 4 5 porpose. 20, General comprehension. 123 4 5 21, Other (please specify): 1203 4 586 Chapter3 Hi. Skils You Would Like to Improve Ifyou were to tke a course to improve your English skills, which ofthe following ‘would be useful to you? Rate the importance of each (please circle}: High Moderate Low 1, Listening to pronunciationintonatioey = «123 4S siress patterns of New Zesland English 2. Lecture noteaking. 1 2 3,4 5 5. General liening comprenension. 12 3° 4 5 “4, Giving formal speeches/presentations. 12 3 4 5 5. Panicipating effectively indiseussions. 1-2 «3 #8 6 Communicating effecsvely with peersin. «1 20 «30 4S small group diseustions, collaborative projects, or ut-of-class study groups. 1203 4 5 7. Communicating effectively with stat 1 23 4 5 inor outof class. 8, Libary sills. 12 3 4 8 9. Essay waiting 1203 4 3 10, Lab repor wating. 12 3 4 8 LL, Creative writing. 123 4 3 12, Weiing case studies. 123 4 3 13. Deseribing objects or procedures. 123 4 5 14. Waking introductions and conclusions. «1 - «20-3 S 15, Weidag eferences and quotations. 12 3 4 3 16, Formulating coherent argumeats. 1 2 3 4 8 17, Summarising factual informatio. 123 4 5 18. Syntbesizing information from morethan «T2003 # S$ 19, Analysing writen materials, eee aerate 20. Knowledge of vocabulary. Ieee se Hs 21, Reading quickly. 12 3 4 5 22. Reading exitcaly. 12034 5 23. Reading for author's viewpoint He ate sepa 2A, Summarizing material 12 3-4 5 25. General reading comprebension. TEESE aH 26, Other (please specify and rate): aH aes EsaNeeds analysis 87 1, Assistance Available ‘Are you aware of the course availabe at the Student Learning Ceetre for students for whom English ise second language? (please circle): Yes/No If you have taken any of these courses, please state which you have taken and how useful they were: Course ‘Very useful ‘No use a all 1 Be Haha: 3 1 See 3 1 eS Ea. 3 J. Catering for ESL Students Do you believe any changes should be made o your course or the way itis taught as aesult of cificuiesstudencs such as yourself have with English? (please cisle): Yes/No Ifyou have answered Yes, please dick the modification which should be made: sacice tests 1 Using overheads moreintectres () Having more mattipt Simplifying the material covered [] Providing surmmaries of important “Having less class involvement materials ‘ducing leorures. ‘Reducing the amount of eading G1 Providing more photocopied notes (I) Giving aditional morals ‘Other (please specify): K. Additional Comments Do you have any other comments which might be helpful in assessing what En- lish skills are expected of you by the University, what specific difficulties you ex- Coantered in this pape, how English courses could beter prepare stucents such a8 {yourself fortis pane, or anything else celating to your English language skills and Deeds? [f20, please write them here:88 Chapier3 L. Additional Information [if we would like more information from you, would you be prepared to be inter- viewed? Yes/No 1 s0, please give your: Name: Contact tslephone nuraber: Pe eee ere eerie eeeeeeee tee ete “THANK YOU FOR YOUR ASSISTANCENeeds analysis 89 References Auerbach, E. R. 1995. The politics of the ESL classroom: Issues of power in pedagogical choices. In Tollefson 1995, 9-33, Berwick, R. 1989. Needs assessment in language programming: From theory to practic. In R. K. Johason (ed.), The second languege curriculum. New ‘York: Canibridge University Press. Brindley, G. 1984. Needs analysis and objective setting n the adult migr cation program. Sydney: N.S.W, Adult Migrant Education Service. Brindley, G, 1989. The role of needs anslysis in adule ESL progracume design. In. K. Johnson (ed), The second language curriculum, New Yock: Camn- Deidge University Press. Burmeti,L. 1998, issues in irenigrant setlement n Australia, Sydney: National ‘Centre foc English Language Teaching and Research, Connelly, E.M,, and D. J. Clardinin. 1988. Teachers as curriculum planners. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University Eley, W. 1984, Tailoring the evaluation to ficthe context. In R. K, Johnson (ed), ‘The second language curriculum. New York: Cambridge University Press. 770-285. Geavatz, B,J, Richards, and M, Lewis, 1997, Language needs in tertary stud- ies. AueWland: Occasional Paper Number 10, University of Auckland In- stitute of Langvage Teaching and Learning, Hudelsoa, S. (2d). 1993. English as a second language curriculum resource ‘handbook. New York: Kravse Intemational. Johns, A.M, and T, F Johns. 1977. Seminar discussion strategies. In A. Cowie and J. B. Heaton (eds.), English for academic purposes. Reading: University of Reading, BAALISELMOUS. Li, D. and J, Richards. 1995. Cantonese as a second language: A study of learer needs and Cantonese course books. Hong Kong: City University ‘of Hong Kong. Linse, C. T. 1993. Assessing susdent needs. In Hudelson 1993. 35-48. Porcher, L. 1977. Une notion ambigue: les “besoias langagiers’. Les cakiers ie CRELEF 3. ‘Prat, D, 1980. Curriculum: Design and development. New York: Harcourt Brace. Richards, J.C. and B. Gravatt. 998. Snudenis'beliefs about foreign languages. “Auckland: Occasional Paper Number 11, University of Auckland Institute ‘of Language Teaching and Lesmning. ‘Shaw, .,and G, Dowset. 1986, The evaluation process inthe adult migrant ed- cation program. Adelaide: Adult Migrant Education Program. ‘Stuffiebeam, D., C. McCormick, R. Brinkerhoff, and C. Nelson. 1885. Con- ducting educational needs assessment. Hingham, MA: Kluwer-Nijoff Publishing. ‘Tollefson, J. W. (ed). 1995. Powerand inequality in language education. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press.4. Situation analysis Lis fuss aka 2” C me goal of meas analysis iso collect information tht can be used 10 de- Elop 2 PORTE OF Ue gage eote of etou OF LATER I OTE be BIE 1 THRE decisions about the goals ane convent of e TaNgUAgE CoM. ‘However, other factors apart from IeaTier neads are Felevant to the design and implementation of soccessfa language programs. Lahguage programs be catied out in pericula contexts or situations. Clack (987, x mens ‘A language curieulum isa fimation of the iterelationships that hold between subject-specific concems and other broader factors embracing socio-political ‘nd philosophical mares, educational value systems, theory and practice in curriculum design, teacher experietil wisdom and learner motivation. In order to understand the foreign language curiculum in any particular coatext itis therefore necessary fo atempt to understand bow al he various influences intercelate to give a particular shape tothe planning and execution of the teaching/learing process. ‘econ for nguge pagan cvene ant hepa Teco Enola a ajeeiy uation di fan key determinants of ie sucee OTH program. Some language curicula ae planned foreeatally ‘Geganized Hate school systems where & great deal of direction and support for teaching is provided. Others take place in serings wire there are Lim ited human and physical resources. Some proposals for curriculum change are well received by teachers, botothers may beresisted. Insome situations, teachers are well rained and have time available to plan their own lessoe materials, [nother situations, teachers may have litle time for lesson plan ning and materials production and simply tach from ther textbooks. Each context fora curriculum change or innovation thas contains facors that can SBendaly facilitate the change or Hinder ies successful implementation’ (Geer T997)- Tris iporant, Wevetore, 10 Tent What these FECTS are TT ET Tene planning @ curriculum hange Gean 1953). Prax (1980, 117) observes ‘Tae designer should esimate both the direct and indies effects a proposed camculum wil have on the students, on other programs, and on other people in 20politica’ economic, seciel f ie cagnencnal Situation analysis 91 snd outside the institution. These effects must be taken into accovat in the design ‘and made clear to decision-makers when the curiculum proposal is submited. ‘This is the focus of situation analysis. Situarion analysis is an analysis of factors inthe context ofa panned cr pSsent URTAGA POSTE RSE” igcer ess: ter potenti er To assess thelr potential impact an the project, These factors may be politieal, social, Sooner seers. Situation analysis comple. nem the informmion gathered during ni ‘analysis. It is sometimes con- ‘Sigel a diantion Ofte nalyonandcn alsoberogarisd ee eee Some exampres of language teaching changes that were attempted with- cout an adequate analysis of the context ofthe innovation will clarify the im- portance’ of situation znalyss in curriculum planning. Example 1: A team of foreign experts under contract to an international funding body is given a contract to write a new series of English textbooks for the state school system in an EFL country. They base themselves in an attractive small town in a rural seiting and set up their writing project. They do a series of interviews with educational officials and teachers to deer ine students’ language needs and make use of the latest thinking on lan- ‘guage teaching and textbook design to produce an oral-based language ‘course that reflects the recommended language teaching methodology of the time ~ Audiolingualism. Textbooks are developed and provided to sec- ondary schools at no cost and teachers are given the choice of using the new books or their old outdated government textbooks. After a period of initial enthusiasm, however, very few teachers end up using the new course and ‘most revac.ig using the old government-provided textbooks. “omment: The project team merabers spent insufficient time familiaciz- ing themselves with the local school situation. Most English teachers had a limited command of English, Teachers found the new materials difficult teach because they required 2 high level of oral fluency in English and an English-only methodology that was difficult to implement in large classes. ‘A more successful reception might have occurred ifthe introduction of the new materials had been gradual, so that problems were addressed as they occurred. In addition, there could have been more provision for teacher waining. Example 2: The education department in an EFL country decides to into- duce English from the third year of elementary school rather than in high schocl. New textbooks are required. A group of teachers is seconded from schools to join 2 curriculum vnit in the ministry to produce the books for the next school year. There is an element of secrecy in the work of the unit92 Chapter and few people have an opportunity to review the materials before they are published. When the books are published, they receive many complaints from teachers. They are found tobe difficult to teach, they contain too much material, and they are prepared to poor standards of design and production. ‘Comment: Several faciors had not been addressed in planing the proj- cect. None of the members of the writing team had experience or training in writing elementary language teaching materials. More consultation with classroom teachers should Rave been provided, as well a pilottesting ofthe materials. Ia adéition, there was an unrealistic budget for design and pro- duction. And the time framework the writers were working with did not al- Tow for adequate development and review of the materials. Example 3: A large private university of an FFL county decides that, rather han use commercial materials in its language institute, it will produce its cown materials and publish them. Is hoped thet they will compete on the racket with mateils produced by commercial publishers. A lage amount of money i invested in seting up a materials writing team and the books are prepared. Whea they are finally published, however, its found tha few other institutes or schools want to use them, Comers: Private universities inthis county are highly competitive, and the fact chat the materials were produced by one institution meaat that other institutions did not want to use them, Some basic market research should have been caried ou tthe inital stages ofthe project to determine if there would be a commercial market for the materials. ‘Tesss cassie iluset the Kids cf fata an bal SGeseds oF a cumicalum project and emphasize the imporance or determin ing Ue potential influence of such factors on the mmplementaton ofa cic- « Heuluma change Wis chapter, we will consider socleel Factors, PEEL, ‘factors, institutional factors, teacher factors, learner factors, and adoption (/ factors (Some of these factors willbe coasidered further in later chapters §<~imelation tissues of teaching, methodology, and materials design.) Analy~ sand appa ofthe ptt impact these fasts tt ini ges oof a curieulum project ean help derermine the kinds of difficulties that right be encounteced in implementing a curriculum change. Procedures used in situation analysis are similar to those involved in needs analysis, aamaely (a) consuliation with Yepreseniatives of aS many relevant groups 5 OBbIé, suctras parents suldentsy teachers, Sdiministatons, and gover rink omicils; (6) study and analysis of relevant documents, such Be appraisal docunsens, goverment reports, minisuy of education guidelines, aid BOUCy pabers, Baching Thatcdals-euiricolum documents: (c) observa~Situation analysis 93 tion of teachers and students in relevant learning settings; (d) sucveys of ‘plaions of relevant partes: (2) review of available Icerarute related tie ‘Splnions of relevant parties: (e) review of available lteratufe related THe isu Societal factors Second or foreign language teaching is fact of ite in almost every coun- try inthe world Yer countries differ great in tems of the role of foreign languages in the community, their statu in the cuticlum, educational ¢a- ditions and experience in language teaching, and the expectations that mem- bers ofthe community have for language teaching and leaning, Ven Els, Bongaens, G. Ext, C. Van Os, and A Jenssen-van Dict (1984, 158, for example, comparing foreign language teaching experience in Holland and the United States, point out that the circumstances of foreign language ceaching are completely differen ia both counties. InFolland, a command SF one Gr more foreign languages has long been Sceepced as necessity. ‘Schools are expected to offer a range of foreign languages, and there is both 2 strong tadition and considerable experts in foreign language teaching. New proposals ate therefore met with informed skepticism. Inthe United States, by comparison, there is much les collective wisdom or experience in foreign language taching. The position of foreign languages in the school curculur i nether strong nor secuze. More promotion of for language teaching is consequetly aceded, and there isa greater intrest in novel eaching methods In examining the impact of societal factors oa lan- uage teaching, shece oe ie aim is wo determine the impact of gros i ‘he community or society at arge on the program. These groups include: toon : (7 policy makers in goveraent + educational and other goverment officials \ ganes > + the business community + politicians j + temtiary education specialists + educational organizations + parents + citizens students In the case of projects of community or national scope, questions such as the following may be relevant:94 Chapteré «+ What curent language teaching policies exist and how are they viewed!” ‘What are the underlying reasons for the project and who supports i€? ‘What impact will it have on éifferea sectors of society? ‘What language teaching experience and traditions exis in te country? How do members of the public view second languages and second lan- guage teaching? Z «What are the views of relevant professionals such as academics and teacher trainers? «What do professional organizations such as teachers’ unions think ofthe project? ‘What are the views of parents and students? {What are the views of employers and the business communi 1 What community resources are available to support the innov as radio, television, andthe media? - The following examples illustrate the impact of societal factors on language ‘curriculum projects. jons, such ‘Example 1: A new English curriculum has been prepared for English atse<~ “ondary level in an EFL context. The new curriculum is described as a com municative cusricalum and downplays the importance of grazpmar, which traditionally received a strong focus in the English curriculum. When text ‘books to support the new curriculum are published, concems are expressed by parents and parents’ groups because they fee] that their children “are not ‘being taught dhe basies” and the textbooks will not provide sufficient prepa- ration for school exams. ‘Comment: Mechanisms should have been established for communicat~ ing the intentions of the new cursiculam to parents and other interested pat~ ties and to identify and address theic concems. Pechaps pacents misunder- stood the way grammar wes addressed in the new curriculum and would be satisfied once they understood better how the program worked. In addition, the textbooks should be reviewed to ensure that they address the skills cov- cerediin the exams. ‘Example 2: Jn an EFL country, anew 6-year English course is developed for ‘secondary schools. The course secks to prepare studenis both for eraploy- nent and for entry to English-medium universities. The course is based oa fn integrated-skils syllabus thar was prepared by a group of consultants and ‘materials writers and is carefully reviewed by teachers before itis published. ‘After the course has been in use for two years, however, employers complain that school leavers have insufficient language skills for work purposes.Situation analysis 96 Comment: Tee course was largely planned around the needs of stu- dents going on to university studies. The needs of learners going to voca~ tional schools or into the employment sector should also have been considered, Emgloyers should have been consulted during the planning stage to find out what language skills they felt school leavers should have. The course could then have been examined to see if these Skills were adequately covered. Project factors_ Curriculum projeces ace typically produced by a team of people. Members Stine team may be specialists who azs hired specifically forthe purpose they aay be elassoom teachers who are seconded to the project fora fined Dpevlod of ine, othe project may be caried out by teachers and other staff Pity weaching institution as pat of their regular duties. Projects art com- plet straints of time, resources, aad personnel, and ee these variables can have @ significant impact on a project There Se ee era ie mea mano © oe projet scar fo d0 the ob asd ey ‘should representa balance of skills and expertise Some projects are gencr~ chy scureed wile others opersteon2 shoesaring budget, Ta ie fame fora project needs to be carefully planned. If curiculum development teaen kes on to ambitious atasi forthe time avalable, he quality of thelt fons muy be compromised. Toe working dynamics ofthe team are also erential to the smooth progress of the project, che team members are bighly commited jo the project and share a common vision itis Hiei} a coir fewer dfcultes than one where the projectteam expecences i+ ‘erpal ou and r sruggles.— “The Following project factors need to be considered: + Who constitutes the project group and how are.they selected? + What are the Tidhagement and other responsibilities of the + How are goals and procedures devermined! 1 Who reviews te progress of the project aid the performance of its mem- ers? + ‘What experience do members of the team have? + How do members of the tear regard each other? 1 hat sesqurces do they have available and what budgetto aequireneeded resources? ~~ ere «Whats the time frame ofthe project? Is itealistic, oris more or less tine needed?96 Chapter + “The following examples illustrate how these kinds of factors can affect ‘curriculom planning; ‘Example 1: A private institute decides to develop a set of course materials for some of is major courses. A group of teachers is assigned to the task land given release time to work on the project as materials writers, Ons of the senior teachers is put in charge. However, the team members cannot agree on the goals of the projector the best approach to take in writing Rutesials, There is constant tension within the team and a rapid tumover of twaiters. Consequently, the project takes much longer to accomplish than planned. ‘Comment: A person who is a good teacher may not make a good mate- rials developer or project leader, Bener direction ofthe project was nesded through recruitment of someone with appropriate qualifications and expe- [Henee, In addition, better communication was nceded so that different per- ‘ceptions of the project could be alzed and differences resolved before they ‘became problems. Clearer specifications of roles might also have led to fewer problems. “Example 2: A full-time textbook writer needs help in developing a textbook: Series She hires three graduate students who appear to have the necessary Skis end experience. A contract is signed and the project commences. Tt Soon emerges, however, that the graduate students do not have the skills needed to vite independently and are able to undertake little more than sec Tevarial roles within the project. The experienced writer finds it necessary to take on the major part of the writing, leading to tension and bad feeling because che contract is already signed. ‘Comment: The graduate students should have been given 2 wial period to prove their worth before they were offered 2 contract, Problems thet ‘emerged early on in the project should have been aired so that replacement swriters could have been recruited if necessary. ‘Example 3: A project team within a ministry of education is assigned to de- velop a national textbook project in an EFL country. Team members re re- cruited by a professional reoruitment agency. There is litle difficuley ecruiting weiters, but there are few appropriate applicants for the role of project director. As a consequence, a succession of inexperienced or wae ‘rable appointees fil the post of project director, leading to serious prob lems within the team and to disruption of the project deadlines. ‘Comment: The role of project director might have to be reconsidered and the responsibilities assigned to members of the team. Altemasively, termsSituation analysis 97 of employment for the project director might need to be reconsidered to en- able a suitable candidate to be found. In addition, members of the project ‘eam should be consulted on how to resolve comraunication difficulties and other problems within the team. Institutional factors AJanguage teaching program is typically delivered in a Sn such ivessity, school, or language instioute, Different types of institutions ere=_ sxe their own eulize," hats, setings whére people interectand where pat- teens emerge for communication, decision making, ole relations, and con duct. Momis (1954, 109) observes: qe School ar orgenizations and they develop a culture, ees o environment Which might be favorable or uafvorble to encouraging change and te {nplememation of invasions. & schoo! witha reietvely open cima, whee the teaches cllborate with each otber and were the pieipal and seace tcachen} ar supportive of teacher, is more lel to ay implement a change In contrast, a scool where he pnp focuses on adinistatve mates, traces workin lation ori narow subjected groups ard where ter is sosmechanim te discuss andy solve problems is esa ily change A teaching institution is a collection of teachers, groups, and departments, sometimes functioning in unison, sometimes with diferent components functioning independectly, or sometimes with components in a confronta- tional relationship. Withia an inccuion there may be a strong and positive climate to support incovation, one where thereis effective and positivelead- ership and where changeis received positively. On the other hand, there may bea climate where teachers distrust one another and the administration and have no fim commitment tothe school. Tnstituions also-have theit own ways of doing things. In some instinu- tions, textbooks aze the core ofthe curiculum and all eaGE must use the prescribed texts. In other instiutions, teachers work from course guidelines and supplement thers a they see ft. Jnstintions also differ greatly in their levels of professionalism, In some institutions, there is a strong sense Of Bre fessional commitment a a culture of quality that influences every aspect ‘of the institution's operations. In others, the driving force ofthe school may bbe monetary. As acost-saving measure, heavy reliance is made on part-time teachers o¢ teachers with litle training and experience. They are not paid for lesson preparation time and consequeaty teach their classes ané thea depar for their next teaching assignment, pechaps in another school98. Chapter + In adaliion tothe human side ofthe institution, the physical aspects need toe sonsdete: Wit Kinds of reiourees a Balable for eae? sere Ped teachers reference room? Wha access do teachers have tthe pho- tceopier? Who chooses textbooks and materials? Instonal factors ths telat tothe following Kinds of questions: «What leadership is available within the school to support change and to help teachers cope with change? «+ What are the school's physical resources, including classroom facilities, media and other technological resources, and library resources? + What is the role of textbooks and other instructional materials? + What is saff morale like among English teachers? 1 What problems do teachers face and what is being done about them? 1 What administrative support is available within the school and what is communication like between teachers and the administration? What kind of reputation does the institution have for delivering success fal language programs? «+ How committed is the institution to attaining excellence? “Example 1: A new director is appointed to private language institute, The ‘onmers of the institute are concerned at felling student enrollments and feel that the institute's programs need to be reviewed to make them more com- pettve and attractive to potential clients. The director prepares an excellent Piionale foc revamping existing courses, for replacing the textbooks cur~ rently in use with more up-o-date texts, and develops a plan for marketing hhew courdes. However, she meets a wall of resistance from teachers who feel that they are undervalued, underpaid, and that proposed changes will not bring any benefits to thera. ‘Comment: Perhaps the teachers could have been involved in rechinking the insdute's programs from the start and ways found to build in some in- ‘contives for the teachers theraselves. This might involve negotiating with the school's owners for better service conditions for teachers as part of the fverall curriculum renewal plan, Ia addition, some of the teachers may have tobe replaced with teachers who are more open tothe Kinds of chenges the rector is proposing. ‘Example 2: There is an unacceptebly high amount of staff tumover ina lan ‘guage intimate and several excellent teachers have moved on, claiming chat the school does not provide them with the continued source of professional satisfaction they need. As a consequence, the institute is short of Key teach= rs. New teachers complain that they do not have the support they need fromSituation analysis 99 senior teachers in order to enable them to successfully carry out their teach- ing and materials development responsibilities. ‘Comment: The institute should review its staff structure and consider cre- ating special roles for key senior teachers with appropriate remuneration. ‘These could be mentor teachers, teacher trainers, or teacher researchers. “Teachers area key factor inthe suecessfol implementation of curculom hagBE Ecepivona teachers ean often compensate forthe Poor quaLNy = ‘Sources and matenals they have fo work from. But inadequately wined teachers may notbe able to make effective use of teaching materials no mat ter how well they are designed. In any instzuon, teachers may vary 8¢- cording tothe following dimensions: Tanguage proficiency teaching experience ‘audlanderpese SG utid meses + training and qualifications \ + morale and motivation =) Lhe + teaching syle beliefs and principles tn planning a language pedgram itis therefore important o know the Kinds of teachers the program will depend on and the Kinds of teachers needed 10 Srsuve thatthe program achieves its goal “Within schools teachers also have many different kinds of responsibil sis, Some teachers have mentoring o leadership roles within ther schools td eelst in orienting new eachers othe school or leading grougs of teach- ei in netesils development and other activites. Other teachers have time for Ue more ban caching. They may have very heavy teaching loads or teach in several different instinions in order to make ends mest. Some trackers may weleom the chance to Uy outa new syllabus or material. Gthers may resent ivbecause they see it as disrupting ther routine and not offering them any Snancial or other Kind of advantage. ‘hmong the teacher factors hat nee tobe considered in situation analy- sis ace the folowing: «What Kinds of twachers curently teach inthe target schools or instiu- Hons? Wha fs heir ypical background, taining, experience, nd moti- vation?100 Chepter4 + How proficient are they in English? ‘What Kinds of beliefs do the teachers typically hold concerning key is- sues in teaching? ‘What teaching loads do teachers have and what resources do they make use of? ‘What are the typical teaching methods teachers use and believe in? ++ To what extent are teachers open to change? + What opportunities do they have for retraining through in-service or other Kinds of opporuuities? «= What benefits are the proposed new syllabus, curriculum, or materials Wely 10 offer teachers? ‘The following examples illustrate the potential impact of some of these issues. ‘Example I: As par of an overal reform of the school curriculum, the cur eulum department ia an EFL country decides to implement a new task- ‘based approach to teaching across the whole curriculum in all subject as- eas, The new curriculum involves a greater use of teacher-made criterion-referenced tests that are linked to graded tasks in different subject areas. However, when the plans introduced to veachers, it meets with great resistance, Teachers ae happy with the current curriculum; they have great ificulty understanding the philosophy of the new approach and see it as creating a much heavier workload. The teachers’ union organizes a number of teachers’ meetings to discuss and criticize the new curriculum. In the face ‘of public opposition, the curriculum department decides to delay the intro- duction of the new curriculum and to modify i, despite having spent large sum of money in developing the curriculum and supporting materials. ‘Comment. Much wider consultation should have taken place before de- ciding to change the existing curriculum. Teachers should have been con sulted to see if they saw the need for change. Teachers should have been in~ volved in preparing the new curiculuma rather thaa imposing it onthem 2s _ a fait accompli. Adequate provision stould have been made to train teach- Bie tise the Rew curiculum and the curriculum piloted frst to identity the demands it created for teachers and students. Example 2: A program director in a private institute believes that teachers {in his school should not use commercial textbooks but should prepare their ‘own teaching materials. Most teachers are untrained and on short-term con- tracts so they fee! that they caanot contest his ruling and pay lip service 10 the policy. However, most teachers ignore the policy. They teach from pho-Situation analysis 101 tocopied sections taken from commercial materials or type out sections from textbooks and pass these off as teacher-mmade materials. ‘Comment: Tae program director's policy serves no obvious purpose. If the director wants teachers to prepare their own materials, he will need to consider hiring better-qualified teachers or provide materials writing work- shogs for teachers, In addition, a set of goals related to materials writing needs to be agread on to give some purpose to the requirement. Learner factors Learners ae the key participants in curiculure developraent projects and it js essential to collect a8 much information as possible aboutthem before the project begins. In Chapter the focus was leamers” language needs. Here the focus is on oth celevant factors such asthe leamers” back~ “ound, expectations, beliefs, and preter THE project de- Eigaew Tay be operating from a set of assumptions about education, schools, teachers, and students that is culturally bound and at odds with the beliefs and assumptions of the learners. Nunan (1989, 176) comments: the effectiveness of language program will be dictated as auch by the [titades and expectations ofthe learers 2s by the specifications ofthe ofl Cumievlom...- Learners have tei own agendas in the language lessons they sstend, These agent, a8 lc. as fe iachers Gbieeves, de learners take from any given teaching/Icarning encounter, Learners may affect the outcomes of a project ia unexpected ways, For ex- ample, a textbook or Set OY materials may be engaging, ara Guable level, and provide a lot of useful practice but not be appreciated by students be- cause they fal to see any links berween the book and an examination they a ing Iowa -A language program that is dependent on students’ ‘einging to sehool a student book, a workbook, and 2 dictionary may en ‘counter difficulties because students" schoolbags are not big enough 0 pro- vide space for three English books ia addition o books required for other subjects. Or a program in business English for company employees se bly predicated on the assumption that the students really want to be able to discuss business topics in English may turnout tobe off target because what the employees reelly want is an hour's escape from the pressures of their jobs and the chance to pracrice social and conversational English. “Among celevant learaee factors therefore are the following: + What ace the learners’ past language learning experiences? + How motivated are the learners to lear English?102 Chapter 4 + ‘What are their expectations forthe program? > Do the learners” views on language teaching reflectany culturally factors? «+ Are they a homogeneous or a heterogeneous group? 1 What type of leaming approach do they favor (eg. teacher-led, student- focused, or small-group work)? ‘What type of content do they prefer? 1 What expectations do they have forthe roles of teachers, lesmers, and in- structional materials? = How much time can they be expected to put into the programa? + What learning resources will they typically have access to? specific Example 1: A private institate in an EFL country offers an intermediate. evel conversation course. Teachers in the course make extensive use of Alveney activites, including pair and group tivities, roe plays, songs and games, and discussion activities. These activities are thought to reflect ‘current views on second language acquisition. However, the first cohort of Teemers through the program are very critical of it because they cannot see the point of many of the classroom activites they were asked to take part in, They request more teacher-directed activities and more errar corres ton. “We don’t want to come to class to clap and sing” is 2 typical student comment. ‘Comment: Learners have their own views on how conversation skills can, ‘be developed and their own preferences for classroom activites. Ifthe goals of fluency activides are not clearly explained and if students are not con Vinced of their value, they may not understand what their intentis and judge them to be ineffective. A questionnaire could have been administered prior to the course to determine students’ views of different kinds of classroom ‘otivites, In addition, a better orientation to the goals and methodology of the program should have been provided. ‘Example 2: A group of foreign experts in an EFL context devise a program jn oral communication skills for adults. The program reflects current West- tem views of teaching and learning and is built around such concepts as au tonomous learning, the learner-centered curriculum, and the negotiated ‘curriculum. The teachers decide that rather than develop the detailed con- tent of the program in advance, they will involve the students in the devel- ‘opment ofthe program's goals and content. Once the program commences, however, the sudents judge thatthe teachers do aot know what they are do- ing and complain that the program is unstructured and unfocused. ‘Comment: The teachers and the students have different expectationsSituation analysis 103 about the requirements of a sound program as a result of cultural differences in their approach to teaching and learning. The students expect a program with clear goals and with an organization lid out in advance, This clashes with the beliefs of the teachers. Some sort of compromise should have been decided on early on in the project to prevent the students from misunder standing the nature of the program. More time should have been spent ex- plaining the purpose of different activities within the program and the phi- losophy it was based on. Example 3: A young Western English teacher takes his first overseas teach ig assignment at an Asian university. He want to be viewed by his st dents asa peer rather than asa teacher and seeks to create an informal and ‘endly classroom atmosphere. Students are asked to address bim by bis firstname, He likes to seat himself on the teacher's desk rather than coa- {uct his classes standing. The program coordinator soon receives feedback thatthe teacher is unprofessional and that students donot take him seriously. ‘Comment: The teacher should have received a better orientation to bis teaching context and become informed of students’ (and the institution's) ‘expectations for appropriate and acceptable teacher behavior. Adoption factors ‘Any attempt to introduce 2 new curriculum, syllabus, or set of materials ‘must take into account the relative ease or difficulty of introducing chenge jnto the system, Curticulum changes are of many different kinds. They may ‘affect teachers’ pedagogical values and beliefs, their understanding of the nature of language or second language learning, or their classroom practices and use of teaching materials. Some changes may be readily accepted while others might be resisted, The following questions therefore need to be aske “of my proposed cursicilim innovation: + What edventages does the curriculum change offer? Is the innovation per- ceived to be more advantageous than current practices? «+ How compatible i it? Is the use of the innovation consistent withthe ex- {sting beliefs, anitudes, organization, and practices within a classroom or school? «+ Is the innovation very complicated and difficult to understand? + Has itbeen used and tested out in some schools before all schools are &x- pected to use it? « Have the feanares and beneBits of the innovation been clearly communi cated to teachers and institutions?404 Chapter4 «+ How clear and practical is it? Are the expectations ofthe innovation stated in ways which clearly show how it can be used in the classroom? (Momis 1994, 109) ‘although curriculum planners might provide many compelling reasons for ‘sdopting a communicative teaching methodology, teachers might fes! that itmakes testing more difficult compared with a more traditional grammar- based approach. Hence itis perceived as offering few relative advantages for teachers. A language teaching approach that requires teachers to adopt new roles in the classroom, such as needs analyst, resource person, and lan~ fBuage tutor, might notbe compatible with lamers’ expectations forthe role Gf teachers, The complexity and clarity of 2 curriculum change might also ‘be crucial in its successful adoption. Compare the following pairs of items, for example, and consider which would be easier to explain to a group of teachers: ; + computer-based learning versus cooperative leaming 1 Communicative pair work versus consciousness-rising activities + fianctonal syllabus versus atask-based sylabus + a product syllabus versus a process syllabus 1 a conteat-based curriculum versus a negotiated cur + audjlinguaism versus the Natural Approach 2 the Structural Approach versus Communicative Language Teachiog ‘Practicality is also a significant issue. A methodology that cas readily be fumed into teaching matecals and textbooks will generally be easier to adopt than one that exists only as& set of guidelines. For this reason Com- municarive Language Teaching is much more widely adopted as a teaching approach than the Natural Approach. The support networks available in pro- roding or explaining an innovation may also be crucial. Are the ministry of ‘education, key educational administrators, professional bodies, and recoz- tized educational authorities committed to the project, and what level of support will they provide? Rodgers (1984, 41), discussing implementation of 2 communicative syllabus in Melaysia in the 1980s, describes some of the societal agencies that were involved: Tinplementation of a nsw syllabus needs to involve the cooperssion af many agencies, In Malaysia these inlude the Ministry of Education Diseztorhip, the Curriculum Development Centr, the Inspectorate, the Examinations Syadicate, teacher Training, The Textbook Bureau, textbook publishers, State Education officers, School Headmasters, the National Union of Teachers, end the formal and informal groups of teachers, themselves, As well, extemal agencies ned to be informed about and, pethaps, diectly involved in diseussionstuation analysis 105 of syllabus changes. Thee include the Nasional Parliament, the press, the “universities and language advisory agencies (e.g. the Brish Couneil), Feelings of being eft out or uninformed create the adversary tance that epresenstives fof such agencies often ake with regard to new programs. Example 1: Anew state textbook series is prepared by the ministry of edu- cation in an EFL country. The series assumes a very different type of methodology from that currently used in schools because itis less tens- mission-oriented and more experientially based. When the program is ia- troduced, however, a number of problems quickly emerge: teachers find the materials difficult to use and unsuitable for large classes; some of the con- tent in the materials is though to be unsuitable for the target population. ‘Comment: The materials could have been introduced in selected schools first (pethaps in a pilot versioa) in order to identify what problems teachers encountered using the materials. These problems could then have been ad- dressed before full-scale implementation was carried out. Example 2: English is being introduced atthe elementary level for the first time in an EFL county, A teacher-taining program is set in place to pre- pare teachers for teaching at this level. To provide the training, local teacher trainers are hired and given a “wraining-of-trainers course” by a foreign ex- pert. However, 2 number of the local trainers ere found to have very tradi tional views about teacher education and are opposed to the training model being used in the raining course. Once they reaurn to their own training cen- ters, they try to use their own training principles that are not consistent with the philosophy of the new course. ‘Comment: More time should have been spent on selecting trainers to take ‘part in the training-of-trainers program. In the process, those who did not Support the philosophy of the taining program could have been rejected. (Ongoing feedback on the trainers’ performance through workshops and vis- its might also help to make sure the trainers were using an appropriate train- ing model, Profiling the factors identified in the situation analysis ‘The goal of sinvation analy identify Key factors that might posit oF negatively affect the implementation of curriculum plan. This is some~ “ies known as a SWOT analysis because it involves an examination of “a language program's intemal srenguks and weainesses in addition to exter~108 Chapter nal opportunites and threats tothe existence or successful operation of the language program” (Klinghammer 1997, 65). These can be summarized ia the form of alist and the profile developed for discussion within the proj- fect team, ministry, funding body, of institute (See Appendix 1). Rodgers (1984) describes a more elaborate matrix that can also be used for estimat- ing the difficulty of implementing new programs (see Appendix 2) (see also Leidecker and Bruno 1987). Ways of addressing the negative factors that ‘were identified can then be considered. Alternatively, the goals ofa project right need to be modified to zeflect the realities ofthe situation in which the curriculum will be implemented. ‘Situation analysis thus serves to help identify potential obstacles to ime plementing a curriculum project and factors that ned tobe considered when planning the parameters of a project. The next step in curriculum planning Javelves using the information collected during needs analysis and situation analysis as the basis for developing program goals and objectives. Proce- dures for tis stage in planning are the focus of Chapter 5. Discussion questions and activities 1. Discuss a language teaching context you are familiar with andlistsome of the most important factors that are likely to influence the success of the program. Then rank the factors in order of importance. Compare your information with others. 2. How do societal factors influence or have an impacton a language pro ‘gram that you are familiar with? Which factors ae negative and which are positive? How can negative factors be addressed”? 3, Are you familiar with a situation in which a curriculum change was at- tempted (e.g. the introduction of'a new teaching approach, anew text: book, ora new program design) and met with difficulties? What factors in the situation contributed to these difficulties?. Could the problems have been avoided? ~ 4, List the factors that you think are most crucial in a school or institution in cresting a favorable context for curriculum change, such 25 when a ‘new course or language program is being offered for the first ime. 5, What groups in the community or society at large would be most rele- vant 19 consult in your country (or the country in which you work) in relation to planned changes in the English- or foreign language cur- siculum in public schools? 6. Have you worked as a member of a curriculum project tear (as a ma- terials weiter, course planner, ete.)? Diseuss your experience on the30. Situation analysis 107 project and whether project factors had an impact on the €ynamics and outcome of the project. ‘Wat ean be done in circumstances where teachers and learners have diffecent expectations and beliefS about the narure of # language course? ‘Waa support is provided for teachers in your teaching sition? How ffeccive isthe sopport provided? What other forms of support would yyou recommend? Inmagine that a new technology-based leaming program isto be intro- duced into Schools in your county or the country in which you work “The program employs print materials but also makes extensive use of CALL software, CD-ROMS, videos, and other electronic media, What factors might affect the reception of the program and how could any negative factors be addressed? Examine the situation analysis profile ia Appencix 1 and adapt it to make it applicable to a context for curicalum change (¢., intoduc- Con of a new curriculum, new teaching methods, new textbooks, new language program) that you ae familie with. Identify postive and neg- ative factors in the situation that wil affect the cuciculum change,108 Chapter 4 Appendix 1 Situation analysis profile ‘Societal factors Positives: —————____________ Negatives; — Project factors Positives: << Negatives: —_—_________—— Institutional factors Positives: or ere ee Negatives: —_———__$_____—___ ‘Teacher factors Positives: ————_________— Negatives: —_—__________— ‘Leamer factors Positives: Negatives: ——____________——- ‘Adoption factors Positives: —______________— Negatives: Appendix 2 Matrix for identifying factors in curriculum renewal process : E “This matix includes an estimate of the dificulty in fulilling the require- rents of the factor (from Rodgers 1984). Low High ciety diffu A, The educational requirement sought: 1. The subject mater is faiiar or ‘unfamiliar. SE EEE EE eer teeSituation analysis 109 Low High dificly ‘ifientty 2, The knowledge domain (skill, or otter) is simple or comple. Ee EE eee 3, The learning grovp is relatively easy to wach or difficult to teach EE ER eee 4, The instructional design is simple ‘or comples. See eee 5, The insirutional sign is familiar or unfariian ee eH ete 6. The curricular and instructional designs are well o inadequately reeearched eee eee +7, Inseractional materials are “oft the shelf” or nonexistent. Pee eee 8, The instructional materials are to be technically simple or sophisticated. 9, The renewal is to be made in an individual ot ocal arena or in anation- ‘vide (worldwide?) arena. ee eee 10. The proportion of concern with the fall renewal process” (Irom theory, ‘through design ard development, publications, tang, and suppor) is paral er complet Eee Ee Sete 1B. Renewal activities and resources required: Low Eigh ifficaty ‘sfficaly 1. Time available isextensiveorlimited, = 2 Fonds wailalear extensive orlinied, 5, Professional resources are extensive or tite, eee eee ee 4, Professional resouess are experienced dnd accomplished orinexperienced. 5, The “standing” ofthe renewal agency! persons (sas, reputation tac record) is excelent or poor. eee ee 6. The role o position in the “system” of the renewal agencyties)~ Gdivideal, school, eystem, university, publisher, 17, The theory and practice of euriculum renewal is adequate ro nonexistent. Hee110 Chapter C The content of the renewal program: Low High csiculy difficely 1. The target school system(s) i (re) well organized or unorganized. Se ee eee 2, The competing renewal programs are few or many. eee ee ee 3. The tages school system(s) has (have) simple or profound educational problems. oe eet eee eet 4. The idea of curricular renewal is well ‘or poorly accepted. SE ee rete sc 5, The idea of the renewal effort is consis- tent with ot inconsistent wih the currentSituation analysis 111 References Bean, W.C. (ed). 1993. Strategic planning that makes things happen: Getting ijrom where you are to where you want to be. Amherst, MA: Human Re- ‘sources Development Press, Clark, J. 1989. Curriculue renewal in school foreign language learning. Ox- Fords Oxford University Press. Kliaghammer, S. 197. The strategic planner. In M.A. Christison and F. Stoller (eds), A handbook for language program administrators. Burlingame, CA: ALTA Books. 61-76. Leidecker, J.K., and A. V, Bruno. 1987. Critical success factor analysis and the ‘suategy development process. In W. R. King and D. I Cleland (eds.), ‘Strategic planning and management handoook. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 333-351. Markee, N. 1997. Managing curricular innovation. New York: Cambridge Uni versity Press Moms. P.1994. The Hong Kong school curriculum. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ‘Nunan, D. 1969. Hidden agendas: The role ofthe leamer in programme imple- ‘mentation. In R. K. Johnson (ed.), The second language curriculum. New York: Cambridge University Press. 176-187. Pratt, D. 1980. Curriculum: Design and development. New York: Harcourt Brace. Rodgers, T. 1984, Communicative syllabus design and implementation: Re- ‘ection on a decade of experience. In J. Read (ed), Trends or language ‘syllabus design. Singapace: Regional Language Ceater (RELC). 28-53. ‘Van Els, T. T. Bongeers, G. Extra, C. Van Os, and. Janssea-van Dieten. 1984. “Applied linguistics and the learning and teaching of foreign-languages London: Amotd.5 Planning goals and learning outcomes 1k was suggested in Chapter 1 that early planners of English-language courses saw the purpose of language teaching as self-evident. Itwas SufB- ‘ent to state that the goal of a course was to teach English, The ESP move- iment argued tht this approach was inadequate and that in order to teach English it was necessary to find answers to much more specific questions: “Waatkind of English? Atwhatlevel of proficiency? And for what purposes? Needs analysis seeks to provide answers to these questions and situation analycis seeks to identify the role of contextual factorsi implementing cur- ‘Houlam change. In this chapter we will consider another erucial dimension ‘of decision making in curriculum planning: determining the goals and out- comes of a program. ‘Several Key assumptions about goals characterize the euricalumm ap- proach to educational planning, Tse can be summarized as follows + People are generally motivated to pursue specific goals. 1 The use of goals in teaching improves the effectiveness of traching and Tearing. + A program will be effective tothe extent that its goals are sound and clearly described. “Thece principles appear to be self-evident and uncontroversial, and most Tanguage programs describe their goals in terms of aims and objectives. The patize of aims and objectives, however, is not necessarily straightforward ‘because they refer to knowledge, skis, and values that eduectional plan- ners believe learners need to develop. In deciding on goals, planners choose from amtong alierzatives based on assumptions about f teaching and of a curiculum. Formulating goals is not, therefore, an objective sci- entific enterprise but 2 judgment cal. For this reason, the nature of goals in the design of educational programs has aroused considerable controversy and debate in the curriculum Literature, and contines to do so. This debate is cefleciedin such issues as the following, which are all elated to questions cf curriculum goals: naPlanning goals and leaming outcomes 113 + Isthore any value ia teaching stadents a foreign language at school if they have no practical need for it? + Should a language program for immigrants just teach practical life skills, cor should it seek to prepare immigrants to confront racial and other forms of prejudice? + Should leamers participate in the shaping of the curriculum ors it some- thing best left to teachers? + Should students study the litereture and culture of speakers of the language they are learning, or just learn to speak and use the language as a tool? + Is it the language teacher’s job to raise students’ awareness of social in- justices? + Should teachers just prepare students to pass 2 flawed language exam (Guch as the English tests used as part of the entry examination at many universities) oc should teachers and students together seek ways of find- ing fairer methods of assessment? + Whar role should the learner's native language play inthe curriculura and, in the classroom? Eisner (1992, 302) observes: “Because educational practice is concerned swith the achievement of certain desired end states, itreies ona larger value satix to secure and jusify the directions in which it moves” In oréec to appreciate how value systems shape decisions ebout what schools should teach and the outoomes they seek to achieve, we will begin our discussion of goals by considering five curiculum ideologies (borrowing Eisner’s term) that shape the nature ofthe language curiculum and the practices of language teaching in different ways: academic rationalism, socal and cco- nomic efficiency, leamer-ceateredness, social reconsiuctionism, and cul- ‘ural pluralism. The ideology of the curriculum In developing goals for educational programs, curriculum planners drew on their understanding both ofthe present and long-term needs of learners and. of society as well as the planners’ beliefs and ideologies about schools, learners, and teachers. These beliefs and values provide the philosophical underpianiags for educational programs and the justification for the kinds of aims they contain, At any given time, however, a number of competing, ‘or complementary perspectives are available concerning the focus of the114 Chapter5 We do not find a monolithic supcemacy exercised by one interest group; rather wwe Bind different interest groups competing for dorsinance over the curiculem tnd. at different times, achieving some measure of contol depending on local fa: well as general social conditions. Each ofthese inteest groups, thes, represents force for a different selection of knowledge and values from the Culture and hence a kind of lobby fora different curiculom,(Kliebard, 1966, 8) Each of the five eusriculura perspectives examined here emphasizes a dif- ferent approach to the role of language in the curriculum. Academie rationalism “This justification forthe aims of curriculum stresses the intrinsic value ofthe subject matter and its role in developing the leamer’s intellect, humanistic ‘values, and rationality, The content matter of different subjects is viewed as the basis fora curriculura and mastery of contents an end in itself rather than, ‘a means to solving social problems or providing efficient means to achieve the goals of policy makers. The role of schools is to provide access to the ma- {jor achievements of a particular cultural tradition and to know the insights ‘gained from studying endusing fields of knowledge. Greek and Latin have teadisionally eppeared in many high school curricule in the West because they were believed to develop “mental discipline” in smdents. Also known 2 “classical humanism,” this view “is characterized above all by the desire 10 promote broad intellectual capacities suci as memorization and the ability © analyze, classify, and reconstruct elements of knowledge so thet these ca pacities can be brought to bear on the various challenges likely to be en- ‘Sountered in life” (Clark 1987, 5). Academic rationalism is sometimes used to justify the inclusion of certain foreign languages in school curicula, where they are taught not as tools for communication but as an aspectof social stud- jes. Ozolins (1993) documents the debate over foreign langvage teaching in ‘Australian schools and the reasons why French has gradually replaced Latin ‘and other foreign languages. In discussing the role of foreign languages, the ‘education minister for the state of Victoria in 1964, Bloomfield, argued that the issue was not one of languages alone. Ozolins comments: “The intellectual justification for tesching French was, in Bloomfiel's view, the understanding of other nations, eo that foreign language teaching is aa inteosive and specialized form of social studies’. The purely linguistic and communicative aspects of languages were not the primary objective, a east not for Vieroian schools. (Ozolins 1993: 87) “This ideology is also sometimes used 2s a justification for including courses con licerature, or American or British culture, in a language program. In somePlanning goals and learning outcomes 118 parts of the world (@.g., Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia), under colonial rule the English curriculum was traditionally a literature-based one. “The basic educational aim was the assimilation of British culture through the medium of English literature. There vas ao provision for language work specially designed to help the non-native leames” (Ho 1984, 223). The eur- iculum aimed at maintaining the elitist status of English-medium educa. tion, Such curricula were gradually replaced with more functional and prac- teally oriented ones as English-medium education became more widely available (Ho 1994). (Clark (1987, 6) points ou that in the United Kingdom academic ration- ‘lism is concemed with: + The maintenance and transmission through education of the wisdom and culture of previous generations. This has led to the creation of 2 two-tier system of education ~ one to accord with the “higher” cultural traditions cof an elite, and the other to cater for the more conerece and practical lifestyles of the masses. + The development for the elite of generalizable intellectual capacities and critical faculties. «+ The maintenance of stands through an inspectorate and extemal exami- nation boards controlled by the universities. In the United States, the debate over “cultural literacy” that emerged with the publication of Hirsek’s book Cufniral Literacy in 1987 indicated thet this educetional ideology sill has both influential proponents and critics. Social and economic efficiency ‘This educational philosophy emphasizes the practical needs of learners and society and the role of an educational program in producing Yeamers who are economically productive. People cen improve themselves and their en- vironment throagh a process of rational planaiag. Social, economic, and other needs of society can be identified and planned for “by task analysis, by forming objectives for each task, and by teaching skills as discrete units” (Unrmacher 1993, 4). [tis an eads-means approach. One of the founders of ccorriculum theory, Bobbitt advocated this view of the curriculum, Cur- riculum development. was seea as based on scientific principles, and its practitioners were “educational engineers” whose job it was to “discover the tolal range of habits, skill, abilities, fooms of thought, etc that its mem ‘bers need for the effective performance of their voeational labors” (1918, 43). Bobbitt concluded that an appropriate metaphor for curriculum devel- ‘opment was that of the factory and production. In language teaching, this116 Chapters philosophy leads to an emphasis on practical and funetional stalls in 2 for- eign or second language. “Socioeconomic ideology stresses the economic needs of society as ajus- sification for the teaching of English. Successful economies in the «went first century are increasingly knowledge-based, and the bulk of the world’s rnowledge is in the English language. In a recent debate over standards of English in Japan, poor standards of English were cited 2s one reason for Japan's economic malaise inthe late 1990s. “The learning of English, now ‘a global language, is essential for Japan to have a bright furore... the line guistic handicap of the Japanese could hold them back in an increasingly Fmtemet-oriented world, where the bulk of information is wien in En- lish” (Kin 1999). Tn foreign languege teaching, the debate over skills-based versus aca- demically based instruction in language teaching bas-a long history as is een in discussions over the relative merits of classical languages versus teodemn languages, literature versus language, and even grammar versus Conversation in a language program. In many countries where English is a Foreign language, over the past two decades there has been & move away from academic rationalism as the underpinnings of the English curiculum toward one based more on a socioeconomic efficiency model. The Thresh- ola Level, the notional functional syllabus, and cutcomes-based approaches Such as the use of graded objectives and competency-based outcomes in for- tiga language learuing reflect this move toward an efficiency model in cur- ‘Heulum planning, one that Clark (1987) suggests oftea also zeflects a Re search, Development, and Diffusion model. Ie generally involves the sering up of a central commie of selected “experts! to develop # new curriculum product. The comunites conducts inital research {nto what is required, produces daft materials, obtains feedback fiom classrooms eachers who use the draft material ia a qurber of designated plot areas chosea to be representative of a range of contexts, and finally revises the materials for publication, (Clark 1987, 33) 7 “Auerbach cites an example of this approach ~ the Texas Adult Performance ‘Level Study —in which “university-based researchers surveyed literacy us- age ina wide variety of contexts and identified sixty-five competencies that they claimed were characteristic of successful functioning in society” (Auerbach 1985, 13) Critics of this view of the curriculum have argued that such a view is redvetionist and presupposes that Iearners’ needs can be identified with a predetermined set of skils and objectives. Knowledge is seen as something external 5 the learner that is transmitted in pieces, Freire describes this 2sPlanning goals and learning outcomes 117 “bariking model": “Education thas becomes an actof depositing, in which the students are depositories and the teacher is the depositoc” (1975, 138). ‘Advocates of the social-efficiency approach argue that the curriculum ‘Should above all focus on knowledge and skills that are relevant 10 the learner's everyday life needs and that the curriculum should be planned to meet the practical needs of society. Learner-centeredness “This term groups together educational philosoy us needs of laren, he role of individual expertence, andthe need to develop = lection, critical thinking, leamer strategies, and other qual- _lfeyandstls that ae believed io be imponant tr ledrers 0 develop. Witt ‘his vaditon, reconcepeuaistsexphasize the role of experience ia leaning. “What is missing from Amecican schools... is a deep respect for personal purpose, lived experience, th life ofthe imagination, and those forms of un Gerstanding that resis dissection and measurement” (Pinar 1975, 316) ‘Consmctivists emphasize that learning involves active construction and testing of one’s own representation of the world and accornmodation of it to one’s personal conceprual framework All le toinvolve re-G (23 learning and reorganization of one’s previous understanding and ation of knowledge (Robers 1998, 23). Dewey, one ofthe foun philosophy, observed that “there is no intellectual growth without some re ‘onstruction, some ceworlina™ (Dewey 1934, 64). Roberts (1998) com feats that constructivism has Had a strong influence on language curticu- influencing the way, for example, reading and listening ‘are taught with an emphasis on the prior knowledge, belies, and expectations that leamers bring to listeaing and reading, Clark (1987, 49) (who uses the team progressivism to tofer.o this pilosopby) S08 secin education “as a means of providing children wit ‘a they can lear by their own aun which can be broken up into several broad Gevelopmental stages. ... Growth through experience isthe key conceat_ "Marsh (1986, 201) points out thatthe issue of child-centered or learner: ,/ centered curicula reappears every decede or so and can refer to any ofthe following: y | individualized teaching \ * Teaming through practical operation or doing 1 aisea faire ~ n0 organized eurrievla at all but based on the momentary interests of ehildcen118 Chapters /\+ creative self-expression by students 1 practically oriented activites directed toward the needs of society 1B Collective team that refers to the rejection of teaching-directed learning {In language teaching, Clark sees this educational philosophy as leading to an emphasis on process rather than product, a focus on learner ciffereaces, learner strategies, and learner self-direction and autonomy. ‘Social reconstructionism ‘This curriculum perspective emphasizes the roles schools and leamers can and should play in addressing social injustices and inequality. Curriculum development isnot seen as a neutral process. Schools lixewise do not pres- ‘ent equal opportunities forall (Freire 1972; Apple 1986) but reflect the gen- ‘eal inequalities in society. Schools must engage teachers and students in an examination of imporant social and personal problems and seek ways t0 ‘address them. This process is known as “empowerment” Teachers mustem- power their suadents so that they can recognize unjust systems of clas, race, tor gender, and challenge them. Morris (1995, 10) observes: “The curieulam derived from this perspective focuses on developing knowledge, siils and auitudes which would create a woeld where people cae about each ‘ther, the environment, andthe distbution of wealth, Tolerance, the acceptance (of divenity and peace would be encouraged. Social injustioes and inequality ‘would be central igeues inthe cuticulum. “The most persuasive and curently popular representatives of this view~ point are associated with the movement known as critical theory and rii- cal pedagogy. The assumptions of “criticalists” are summarized by Kinch- celoe and McLaren (1994, 139): that all hought is fundamentally mediated by power relaxons that are socially ‘and historically constituted; that fats can never be isolated from the domain ‘Of value or removed from same form of ideological inscription; thatthe {elatonship between concept and object and berween signifier and signified is never sable or fixed and is eften mediated by the social relations of capitalist production and consumption; that language is central tothe formation of Eubjectvity (conseious and unconscious awareness); tha certain grovgs in any Society are privileged over others... the oppression that characterizes Contemporary societies is most forceflly reproduced whee subordinates accept ‘ther social states as nara, necessary, or inevitable; that oppression bas many faces and that focusing on only one at the expense of the others... often eliges the interconnections between them; and, finally, tat mainstream research practices are genecally implicated in the reproduction of systems of cass, race, and gender oppression.Planning goals and learning outcomes 118 COncof the best-known extical pedagogues is Freire (1972), who argued hat teachers and leamers are involved in a joint process of exploring and con- ‘tucting knowledge. Shideas are not the “objects” of knowledge: they Jase find ways of recognizing and esistng various forms of coatrl. In an- sane aching, Avecach’s (1992) wore an important application ogedt._ 7 ical pedagogy, stressing Wat aching must seek {6 empower, students and. MS ia pee eet ices Cries of tis postion argue thavieachers andtudents may notbe able to change the strectre ofthe syS- fens in which they work and that cther channels ae often avaiable to ad- dress such changes. Cultural pluralism. “This philosophy argues that schools should prepare students to participate in several efferent cultures and not merely the culture ofthe dominant so- tal and economic group. Banks (1988) argues that students in multicultural Societes such as the United States need to develop cross-cultural compe- tency or what is sometimes termed intercultural communication. This sears thtone caltral groups not seen as superior o others and that aul “tie perspectves prsseniog the viewpoints of diferent cultural groupe. —. SE5U be developed within he curiculum, Cultural pluralism seeks to re- (dees Tivism, to rise the self-esteem of minority groups, and to help chil dren appreciate the viewpoins of other cultures and religions (Unemachec 1993). In the United States, the American ‘Council on the Teaching of For- tiga Languages (ACTFL) has recently identified three dimensions to inter~ ‘altural competence in foreign lenguage programs: the need to learn about Salsas, to compare them, and to engage in intercultural exploration @hillips and Terry 1999). Crozet and Liddicoat (1999) explore the impli- Sations of these dimensions forthe design of language programs in Aus- tralia In muliculturl societies such as Canada, the United States, and Avs- tralia, cultural pluralism bas motivated demands for bilingual approach to English-language teaching (Bumet 1998). Auerback bas questioned the re- tionale for the exclusive use of English in ESL classrooms and argues that titeracy in the first language is a significant factor in the learning of a sec~ ond language (Auerbach 1995, 25). Collingham (1988) emphasizes the im-~, porance of valving leaess'enguage knowiedge “to weat adult leamers <) 4¢ | aif they know nothing of language isto accept the imbalance of powerand ( go ultimately to collude with institutional recisan; to adopt a bilingual ap- proach and 16 Yelve the knowledge that leaaers already have isto begia £0 ‘challenge that unequal power relationship" (Collingham 1988, 85). Tn reviewing the imenigrant experience in Australia, Mazin (1978) com-120 Chapters ‘mented on the “lack of migrant participation — which could have been forth- coming if the medium of instruction had not been English alone, if bilin- ‘gual teachers had been employed and if ethnic communities had been in volved” (1978, 68). ‘The extent to which one or other of the curriculum ideologies discussed in this section serves as the ideological underpinning of the curriculum and the relative emphasis they receive in the curriculum will reflect the paric- ular context in which the curriculum occurs. The philosophy of the cur- rculum is the result of political judgment in that it refleess a particular set fof choices about curriculum options. Ie reflects what the participants in the planning process believe to be worthwhile goals to attain and the changes they feel the curriculum should bring about. Because these judgments and values are often not stated explicitly, identifying them, making them ex- plicit, and reflecting on the unstated values and assumptions driving the cur- culm are an essential part of the process of curriculura planning, Stating curriculum outcomes Aims In arriculum discussions, the terms goal and alm are used interchangeably to refer to a description of the general purposes of a curriculum and objec~ tive toreferto a more specific and concrete description of purposes. We will tse the teams aim and objective here. An aim refers toa statement ofa gen~ feral change that a program seeks to bring about in learners. The purposes of aim statements are: + to provide a clear definition ofthe purposes of program + to provide guidelines for teachers, learners, and materials weiters + tw help provide a focus for instruction + t0 describe important and realizable changes ia learning, ‘Aims statements reflect the ideology of the curriculum and show how the ccuriculum will seek to realize ic The following satements describe the aims of teaching English at the primary level in Singapore: Our pupils learn English in order to: + communicate effectively, in both speech and writing, in everyday situa- tions to meet the demands of society + scquire good reading habits to understand, enjoy, and appreciate a wide range of texts, ocluding the literature of other cultures + develop the ability to express themselves imaginatively and creativelyPlanning goals and learning outcomes 1 acquire thinking skills to make eritical and rational judgments negotiate their own learning goals and evaluate their own progress acquire information and study skills to leam the other subjects caught in English + cope effectively and efficiently with change, extended learning tasks, and examinations acquire knowledge for self-development ané for fulfilling personal needs and aspirations + develop positive atitudes toward constructive ideas and values that are teansmided in oral and/or writen forms using the English language «+ develop 2 sensitivity to, and an appreciation of, other varieties of English and the culture they reflect “These statements refléct several ofthe philosophies discussed in the pre- ceding section. The following are examples of aim statements from difer- entkinds of language programs. A business English course + to develop basie communication skills for use in business contexts + to lear how to participare in casual conversation with otter employees ina workplace + to learn how to write effective business letters A course for hotel employees + to develop the communication skills needed to answer telephone calis in ahocel . + to deal with guest inquiries and complaints + to explain and clarify charges on a guests bill ‘Aim statements are generally derived from information gathered during a needs analysis. For-example, the following areas of difficulty were some of those identified for non-English-background students studying in En- ¢glish-medium universities: + understanding lectures + participating in seminars + taking notes during lectures + reading at adequate speed to be able to complete reading assignments + presenting ideas and information in an organized way in 2 written as- signment {In developing course aims and objectives from this information, each area of difficulty will have to be examined and researched in order to understand122 Chapter 5 ‘what is involved in understanding lectures, participating in seminars, and so on. What knowledge and skills des each activity imply? Normally the over- ‘all aims of a short course can be described in two or three aim statements; however, in a course spanning a longer time period, such as the primary ‘school course referred to earlier, a greater number of aim statements will be needed. 7 In developing aim statements, it is important to describe more than sim- ply the activites that students will tke parti. The following, for example, are not aims: Students will learn about business-letter writing in English Students will study listening skills. ‘Seadents wall practice composition skills in English. Students will lea English for tourism. 7 in the learners For these to become aims, they need to focus on the change that will result. For example: ‘Students will Jeam how to write effective business letters for use in the hotel and tourism induswies. ‘Students will lean how to listen effectively in conversational interactions and how to develop better listening strategies. ‘Studeots will leam how to communicate information and ideas creatively and effectively through writing, ‘Students will be able to communicate in English at a basic level for pur- poses of tourism, Objectives ‘Aims are very general statements ofthe goals of a program. They can be in texpreted in many different ways. For example, consider the following aim statement: nt Students will learn how to write effective business lemers for use in the hotel and tourism industries Although this provides a clear description ofthe focus of a program, it does not describe the kinds of business letters students will leam or clarify whet is meant by effective business letters. In order to give 2 more precise focus to program goals, aims are often accompanied by statements of more spe cific purposes. These are known as objectives. (They are also sometiones re ferred to as instructional objectives or teaching objectives.) An objective refers to.a statement of specific changes a program seeks to bring about andPlanning goals and learning outcomes 123 results ftom an analysis ofthe aim into is diferent components. Objectives ‘generally have the following cheracteristcs: + They describe what the kim seeks to achieve in terms of smaller units of learning. + They provide a basis forthe organization of teaching activities, + They describe learning in terms of observable behavior or performance. ‘The advantages of describing the aims of a course in terms of objectives are: + They facilitate planning: once objectives have been agreed on, course / planning, materials preparation, textbook selection, and related processes, can begin. (é + They provide measurable outcomes and thus provide accountability given aset of objectives, te success or failure of a program to teach the objectives can be measuced. + They ae prescriptive: they desribe how planning should proceed and do “ away with subjective interpretaos and personal opinions . In relation to the activity of “understanding lectures" refered to above, for exemple, tims and objectives such as the following can be described (Brown 1995): Aim + Students will lear how to understand lectures given in English. Objectives : + Students will be able to follow an argument, theme, or thesis ofa lecture. + Stadents will learn how to recognize the following aspects ofa lecture: cause-and-effect relationships comparisons and contrasts premises used in persuasive arguments ‘supporting details used in persuasive arguments * ‘Statements of objectives have the following characteristics: hess describe a learning outcome. In writing object im about, will prepare students for are avoided bE ‘earning but rather what students ib dis Tike watt Qbjectives should be consistent with the curriculum aim. Only objectives hat clearly Secve to realize aa ait should be included. For example, the ob-124 Chapters jective below is unrelated to the curriculum aim Students will learn how fo sorite fective business letcers for use in the hotel and tourism industries. Objective ‘The student can understand and respond to simple questions over the tele phone. Because the aim relates to writing business letters, an objective in the do- ‘main of telephone skills is not consistent with this aim. Either the aim state~ ‘nent should be revised to allow for this objective or the objective should not be included. Objectives should be precise, Objectives that are vague and ambiguous due not useful. This is seen in the following objective for # conversation course: ‘Students will know how to use useful conversation expressions. ‘A more precise objective would be: ‘Students will use conversation expressions for greeting people, opening and closing conversations. Objectives should be feasible. Objectives should describe outcomes that are ‘ainable in the time available during a course. The following objective is probably net attainable in a 60-hour English course: ‘Students will be able wo follow conversations spoken by native speakers. ‘The following is a more feasible objective: ‘Studenes wil be able to getthe gist of short conversations in simple English on topics related to daily life and leisure. “The following objectives (adapted from Pratt 1980) from a short course on English for ravel and tourism designed to prepare students for travel in Ea- glish-speaking counties ilustat= the relationship between aims and ob- jentves: Course aim ‘Te prepare students to communicate in English ata basic level for purposes of travel and tourism. Course objectives 1. The student will have a reading vocabulary of 300 common words and abbreviations.Planning goals and learning outcomes 125 2. The student will have listening vocabulary of 300 common words plus numbers up to 100. 3, The student can understand simple written notices, signs, and menus, 4. The student can understand simple questions, statements, greetings, and directions. 5. The studentcan get the gist of simple conversations in spoken English. 6. Thestudeat can pick out unfamiliar phrases from conversations and re- peat ther for clarification. 7, Te stadent can use in speech 200 common words plus numbers up t0 100 for time, quantity, and price. 8, The student ean use about 50 useful survival phrases, questions, re- quests, greatings, statements, and responses. 9. The stadent can hold a bilingual conversation, and clearly in simple words. 10, The student can use and understand appropriate gestures. 11. The student will have the confidence to initia conversations in Ea- lish, be unafraid of making mistakes, and attempt utterances outside his or her competence. 12, The student will be willing to lear from a native speaker's correction of his or her exors. 13, The student will have a “success experience” of making himself or her- self understood in, and understand, a foreign language. speaking English slowly Frankel (1983, 124) gives the example of aims and objectives fora course in foundation reading skills for first-year university stadeats in 2 Thal ut versity: Aim To read authentic, nonspecialisi, nonfictio hhension and ata reasonable speed. in English with compre- Objectives 1. To use linguistic information in the text as clues to meaning, including: + deducing the meaning end use of unfamiliar lexical items through an understanding of word formation and context clues + decoding complex phrases and sentences including premodifiestion, postmodifcation, complex embedding, and clause relations in com- pound and complex seatences + recognizing aad iacerpreting formal cohes ferent pans of text + recognizing end interpreting discourse markers devices for linking dif-126 ChapterS 2. To understand the communicative value ofa text, including: overall rhetorical purpose (€-. giving instructions, reporting aa event) «= jes rhetorical structure, including ways of initiating, developing, and terminating a discourse ‘i 3. To read for information, including: «+ identifying the topic (theme) fdentifying the main ideas, stated and implied distinguishing between the topic and the main idea + reading for detail isnguishing imporant from unimportant details Skimming to obtain the gist or a general impression of the semantic content . Seanaing to locate specifically requized information 4, To read interpretatively including: «+ extracting information not explicitly stated by making inferences + distinguishing fact from opinion > interpreting the witer’s intention, aritude, and bias + making critical judgments Examples of objectives for the teaching of listening comprehension from the Singapore Primary Syllebus referred to earlier axe: “atthe end of the course, pupils should be able to demonstrate listening ‘competence in the following ways: «+ recognize and distinguish the basie sounds and phonologicslfearures of the English language ‘understand and carry out instructions (simple to complex) given orally ‘answer questions of differing levels based on what is hear 2 recognize a range of spoken and writen txt (ypes/speech situations and respond appropriately when required Tevognize discourse features in extended spoken texts in order to follow CHfectively what is spoken (eg., words/expressions signaling, introduce tion, conclusion, exeraplification, digression) (observe conversation exiquetteas 2 listener in group discussion listen exiically for a specitic purpose and respond appropriately “The difficalyy of drawing up statements of objectives should not be under estimated, In developing language objectives one is doing more than creat- ing a wish list off the top of one’s head (though in the real world this is whatPlanning goals and learning outcomes 127 often happens). Sound objectives in language teaching are based on an. ced-lev and the ability to be able to descri6é course aimas i "of logical end weil-structured units of organ, “gation, Objectives are therefore normally produced by a group of teacher eplainers who write saraple objectives based on their knowiedge and ex- pesieace and revise and refine them over ime. In developing objectives, it Is necessary to make use ofa variety of sources, such as diagnostic infoc- nation coacering stadeats" Ieaming dificulis, descriptions of skilled performance in diferent language domains, information about éifferese Ianguage levels esis foundin the ACTEEL Proficiency Guidelines (see Cap- ter 6), as well as chardcterizations of the skills involved in different domains __, of language use (see Appendix 2). Objectives cannot therefore be segarded © a fixed, As instnction proceeds, some may have to be revised. some _\ copped because they are unrealistic, and others added to address gaps. 2 Criticisms of the use of objectives ‘Although in many institutions the use of objectives in course planning is, ‘seen as 2 way of bringing rigor and structure to the process of course plan- ning, the use of objectives either in general form or in the form of bebav- {oral objectives has also attracted some criticism, The major criticisms of their use are: Objectives rum teaching into a technology. It is argued that cbjectives are linked to an efficiency view of education, tht is, one based on the assump- tion that the most efficient means to an end is justified. There is a danger that curriculum planning becomes a technical exercise of converting state- ‘ments of needs into objectives. In the process, the broader goals of teach: ing and leaming (e.g, to provide meaningful and worthwhile learning ex- periences) may be lost. Comment: This eriticism is more applicable to the form of objectives kaown as “behavioral objectives" (see Appendix 1). o ensure that the eur rioalum addresses educationally importat goals, objectives should be in- cluded that address “meaningful and worthwhile learning experiences.” One ‘way todo ths is to include objectives that cover both language outcomes and nonlanguage outcomes: the later will be discussed later in this chapter. Objectives wivialize teaching and are product-oriented. By assuming that every purpose in teaching can be expressed as an objective, the suggestion128 Chapters js thatthe only worthwhile goal in teaching isto bring about changes in stu dent behavior, Comment: Objectives need not be limited to observable outcomes. They ccan also describe processes and experiences that are seen as an important focus of the curriculum. Objectives are unsuited to many aspects of language use. Objectives may be suitable for describing the mastery of skills, but less suited to such things as critical thinking, literary appreciation, or negotiation of meaning. ‘Comments: Objectives can be written in domains such as critical thinking. and literary thinking but will focus on the experiences the curriculura will provide rather than specific learning outcomes. Competency-based program outcomes ‘An altemative to the use of objectives in program planning is to describe learning outcomes in terms of competencies, an approach associated with ‘Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT). CBLT seeks to make a fo- ‘cason the outcomes of learning a central planning stage in the development of language programs (Schneck 1978; Grogaet and Crandall 1982). Tradi- tionally, in language teaching planners have focused toa large extent on the content of teaching (as reflected in a concem for diferent types of syl- labuses) or on the process of teaching (as reflected in a concer for differ~ cet types of teaching methods). Crisis of this epproach argue thet this con~ ccem With content or process focuses on the means of learning rather than its ends. CBLT shift the focus to the ends of learning rather than the means. ‘As agenera educational and training approach, CBLT secks 10 improve 2¢- Countability i teaching through linking instruction to measurable outcomes and performance standards. CELT first emerged in the United States in the 1970s and was widely adopted in vocationally oriented education and in adult ESL programs. By the end of the 1980s, CBLT had come to be accepted as “the state“f-the- art approach to adult ESL by national policymakers and leaders in cusricu- lum development as well” (Auerbach 1986, 411). In 1986, any refugee in the United States who wished to receive federal assistance had to be en- rolled in a competency-based program (Auerbach 1986, 412). CBLT has re- cently reemerged in some parts of the world (@.g, Australi) as the major approach to the planning of language programs. The characteristics of CBLT are described by Sehneck (1978, vi): (Competency-based education hes much ia common with such approaches to learning s performance based instruction, mastery earning and individualizedPlanning goals and learning outcomes 129 instruction. [tis outcome-based and is adaptive tothe changing needs of students, teachers and the community... . Competencies difer from other susdent goals and objectives in tha they descrite de students ability to apply basic and other sills in sinutions that are commonly encountered in everyday Ife. Thus CBE is based on a set of outcomes that are derived from an analysis of tasks typically \_ required of sesdonc in ite role sinmaons. ‘THE NATURE OF COMPETENCIES Compecencies refer to obsenable behaviors that are necessary. focthe sue cessful completion of real-world aces, Thateacvies may be elated to any domain of life, though they have typically been linked to the field of work en to soci sivival in anew environment Docking (1994, 1) points bur the velatonship between competences and job performance: ‘A qualifeaion or ajob canbe deeibed asa colon of eit of competency, QR ofunichs composed of number of clemens f competes A wit of Comprcney might be stacy atl a Recon ora easing module These wil ‘Shane ove ie, andl vary frm content to cotex A ele of compseny ean be ied a ny ate ow ivi hat eootbts © Se sceinl perfomance of, oo, atin, or acy in an acai tung tlre work seing is nlsdes seis Knowledge, king proces, percep and ysl tls Nags excl Ercan te shown o cnuibute to peformanes An elbmen' of cmpeeay bs oeming ncependeat of context nd iv ie tbe uling block foe Compa) specications for eouatoa, ining, eesmmart gealieatons, tsk. ae joe ‘Tollefson (1986) observes that the analysis of jobs into their constituent functional competencies in order to develop teaching objectives goes back {6 the mid-nineteenth century. In the 1860s, Spencer “outlined the major ar- eas of human activity ne believed should be the basis for curricular abjec- tives.” Similarly in 1926 Bobbitt developed curricular objectives according to his analysis ofthe functional competencies required for adults living in ‘America, This approach has been picked up and refined asthe basis fr the development of competency-based programs since the 1960s. Northrup (3977 reports on a study coramissioned by the U.S. Office of Education in swhich a wide variety of tasks performed by adults ia American society were analyzed and the behaviors needed to carry out the tasks classified into five knowledge areas and foar basic skill areas, From this analysis sixty-five competencies were identified. Docking (1994) describes how he was part fof a project in Australia in 1968 thet involved specifying the competencies ‘of more than one hundred trades.130. Chapter 5 Mrowicki (1986) describes the process of developing a competency ‘based curriculum for a refugee program designed to develop language skills for employment. The process included: + reviewing existing curricula, resource materials, and textbooks + needs analysis (interviews, observations, survey of employers) + ening topes for a survival cuticulom + identifying competencies for each of te topics + grouping competencies ino instructional uni Examples of competencies are (Mrowicld 1986): Topic: housing 1. Identify common household furnitarefrooms. 2. Answer simple questions about basic housing needs. 3. Ask for simple information about housing, incloding rent, lites, and date available. 4. Report household problems and emergencies. 5. Request repairs. 6. Arrange time for repairs. Topics shopping 1, Read a limited number of basic signs. 2. Askthe price of items. State basic food (or other) needs. ‘State intention to purchase items. Request correct change when incorrect change is received. Read abbreviations for common weights and measure ‘Ask for food using common weights and measures. . State clothing needs, including color ané size Differensiae sizes by reading tags and tape measure. In the Australian Migrant Education Program, one ofthe word's largest providers of language training to immigrants, 2 competcacy-based ap- proach is used. Learning outcomes ar specified in terms of work-related competencies such asthe following: Jobseeking skills: sample competencies * Can inquire about an employment opportunity + Can read and interpret advertisements for eroployment + Can prepare ajob-application leer Workplace language: sample competencies + Car follow and give ora instructions relevant to the workplace + Can read diagrammatic and graphic workplace textsPlanning goals and learning outcomes 131 + Can write formal letters relevant to @ workplace context In the Australian program competencies are described in tetms of: «+ elements that break down the competency into smaller components and refer to the essential linguistic features involved + performance criteria that specify the minimal performance required to achieve a competency range of variables that sets limits for the performance of the competency ‘sample texts and assessment tasks that provide examples of texts and as- ‘sessment tasks that relate fo the competency [As the examples above illustrate, competency descriptions are very similar to statenhents of objectives. They can be regarded as objectives that are ced to specific domains or activities. CAITICISMS OF THE USE OF COMPETENCIES ‘The use of competencies in program planning is not without its critics, ‘These criticisms focus on the following issues: Definition of competencies Tollefson (1986) argues that no valid proce- dures are available to develop competency specifications. Although lists of ‘competencies can be generated intuitively for many arces and activities, there s no way of knowing which ones are essential. Typically, competen cies are deceribed based on intuition and experience, a process similar to the one used to develop statemneats of objectives. In addition, focusing on observable behaviors can lead to 2 trivialization of the nature of an activity. ‘Therefore, competencies seated to effective performance om a job will tend to include such things as “reading directions or following orders on a job.” Dut not “to change or question the nature of the job” Hidden values underlying competency specifications CBLT is besed ‘on asocial and economic efficiency model of curriculum design that seeks to enable learners 10 participate effectively in society. Consequently, as ‘Tollefson and others have pointed out, the competencies selected 2 @ basis for instruction typically represent value judgments about what suck paricipation involves. Tollefson gives examples of value-based compe~ feney descriotions developed as part of a refuges resettlement taining program in the Philippines: «+ To develop the belief “tht self-sufficiency is highly zegarded in Ameri- can society, that upward mobility is possible by ard work and perseverChapter § ace... and that men and women have equal access to employment opportunities” ‘To discourage atrending school while receiving welfare ‘To develop the atsiaude that the purchasing and use of secondhand items is appropriate + To identify common entry-level jobs that can be held by those with lim- ited English ability + Torespand appropriately to supervisors’ comments about quality of work ‘onthe job, including mistakes, working too slovrly, and incomplete work (Tollefson 1986, 655-656) ‘Tollefson (1986, 656-657) points out that such competencies encourage refugees “to consider themselves fortunate to ind minimum-wage employ- iment, regardless of their previous education. Moreover, the competencies attemptto inculcate anitudes and values that will make refugees passive ct- izens who comply rather than complain, accept rather than resist, and apol- ogise rather than disagree” Criticisms such as these essentially argue fore different curriculum ide- ology than CBLT, such as a learner-centered or socil-reconstractionist ‘model, CBLT is not necessarily linked tothe ideology Tollefson exposes. ‘As with the use of objectives, appropriately described and chosen compe- tency descriptions can provide a useful framework for course planning and delivery, though they may be more appropriate for certain types of courses than others. They seem particularly suited wo programs that seck to teach leamers the skills needed to perform specific tasks and operations, as found in many kinds of ESP programs. The standards movement ‘The most recent realization of 2 competency perspective in the United ‘States is seen in the “standards” movement, which bas dominated educa tonal discussions since the 1990s. As Glaser and Linn note: =~ Inthe counting of our nation’s drive towards educational reform, the last decade ofthis cennuy will undoubtedly be recognized as the tie when & concerted press for national educational standards emerged. The press for standards as evidenced by the effors of federal and state legislators, presidental and gubersateral eandidates, teacher and subject-matter specialists. Councils, governmectal agencies, and private foundations (Glaser and Lina 1993, xii) Standards are descriptions of the targets students should be able to reach in different domains of curriculum content, and throughout the 1990s therePlanning goals and learning outcomes 133 was a drive to specify standards for subject matter across the curriculum, “These standards or benchmarks are stated in the form of competencies. In Australia, McKay (1999, 52) reports: Literacy benchmacks at Yeos 3, 5 and 7 ae curently under development cenvally in consultation with States/Teritories, literacy experts snd profesional associations. The benchmarks are tobe shor statements and tobe “expressed in plain, accessible English, clearly understandable by a community audience” ‘They are tbe accompanied by professional elaborations “to assis teachers and cotter educational professionals o assess and report student progress agains the benches.” Second and foreign language teaching in the United States has also em braced thé standards movement. “Ic quickly became apparent to ESL edu- ceators in the United States at that time (2991) thatthe students we serve were notbeing included inthe stendards-seting movement that was sweep- ing the country” Short 1997, 1). “Tae TESOL organization undertook to develop School standards for ESL. for grades K-12. These are described in tems of competencies: “The stan~ dards... specify the language competencies ESOL students in elementary and secondary schools need to become flly proficient in English, t have runcestricted access to grade-appropriate instruction in challenging aca- demic subjects, and ularly 1 lead sich and productive lives” (TESOL 1997, 3). The standaeds ae framed around three goals and nine standards. Each standard is further explicated by descriotors, sample progress indica- tors, and classroom vignettes with discussions (see Appendix 3) Nonlanguage outcomes and process objectives A language curriculum typically includes other Kinds of outcomes apart from language-related objectives of the kind described above. Ifthe cur- riculum seeks to reflect values related to learner centeredaess, social re- constructionism, or cuitural pluralism, outcomes related to these values will also need 10 be included. Because such outcomes go beyond the content of a linguistically oriented syllabus, they are sometimes referred to #s nonlan- guage outcomes. Those that describe leaming experiences rather than learn ing outcomes are also known as process objectives. Jackson reports that & {group of teachers of adult immigrants in Australia identified eight broed ‘categories of nonlanguage outcomes in their teaching (Tackson 1995, + social, psychological, and emotional support in the new living envizon- ment os at Uneven494 Chapter 5 * confidence + motivation + cultural understanding knowledge of the Australian community context learning about learning + clarification of goals + access and entry into employment, further sudy, and community life Objectives in these domains relate to the personal, social, cultural, and po- litical needs and rights of learners. If these are not identified, they tend to ‘get forgotten or overlooked in the cusriculum planning process. Jackson (1993, 8) comments: ‘Noo-language outcomes represent more than desirable or optional by-products of the language learning process. They are essential preequisites for on-going land meaningful involvement with the process of language learning and learning in general, Non-language outcomes are thus teaching and Ieaming issues strongly ‘elated to issues of access and equity for noa-English-speaking background leamers and workers. Iis impactant that the development of knowledge and learning sills represent a significant component of the adult ESL curriculum, Jackson gives the Following examples of objectives in on-arrival programs for immigrants that relate to understanding the context of local service in- stitutions (1993, 45): + to assist students to identify major local providers of services for: 1. the unemployed 2. employment 3, education and taining to assist students to identify the main functions of the above to siwate main functions of above services in context of educational pro- vision as 2 Girt step in the process of ongoing adulfeducation + to assist students to identify major services, including private/piblic for: 1. migrants 2. childcea 3. women 4. sport and reeceation + to provide task oriented eetvities, including community visits, to fami jasize stadents with above services + to assist students to ascertain relevance of above services for themselves in terms ofPlanning goals and learning outcomes 135 1, eligibility 2. accessibility ‘Another category of outcomes is sometimes referred t0 as process 0b- _jectves, In general education these are associated with the ideas of Brunet {1966) and Stenhouse (1975). Bruner-argued-that the curriculum should focus less on the outcomes of learing and more on the Knowledge aid” skills ledimers need to desizlop, These facie te Concepts and procedies ~ thar children should acquire trough the processes of inquiry and deliber- ation. Stenhouse argued thatthe curriculum should focus on activities that engage leamers in such processes as investigation, decision making, teflection, discussion, interpcetation, making choices, cooperation with others, and so on, Taus Hanley, Whitla, Moss, and Walter identified the aims of a course tied "Man: A Course of Study” as: + To initiate and develop ia youngsters a process of question posing + To teach a research methodology where children can look for informa tion ‘To help youngsters develop the ability to use a variety of firsthand sources 1s evidence from which to develop hypotheses and draw conclusions “To conduct classroom discussions in which youngsters leam to listen to others as well as to express their own view + Tolegitimize the search, thatis, co give sanction and supporto open-ended discussions where definitive answers to many questions are not found “To encourage children to reflect oa their own experiences ‘To create a new role for the teacher, who becomes a resource rather than an authority (Hanley, etal. 1970, 5) With this approach itis suggested that detailed specification of objectives is not needed. The curriculum specifies instead the content students will ‘study and the activities and processes they are expected to engage in while studying the content, Stenhouse (1975) explains: {The curicutum] is not designed on a pre-specificaion of behavioral objectives. (Of course there are changes in stadeats asa result of the course, but many of the most valued are not to be andeipared in detail. The power andthe pessibilites ‘of the curriculum eannot be contined within objectives because itis founded on the idea that knowledge must be speculative and thus indeterminate asco seudent ‘outcomes if it is ro be worthwhile Objectives in the category of learning how to lear refer to learning strate- gies. Leaming strategy theory suggests that effective leaming involves:196 Chapter S + developing an integrated set of procedures and operations that can be ap- plied to different learning ~ that is, strategies + selecting strategies appropriate to different tasks + monitoring strategies for their effectiveness and replacing or revising them if necessary Many different Kinds of leaming strategies may be relevant to particular ‘groups of learners. For example, a description of objectives for a national secondary school curriculum in an EFL counary includes the following: ‘The course should develop students’ awareness of the learning process and their role as leariers by developing the following knowledge and skills: 1. ways of orgenizing learning and dividing learning tasks into smaller sub- tasks . 2, familiarity with how to use reference words designed to assist them in in~ dependent leaming (eg. dictionaries, reference grammars, seudy guides) 3. awareness of their own learning styles and strengths and wesknesses 4, familiarity with various techniques of vocabulary learning and identifi- cation of techniques that are particularly useful to themselves 5, awareness of the nature of learning strategies and the difference between effective and ineffective strategies 6. ability to monitor their own learning progress and ways of setting per- sonal goals for language improvement Jackson (1993, 41) gives examples of objectives designed to help develop different types of learning strategies. The following relate to developing strategies for effective organization and management of ime: + to explicitly introduce students to the concept of time allocation in rela- tion 10 study + to assist students to identify realistic times and time spans for home study and individual study inthe learning ceater _ + to assist students to prioritize study time allocation in relation to other everyday activities and family coramitments + to assist students fo create a daily weekly timetable of study ‘The English Language Syllabus for the Teaching of English at Primary Level (1991) in Singapore includes a number of categories of process ob- Jectives. These are described as follows: Thinking skills At the end of the course, pupils should be able to:Planning goals and learning outcomes 137 + explore an idea, situation, or suggested solution for a specific purpose + think creatively to generate new ideas, 1o find new meanings, and to deal ‘with relationships + analyse and/or evaluate an idea, a situation, or a suggested solution for specific purpose Learning how to learn As the end of the course, pupils should be able to: + apply a repertoire of library, information, end study skills + take some responsibility for their own Ieamning + use some of the basic skills relating to information technology Language and culture ‘Atthe end of the course, pupils should be able to: + appreciate that there are varieties of English reflecting different culrures, and use this knowledge approgristely and sensitively in communication + adopt a critical, but not negative, atitude toward ideas, thoughts, and val~ ues reflected in spoken and writen texts of local and foreign origin “The American Council on the Teaching of Foreiga Languages inits National Standards for Foreign Language Lesming (1996) (part of the standards rovernent referred 0 earlien) identifies a numberof objectives foc language programs that relate to the philosophy of cultural pluralism. For example: + Students demonstrate understanding of the concept of culture through ‘comparisons of the cultures studied and their own. + Stadents acquire information and recognize the distinctive viewpoints that are only available through the forciga language and its culeares. ‘The planning of learning outcomes fora language course is closely related to the course planning process. Issues involved in developing and organiz- ing course conteat are the focus of Chapter 6. Discussion questions and acti 1, Choose a language teaching context you are familiar with and charac- ‘erize the ideology underlying te curriculum, Are these any limitations of the ideology you hav188 Chapter 5 2, What limitations might there be in a focus on practical and functional slills ia a language curriculum? 3, How has the philosophy of leamer-centeredness influenced approaches to language teaching in recent years? What is such a philosophy a re- sponse to? 44, Doyou think tis appropriate for language teachers to seek to empower students? Ifo, give examples of issues you think should be addressed and how these might be the focus of teaching. 5, To what extents cultural pluralism an issue inthe context in which you ‘work or will work? iit isan issue, how would you address in the cur- riculum? (6. What approach to planning learning outcomes is used in a program you ace familiar with? How effective is it? 7, Give examples of aim statements that are appropriate forthe follow ing kinds of courses: 1 cousse for English in primary schoo a course in listening skills for intermediate-level learners 8, Rewrite the following aim statements so that they describe changes in learners: ‘Students will study English grammar ‘Students will improve their pronunciation 9, Prepare five sample objectives related to this aim: Srudents will lear how to use effective office communication sills in English, 10. Look atthe lists of listening skills and conversation skills in Appendix ‘and prepare three sample objectives related to any of the skills listed. 11, Prepare descrigtions of competencies required to perform the follow- ing activities that are part of the target competencies of a program for English for hotel employees: handling guest check-in atthe hotel reception desk taking guests’ meal orders in a restaurant dealing with guest inquires ata tour desk 12, Discuss ateaching context you are fariliar with and identity some non language outcomes that are important in the context. 13, Discuss the advantages and limitations of using the following in plan- ‘ing learning outcomes: objectives, competencies, standards.Planning goals and learning outcomes 138 Appendix 1 Behavioral objectives ‘A particalar form of expressing objectives known as behavioral objectives became popular at the Gime of the systems approach to educational plan ning, (The word behavior here refers to performance and is not related to behaviorist psychology.) Beheviorel objectives take the idea of describing rearing outcomes.one step beyond the examples above by further opera tionaliaing the definition of behavior. In a classic paper, Mager (1975) Geseribed three components for the description of behavioral objectives: «+ performance: an objective says what a learner is expected fo be able to do 1 Eonditions: an objective describes the important conditions (ifany) under which the peeformance is to occur « iteriont wherever possible, an objective describes the criterion of ac- ceptable pecformance, describing how well the leamer must be able to perform in order to be considered acceptable Findlay and Nathan (1980, 225-226) suggest that to meet the erterion of an operational definition of behavior, behavioral objectives need t0 in- clude the following aspects: the student as subject fan action verb that defines behevior or performance to be learned Conditions under which the srudent will demonstrate what is learned uinimam level of performance required after instruction, as specified by ‘a criterion-referenced measurement strategy “The principal difference between behavioral objectives and instructional or ‘teaching objectives as discussed above is the adcition of statements of coa- ‘isons and criterion. The statement of conditions is an atterapt to specify the ‘circumstances under which the leamer demonstrates learning. For cxarmple, in showing that the leamer has learned how to use certain conversational pressions will these be demonstrated by filling in te blanks in a cloze dia: Togue, by taking partia a question-and-answer exchange, or by performing a role play? The statement of criterion describes how well the learner must perform the action, For example, should the earner be able 10 complete = Risk within a time limit, with a minimum umber of errors, or fo 2 certain level of comprehensibility? The following are examples of behavioral ob- jectives for a commmon-core ESL program (Findlay and Nathan 1980, 226): «+ Given an oral request (condition) the learner [student as subject] will say {ection that defines behavior] hisMher/name, address and teleghone rim ‘ber to a native speaker of English as spell his/her name, street and city $0140. Chapters that an interviewer may write down the date with 100% accuracy (level of performance) + Given oral directions fora 4-step physical action, the leamer will follow the directions with 100% accuracy. Behavioral objectives ofthis kind are even more difficult t6 write than the simpler objectives illustrated above and perhaps for this reason have not been widely used in language teaching. In most circumstances, objectives in the mote general form illustrated earlier provide sufficient guidance for program planning and instruction, Appendix 2 Listening and conversation skills, 1. Anexample of a skills taxonomy for the domain of istening skills (from Brindley 1997). 1 Orienting oneself to a spoken text 1.1 Identifying the purposelgence ofa spoken text 12 Identifying the topic 1.3 Identifying the broad roles and relationships ofthe participants (e.g. superioe/subordinate) 2 Identifying the main idea/s ina spoken text 2.1 Distinguishing main ideas from supporting detail 2.2 Distinguishing fact from example 23 Distinguishing fact from opinion when explicitly stated in text 3. Extracting specific information from a spoken text 3.1 Extracting key details explicitly stated intext 3.2 Identifying key vocabulary items 4 Understanding discourse structure and organisation 4.1 Following discourse structure 4.2 Identifying key discourse/cohesive markers ~~ 43 Tracing the development of an argument 5. Understanding meaning not explicitly stated 5.1 Relating utterances to the social/stuational context 45.2 Identifying the speaker's atinudes/emotional state 5.3. Recognising the communicative function of stress/intonation patterns 5.4 Recognising the speaker's illocutionary intent 5.5 Deducing meaning of unfamiliar words 5.6 Evaluating the adequacy ofthe information provided 5.7 Using information from the discourse to make 2 reasonable pre- ictionPlanning goals and learning outcomes 141 2. An example of a description of conversation skills." + tum king + giving feedback and backchanneling + initiaring conversations + closing interactions appropriately ‘gucssing the meanings of unfamiliar words seeking clarification ssking for repetition ‘sreturing spoken information _gving spoken instructions eveloping spoken texts as anecdotes sing appropciate voesbulary using appropriate intonation and stress paterns Appendix3 ESOL standards for grades 4-8 (from TESOL 1997) Descriptors + sharing and requesting information + expressing needs, feelings, and ideas + using nonverbal communication in sie interactions + geting personal needs met + engaging in conversations + conducting transactions Sample progress indicators * ask peers for ther opinions, preferences, and desires + correspond with pen pals, English-speaking acquaintances, and frends + write personal essays + rake plans for social engagements + shop in 2 supermarket + engage listener's attention verbally or nonverbally + veluster information and respond te questions about self and family + elicitinforwation and sk clarification questions + clarify and sestae information aceded + describe feelings and emotions afte wacching « movie + indict interests, opinions, or references related to cass projets + give and ask for permission, + offer and respond to greetings, compliments, invitations, introductions, and farewells * Extract reprinted from Focus on Speaing by A. Burs and H,Joyse (1997) with permission hom she Nasional Cente for English Language Teaching and Research (NCELTR), Australia. @Macquarie Univesiy.142. Chapters «+ negotiate solutions to problems, interpersonal misunderstandings, and disputes + read and write invitations and thank-you leters + use the telephone References ACTFL Proficiency guidelines, 1985. Hastings-on-Hudson: ACTEL Materials Center ACTEL. 1996, Standards for foreign language learning: Preparing for the. twenty,first century. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co. Apple, L. 1986. Teachers and texs, New York: Routlege and Kegan Paul. ‘Auerbach, E, R. 1986. Competency-based ESL: One step forward or two steps back? TESOL Quarcerly, 20(3): 411-630. Auerbach, E.R. 1992, Making meaning, making change: Participatory cur- riculum development for adult ESL literacy. Washington, DC: ERICICen- tec for Applied Linguisties. “Auetbach, E.R. 1995. 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Jayee. 1997, Focus on speaking, Sydaey: National Center for English Teaching and Research, (Center for Applied Linguistics. 1983. From the classroom to the workplace: Teaching ESL to adult. Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. (Clack, J. L. 1987. Curriculum renewal in school foreign language learning. Ox- ford: Oxford University Press. Collingham, M, 1988. Making use of students’ linguistic resources. Ia S. olls and E. Hoadley-Maideent (eds.), Current issues in teaching En lish as a second language 1o adults, London: Amol Crozet, C., and A. J, Liddicoat. 1999. Turing promises into practices. Aus- salian Language Matters 1(1): 412.Planning goals and learning outcomes 143 Dewey, J. 1934. Artas experience. New York: Minson, Balch Docking, R. 1994. Competency-based curricula ~ the big picture. Prospect 9(2): 817. Eisner, E. W. 1992, Curriculum ideologies. In Philip W, Jackson (ed), Hand- Book of research on curriculum. New York: Macmillan. 302-306. English language syllabus (primary). 1991. Singapore Curriculum Plansing Division. Ministry of Education Findlay, C.A.-and L. Nathan, 1960, Functional language objectives in a com- ‘petency-based curriculum. TESOL Quarterly 14(2): 221-232. Frankel, M. A. 1983, Designing a pre-EAP ceading course: Practical problems. ‘Yn RR. Jordan (ed), Case studies in ELT, London: Collins. Freize, P1972. Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Herder and Herder, Freire, P1975, Pedagogy of the eppressed. In M. Golby, J. Greenwald, and R. ‘West (eds), Curriculum design. London: Croom Helm, 138-149. Glaser, R,, and R. Linn 1993, Foreword. In L, Shepard, Setting performance ‘rtandards for student achievement. Stanford, CA: National Academy of Education, Stanford University, xxiv Grognet, A. G., and Crandall, J. 1982. Competency based curricula in adult TESL. ERIC/CLE New Builerin 6: 3-4. Hagan, P. 1994. Competency-based curriculum: The NSW AMES experience. Prospect 9(2): 19-30. Hanley, 3. D. Whitla, E. Moss, and A. Waltee, 1970. Curiasit, competence, community = Man: A course of study. Cerabcidge, MA: Education Devel- fopaens Center. Hirsch, E. 1987, Cultural lieracy. Boston: Houghton Miffin. Ho, W. K. 1994. The English language curriculum in perspective: Exogenous {influences and indigenizatien In S. Copinathan, A. Fakir, W. K. Ho, and V. Saravana (eds), Language, society and education in Singapore. Sings- pore: Times Academic Press. 221-244, Hood, §. and A. Bumns71994, The competency-based curriculum in action: In- ‘vestigating course design practices. Prospect 92): 76-89. Jackson, E. 1993. Noolanguage ovtcomes ia the language classroom. Sydney: NSW Adult Migrant English Service. Kin, K. W. 1999. Mind your lenguage. Straights Time (Singapore), September 2,22. Kincheloe, J, and P. McLaren, 1994, Rethinking critical theary and qualitative reseasch, In N, Denzin and ¥. Lincoln (eds), Handbook of qualitative re- ‘search. Thousand Oaks, Ca: Sage. 138-157. Kliebard, E. 1986. The struggle for the American curriculum, 1693-1958. ‘Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul Mager, RF. 1975. Preparing instructional objectives, Belmont, CA: Fearon Pitman. Marsh, C. 1986. Curriculum: dn analysis ineroduction. Syéney: Novak.148 Chapters Marin, J. 1978. The migranc presence: Ausraian reponses 1947-1977. Spe ey: George Allen and Unwin. MeDonald-Ross, ML. 1975. Behavioural objectives: A critical review. In M, Golby.J. Greenwald, and R. Wests), Curriculum design Kent: Croom Helm. 355-386. -MeKay, P. 1999. Sandards-based reform through literacy benchmarks: Com- pasisons between Australia and the United States. Prospect 14(2) (Au gust): 52-68. Ministry of Education, Singapore. 1991. Engst language yliabus. Singapore: Cazriculum Planning Division. Mortis, P, 1995. The Hong Kong curriculum. Hong Kong: Kong Kong Univer- sir Press. Mrowicki,L. 1986, Project Work English competency-based curriculum. Por land: Nonhwest Edocational Cooperative. Nonthrup, N. 1977. The adult performance level sud}Austin: Univesity of ‘Texas Press ‘Nunan, D: 1989. Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cart- bridge: Cambridge University Press. Ozolins, U. 1993. The politics of language in Australia. Sydney: Cambridge University Press Philips, J, and R. Tey (es). 1999. Foreign language standards: Linking re search theories and practices. Lincolnwood: National Textbook Company. Pinar, W. (ed). 1975, Curriculum theorizing: The reconceptuciss. Beckeley’ MeCutchaa, Prat D. 1980. Curriculum: Design and development New Yoo: Harcourt Brace Roberts, J. 1998, Language teacher education. London: Arwolé. Schneck, E.A. 1978.A guide 10 identifying high schoo! graduation competen- cies, Portia: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Snot, D. 1997. Revising the ESL sandards. TESOL Matters (February to March): 1,6. Stenhouse, L. 1975. An iureduetion to curriculum research and development. London: Heinemann : “Tabs, E1962. Guricuum development: Theory and practice. New York: Hae- cour Brace. ‘TESOL. 1997. ESL standards for pre-K-12. Alexandtia, VA: TESOL. ‘Tollefson, J. 1986, Funcdonal competences in the US refuges program: theo- retieal and praceal problems. TESOL Quarterly 20(40): 648-64, Tollefson, J. (ed). 1995. Power and inequality in language education. New ‘York: Cambridge University Press “ler, R 1950. Basic principles of curriculum and ineruction. Chieagor Ur versity of Chicago Pres. ‘Unemacher, PB. 1993, English as a second language: Curriculum resource ‘handbook. Series intoduction. New York: Krause International6 Course planning and P S syllabus design ‘A number of different levels of planning and development are involved in developing a course or set of instructional materials based on the aims and objectives that have been established for a language program. In this chap ter we will examine the following dimensions of course development: + developing a course rationale + describing entry and exit levels + choosing course content + sequencing course content + planning the course content (syllabus and instructional blocks) + preparing the scope and sequence plan ‘These processes do not necessarily occur in @ linear order. Some may take place simultaneously and many aspects of a course are subject to ongoing revision each time the course is caught. The types of decision making that ‘ve will examine inthis chapter are also involved in developing instructional materials and maay of the examples discussed apply to both course plan- ting end materials desiga. The course rationale ‘A starting point in course development is a description of the course 7a~ tionale. This isa bef writen description ofthe reasons for the course and the nature of it The course rationale seeks to answer the following ques- Who is this course for? ‘Whatis the course about? ‘What kad of teaching and learning will take place in the course? ‘The course rationale answers these questions by describing the beliefs val- uss and goals that underlie the course. It would normally bea two or three- paragraph statement that has been developed by those iavolved in planning 145148 Chapters ‘and teaching a course and that serves to provide the justification forthe type ‘of teaching and leaming that will take place inthe course. It provides a suc- be required early on, and more complex skills such as “inferencing” taught ata leter stage. Chronology Content may be sequenced according to the order in which events occur in the real world. For example, in a writing course the organization might be ‘based on the sequence writers are assumed to eraploy when composing: (1) ‘brainstorming; 2) drafting; (3) revising, (4) editing. In aproficiency course, sls might be sequenced according to the sequence in which they are nor- ‘mally acquised: (1) Listening; (2) speaking; (3) reading; (4) writing. Need Content may be sequenced according to when learners are most Hkely 10 need it outside of the classroom. For example, the rationale for the se- {quencing of content in a social survival curriculum is given as follows: “The topies and erossopics in the curriculum are sequenced “in order of fmmporence 1 students’ lives ease of contextualizaton and thei relationship to other topies and eresstopies” The sequence is: i, basi literacy skills fi, pecsonal identificationCourse planning and syllabus design 151 vil. Bealth vill. emergencies ‘x, directions 1. transportation xi housing xi. postoffice xii, banking/bills Ziv, social Ianguage ‘xy. clarification (Mrowickd 1986, Prerequisite learning The sequence of content may reflect what is necessary at one point a5 4 Foundation for the next step i the leaming process. For example, a certain setof grammar items may be taught as a prerequisite wo peragrap writing, On in a reading course, word auack skills may be taught early on as 2 pre- requisite to reading unsimplified texts at later stages ofthe course. Whole to part or part to whole In some cases, material at the beginning of a course may focus on the over- all seractute or organization of a topic before considering the individual components that make itup. Alternatively, the course might focus on prac- cing the pars before the whole. For example, stadents might read shore Stories and seact to them as whole texts before going on to consider what the elements aze that constitute an effective short story. Ox, students might stidy how to write paragraphs before going on to practice putting pars- sraphs together to make an essay. ‘Spiral sequencing “This approach involves the recycling of items to ensure that learners have repeated opportunities to lear them. Planning the course structure ‘The next stage'in course development involves mapping the course struc ture into a forin and sequence that provide a suitable basis for teaching. ‘Some of the preliminary planning involved will have occurred while ideas182 Chapteré for course content were being generated, Two aspects of this process, how- ever, requice more detailed planning: selecting a syllabus framework and developing instructional blocks. These issues are closely related and some times inseparable but also involve different kinds of decisions. Selecting a syllabus framework ‘A syllabus describes the major elements that will be used in planning a lan- ‘guage course and provides the basis for its instructional focus and content. For example, in planning 2 course on speaking skills based on the course ‘content discussed earlier (in the section titled “Describing the entry and exit level”), a nomber of options are available. The syllabus could be: + situational: organized around different situations and the oral skills needed in those situations speaking + task-based: organized around different tasks and activities thar the learn~. cers would carry out in English In choosing 2 particular syllebus framework for a course, planners are in- ‘Aluenced by the following factors: + inowledge and beliefs about he subject area: a syllabus reflects ideas and beliefs about the nature of speaking, reading, writing, or listening + research and theory: research on language use and learning as well as 2p- plied linguistics theory sometimes leads to proposals in favor of particu- ler syllabus types + common practice: the language teaching profession has built up consid~ erable practical experience in developing language progrems and this of- ten serves as the basis for difereat syllabus types 7 + trends: approaches to syllabus design come and go and reflect national or international tends In the 1980s ané 1990s, the communicative language teaching movement led to a reexamination of traditional approaches to syllabus design and a search for principles forthe development of communicative syllabuses (see ‘Chapter 2). A communicative syllabus is either an attempt to develop & Framework for a general lenguage course, such as a Threshold Level syl- Iabus, or one that focuses on communication within arestrited setting, such ‘as English for Specific Purposes. Because many different syllabus ap-Course planning and syllabus design 153 ‘proaches are available ia developing “communicative” courses, many dif- ferent syllabus frameworks can make a claim to be versions of a commu- nicative syllabus: for example, competency-based, text-based, and task- based syllabuses, Other approaches to syllabus design are also possible and we will consider now the nature of these different syllabus options. Grammatical (or structural) syllabus: one that is organized around ‘grammatical items. Traditionally, grammatical syllabuses have been used as, the basis for planning general courses, particularly for beginning-level leamers. In developing @ grammatical syllabus, the syllabus planner seeks to solve the following problems: + to select sufficient patterns to support the amount of teaching time avail- able + to arrange items into'a sequence that facilitates learning + to idemify a productive range of grammatical itera that will alow for the development of basic communicative skills Choice and sequencing of grammatical items in a grammar syllabus reflect not only the intrinsic ease or difficulty of ieems but their relationship to other aspects of a syllabus that may be being developed simultaneously. The syl- ‘abus planners typically mapping out grammar together with potential les- son content in the form of topics, skills, and activities, and for this reason ‘grammatical syllabuses often differ from one course to the next even when targeting the same proficiency level. Appendix 4 presents the grammatical syllabus underlying a typical fst-year EFL course. Grammatical syllabuses have been criticized on the following grounc + They represent only a pastial dimension of language proficiency. + They do not reflec the acquisition sequences seen in naturalistic second language acquisition + They focus on the sentence rather than on longer units of discourse. + They focus on form‘rather than meaning, + They do not address communicative skill. ‘These objections are true foc traditional grammar-based courses and few Ianguage courses today are planned solely around grammatical eritesia.In- deed, it is doubtful if they ever were. However, grammar remains a core component of many language courses. There are several reasons for this: «+ Teaching a language through its grammar represents a familiar approach to teaching for many people. Ia many parts of the world, teachers and stu dents expect to see 2 grammar strand in a course and react negatively to its absence.154 Chapters + Grammar provides ¢ convenient framework for a course: grammar can readily be linked to other strands ofa syllabus, such as functions, topics, or situations, “+ Grammar represents a core component of language proficiency: commy- sicative competence includes the ability to use grammar and therefore de- serves a place in the curriculum. Grammatical syllabuses thus contaue tobe widely used in language teach- ing. Typically, however, they are sen as one stream of a mulskilled tegrated syllabus rather than as te sole basis fora syllabus. ‘Lexical syllabus: one tat identifies a target vocabulary tbe taught nor~ sally arranged according o levels such as the fist 30, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000 swords, We saw in Chapter I that vocabulary syllabuses were among the fist types of syllabuses to be develoged in language teaching. Today there is a large degree of consensus in English-language teaching conceming targets for vocabulary teaching a different levels and textbook and materials writ: ers tend to Keep materials within target vocabulary Bands. Typieal vocabu- lary targets fora general English course are: Elemensary level: 1,000 words Intermediate level: an additional 2,000 words Upper Intermediate level: an additional 2,000 words Advanced level: an additional 2,000+ words (Hindmarsh 1980; Nation 1990) ‘An example of a course planned systematically around lexical targets is the Collins Cobuild English Course (Willis and Willis 1988), of which Wilis (1990, vi) comments: “The 700 most frequent words of English account for sround 70% ofall English text. That is to say around 70% of the English we speak and bear, read and ‘write is made up ofthe 700 most commen words in the language. The most Frequent 1,500 words account for 76% of text andthe most frequent 2.500 for 80%. Given this, we decided that word frequency would determine the contents fof our course, Level I would sim to cover the most frequent 700 words together With their common pattems and uses. Level 2 would ecyele these words and 20 ‘0n to caver the next 800 to bring us up to the 1,500 level, and Level 3 would ezyele those 1,500 and ade a further 1,000. Because vocabulary is involved in te presentation of any typeof language content, a lexical sylabus can only be considered as one stand of a more comprehensive syllabus. ‘Functional syllabus: one thats organized around communicative func- tions such as requesting, complaining, suggesting, agreeing. A functionalCourse planning and syliabus design 155 syllabus seeks to analyze the concept of communicative competence into its different components on the assumption that mastery of individual fune- tions will result in overall communicative ability. Functional syllabuses ‘were first proposed in the 1970s as par of the communicative language teaching movement (see Chapter?) and have formed the basis formany lan- ‘guage courses and textbooks from thar time. They were one ofthe fist pro- posals for a communicative syllabus, that is, one that addresses commu- nicative competence rather than linguistic competence. In Threshold Level English, basic fonctions were identified through analysis ofthe purposes for ‘which leamers use English, particularly younger learners up to the iater- mediate level using a language for social sucvival and travel purposes. This resulted in ¢ widely used functional sylabus that consists of 126 functions ‘grouped into the following categories (see Appendix 5): + imparting and seeking factual information + expressing and finding out attinudes + deciding on courses of action + socializing + seructuring discourse + communication repaic Functional syllabuses such as Threshold Level provided the first serious al- ternative toa grammatical syllabus as a basis for general-purpose course de- sign, and major courses published from the 1980s increasingly employed. functional syllabuses, sometimes linked to a parallel grammatical syllabus. ‘Because they often focus on communication skills, functional sylabuses are particularly suited to the organization of courses in spoken Englisb. Fune- onal syllabuses have proved very popular as a basis for organizing courses ‘and materials for the following reasons: « “They reflect a more comprenensive view of language than grammar sy1- lsbuses and focus on the use ofthe language rather than linguistic form. «= They can readily be Linked to other types of syllabus content (2. topics, grammar, vocabular). «= They provide a convenient framework for the desiga of teaching matec- ais, periculazly in the dornans of listening and speaking. ‘Functional syllabuses have also been criticized forthe following reasons: + There are no clear criteria for selecting or grading fonctions. * They sepreseat a simplistic view of communicative competence and fail to address the processes of communication, + They represent an atomistic approach to language, that is, one that ¢s-188 Chapter 6 sumes that language ability can be broken dowa into diseree components that can be taught separately + They often lead toa phrase-book approach to teaching that concentrates cn teaching expressions and idioms used for diferent functions. + Students learing from a functional course may have considerable gaps in their grammatical competence because some important grammatical struc- tures may not be elicited by the functions that are taught in the syllabus. ‘These objections cen be regarded as issues that need to be resolved in im- pplementing a functional syllabus. Since their inception and enthusiastic re- ception in the 1980s, functional syllabuses are now generally regarded as only a partial component of a communicative syllabus. Altemative propos- als for communicative syllabus design include task-based and text-based syllabuses (discussed later in this section). Situational syllabus: one that is organized around the language needed for different situations such as ar tke alrpors or at a hotel A situation is a setting in which particular communicative acts typically occur A situational syllabus identifies the situations in which the learner will use the language and the typical communicative acts and language used in that setting. Siti- ational syllabuses have been 2 familiar feature of language teaching text- books for centuries (Kelly 1969) and are often used in travel books and ‘books that focus oa mastering expressions frequently encountered in par ticular situations. An example of a recent situationally organized textbook on English for travel is Passport Buckingham and Whitney 1995), which ‘contains the following situational syllabus: 1. Onn airplane 10, Ina restaurant 2. Atan immigration counter 11, Inacafé 3. Ata bank 12. Inabar 4. On the telephone 13. Ona bus 5. On the street 14, Inastore 6 Inthe city 15. At che post office 7. Athome 16. Atthe cinema io 8. At the doctors’ 17. Ina hotel 9. Tn an office 18. Atthe airport Situational syllabuses have the advantage of presenting language in con- text and teaching language of immediate practical use. However, they are also subject to the following criticisms: + Lit is known about the language used in different simations, so selec- tion of teaching items is typically based on intuition.Course planning and syllabus design 187 + Language used in specific situations may not transfer to other situations. + Situational syllabuses often lead to a prase-book approach. + Graramaris dealt with incidentally, so a situational syllabus may resultin gaps in a student’s grammatical knowledge. ‘The role of situations in syllabus design has recently reentered language teaching, albeit in a different form from traditional situational syllabuses, with the emergence of communicadive approaches to syllabus design and ESP. ESP approaches to curriculum development aturibute a central role to the situation or seting in which communication takes place and to the fol- lowing elements of the situation (Munby 1978; Feez 1998): + the participants + their role relations” + the transactions they engage in + the skills or behaviors involved in each transaction + the kinds of oral and written texts that are produced ~ + the linguistic features of the texts ‘Competency-based language teaching (see Chapter $ and later inthis sec- tion) is an approach to teaching that focuses on transactions that occur in particular situations and their related skills and bebaviors. Text-bas.d syllabus design (discussed later in this section) focuses on transactions, the texts thet occur within transactions, and the Linguistic features of the txts ‘The notion of situation has thus been incorporated as an element of more comprehensive approaches to syabus design. ‘Topical or content-based syllabus: one that is organized around themes, topics, or other units of content. With a topical syllabus, content rather then ‘grammar, functions, or situations is the stating point in syllabus design. ‘Content may provide the sole criterion for organizing the syllabus or & framework for linking a variety of different syllabus strands together. “Te is the teaching of content or information in the language being learned with litle or no direct effort to teach the Language separacely from the content being taught” (Krahnke 1987, 65). All language courses, no matter what Kind of syllabus they are based on, must include some form of coatent. But. ‘with other approaches to syllabus design, conteat is incidental and serves merely asthe vehicle for practicing language structures, functions, or skis, In a ypical lesson in 2 grammar-based course, for example, a sucture is selected and then content is chosen to show how the item is used and to pro- vide 2 context for practicing the structure, In atopic-based syllabus, in con- | trast. content provides the vehicle for the presentation of language rather158 Chapter6 than the other way around. Maximum use is made of content to provide links and continuity across the skill areas. Claims made for the advantages of courses based on content-based syllabuses are: (¢ The facie comprehension. Content makes linguistic form more meaningful. |. Content serves as the best basis for teaching the skill areas. + They address students’ needs. + They motivate learners. + They allow for integration of the four skills. + They allow for use of authentic materials. (Brinton, Snow, and Wesche 1989; Mohan 1986) “Topic-based syllabuses have often been 2 feature of ESL programs in ele mentary or secondary schools where the teaching of English is integrated ‘with science, mathematics, and social sciences, as well as of ESL programs for students at the university Ievel. Brinton et al. (1989, 27) give the fol- lowing examngle of how a content-based course can be organized: jlnacheme-ased court bigh-intrettope suchas “culture shock” could | seove as the organizing principle fora 2-week integrate skills course, with the | inguistic focus of the instretion devermined by the sudens' needs, their | protcieney level, nd (et ot ea) th degre o which Ge content rnaps” cnto the course objectives. ‘This approach was used in a German university program described in Brin- ton et al, (1989) that was buile around the following themes: television ~ modern architecture religious pecsuasion microchip technology advectising ecology Waist balance tetwees content and grammar or ter sand inthe syllabus? |+ Are ESL teachers qualified to teach content-based courses? 1 What snoul be the basis for assessment learning of content or earning of language? ‘Although checsing appropriate content isan issu inthe design of any language course, using topics as the overarching eiterion in planing 2Course planning and syllabus design 159 course leaves other questions unresolved because decisions must stil be ‘made concerning the selection of grammar, functions, or skills. Irmay also be difficult to develop 2 logical or learnable sequence for other syllabus ‘components if topics are the sole framework, Different topics may requi language of differing levels of complexity and, as a consequence, it may not always be possible to recoacile the different strands of the syllabus. Ap- pendix 3 in Chapter 8 describes how a topical syllabus was used in devel- ‘oping speaking materials. Competency-based syllabus: one based on 8 specification of the compe- tencies leamers are expected to master in relation to specific situations and ‘activities (see Chapter 5 for an extended discussion). Competencies are a description of the essential skills, knowledge, and attitudes required for ef- fective performance of particular tasks and activities. For example, the ‘work-skills curriculum in Mrowicki (1986) is organized according to top- ics and competenci “The carriculum’s language competencies are divided into topic and cross-topic rus. A topic refers (0 the context in which language is used, For example, tbe competency “Report basic household problems” is found in tke topic “Housing.” ‘A cross-topic isa topie which ean occur i other topic areas. For example, the competency “Read and write dares” rom the eross-topie “Time and Dates” ‘also occurs inthe topies “Shopping” (reading expiration dates of foe), *Fteald (ending appointment times), "Banking and Bills” (reading the date due on bills), ete. (trowicki 1986 ix) Examples of competencies related to the topic of “telephoning” aze: ad and dial telephone numbers lentify oneself on the telephone when answering and calling 5. request to speak to someone respond to request 10 hold 5. respond to offer totake message Competency-based syllabuses are widely used in social survival and work-oriented language programs. Advantages and disadvantages of acom- petency-based approach are discussed in Chapter 5. ‘Skils syllabus: one thats organized around the different undertying abil- ities that are involved in using language for purposes such as reading, wait ing, listening, or speaking. Approaching a language through skills is based on the belief that learning a complex activity such as “tistening to a lecture” involves mastery of a number of individual skills or microskills that together make up the activity. Examples of skills that relate to different cypes of lan- guage use ar160 Chapter 6 vwriting: creating a topic sentence distinguishing between main ideas and supporting sentences self-editing listening: recognizing key information using discourse markers to identify the flow of discourse following rapid speech speaking: recognizing tamn-taking signals introducing a topic using communication strategies reading: reading for gist, ‘guessing words from context reading and making inferences Stillshave traditionally been a central focus in language teaching and there have been attempis to identify the mieroskils underlying the use ofthe four racrostils of reading, writing, listening, and speaking as a basis for syI- labus design (e.., Munby 1978). Yalden (1983) gives the following exam- ple of skills syllabus forthe teaching of study sills: Basic reference skills: understanding and use of + graphic presentation, namely, headings, subheadings, numbering, inden tation, bold print, foomotes table of contents and index cross-refereacing card catalog phonetic transctiptions/diacrities bibliography icionaries Stimming 10 obtain ‘the gistof the text + a general impression of the text . Scanning to locate specifically required information on > asingle point + more tan one point ‘+ awhole topic Transcoding information presented in diagrammatic display, involving + completing a diagram/abie/graph + constructing one or more diagramas/tables/graphs Note-taking skills + completing note-framesCourse planning and syllabus design 161 + deletions + use of diagrams “Appendix 6 contains a skills syllabus for listening and speaking from a national curriculara document in an EFL country. Claims made in support of skill-based syllabuses are: + They focus on behavior or performance. + They teach skills thet can transfer to many other situations. + They identify teachable and learnable units. ‘Skills-based syllabuses have the advantage of focusing on performance ia relation to specific tasks and therefore provide @ practical framework for de- signing courses and teaching materials, They may be more relevant to situr ‘ations in which students have very specific and identifiable needs (such as, preparing for university-level studies in English). Stills syllabuses have been criticized, homever, on the following grounds: + There ig no serious basis for determining skills. + They focus on discrete aspects of performance rather than on developing, ‘more global and integrated communicative abilities. ‘Task-based syllabus: one thatis organized around tasks that students will ‘complete in the target language. A task is an activity or goal that i carted foutusing language such as finding 2 solution to a puzzle, reading a map and igiving directions, of reading a set of instructions and assembling a toy. “Tasks are activities which have meaning 2s their primary focus. Success in tasks is evaluated in teens of achievement of an outcome, and tasks gener- ally bear some cesemblance to real-life language use” (Skehan 1996, 20). “Allteaching makes use of tasks of different kinds. A task-based syllabus, however, is one based on tasks that have been specially designed 10 fecili- tate second language learning and one in which tasks or activities are the basic units of syllabus design. While carrying out these tasks, leamers are said to receive comprehensible input and modified output, processes be~ lieved central to second language acquisition. A number of second language acquisition theorists have proposed tasks as a basis for syllabus planning. Long and Crookes (1991, 43) claim that tasks: “provide a vebicle for the presentation of appropriate target language samples to leamers = input Which they will inevitably reshape via application of general cognitive pro- cessing capacities ~ and for the delivery of comorehension and production ‘opportunities of negotiable difficulty” "The basic claims made for a task-based syllabus ar ++ Tasks are activities that drive the second language acquisition process.162 Chapter 6 + Grammar teaching is not central with this approach because leemers will acquire grammar as a by-product of carrying out tasks, + Tasks are motivating for leamers and engage them in meaningful com- munication. ‘Two Kinds of tasks have been proposed as 2 basis for syllabus design: pedagogical tasks and real-world tasks. Pedagogical tasks are baséd on ‘SLA theory and are designed to trigger second language learning processes land strategies. The following are tasks ofthis kind: igsaw tasks: These tasks involve learners in combining different pieces ‘of information to form a whole (e.g, three individuals or groups may have three different parts of a story and have to piece the story together). + information-gap tasks: Tasks in which one student or group of students thas one set of information and another student or group has a comple- mentary set of informetion. They must negotiate and find out what the other pany's information is in order to complete an activity. + problem solving tasks: Students are given a problem and 2 set of infor mation. They must arrive ata solution to the problem. There is generally a single resolution of the cutcome. decision-making tasks: Suudents are given a problem for which there & ‘number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negoti- ation and discussion. opinion exchange tasks: Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ‘ideas. They do not need to reach agreement. ‘Although communicative activities ofthe type just deseribed have long been a feature of communicative language waching, advocates of task- ‘based syllabuses propose them asthe central feature ofa syllabus rathes than. playing an incidental role. Real-world tasks are designed to practice or re~ hearse those activities that are found to be importantin ¢ needs analysis and that tam out to be important and useful in the real world. There is Lede. ference between these Kinds of tasks and those made use of in other situa~ tionally based approaches to syllabus design, such as Compesency-Based Language Teaching. ‘At present, however, task-based syllabuses have not been widely imple- mented in language teaching. Among the concerns they raise are: + definition of task: Definitions of tasks aze sometimes so broad as to in- clude almost anything that involves learners doing something. + design ond selection of tasks: Procedures for the design and selection of tasks remain unclearCourse planning and syllabus design 163 «+ development of accuracy: Excessive use of communicative tasks may ex- ‘courage fluency at the expense of accuracy. “Although the notion of task appears useful as a component of method- ology, ithas yet to be widely adopted as 2 unit of syllabus design. ‘Teavbased syllabus: one that is built around texts and samples of ex- tended discourse. As already noted, this can be regarded as a type of situa tional approach because the starting point in planning a syllabus is analysis of the contexts in which the learmers will use the language. {thie appcoach starts with the texts whieh ae identified for a specific context (cihich have been identified by seudents, This approach is often used when Gh overall context for language leamiag has been defined, such asin a specific ‘workplace ora university or other futher study context. Units of work ae then ‘oveloped in relation tothe texts. For example, the spoken texts identified for 4h froup of engineers in a workglace were: spoken instructions to Bld sat, ‘revenations of report fiadings at raeetngs and telephone negodatons with ontactors. (Bums and Joyce 1997, 17) “A text-based syllabus is type of integrated syllabus because itcombines elements of different types of syllabuses. Appendix 7 gives an example of the processes involved in developing a text-based syllabus. The following tre examples of text types thax can be used in planning a text-based syllabus (Fee2 1998, 85-86): exchanges simple exchanges relating to information and goods and services ‘complex or problematic exchanges ‘casual conversation forms simple formatted texts complex formatted texts procedures instructions procedures. protocols information texts descriptions explanations reports directives texts that combine more than one text C¥PES story texts recounts narratives persuasive texts opinion texts expositions discussions164 Chapter 6 In teaching from a text-based syllabus a five-part cycle is proposed that invelves: 1. building the context for the text 2. modeling and deconstructing the text 3, joint construction of the text 4, independent construction of the text 5. linking related texts ‘The following advaniages are suggested fora text-based syllabus: + Teteaches explicitly about the structures and grammatical features of spo~ ken and written texts. + Ttlinks spoken and writen text to the social and cultural contexts oftheir use. «+ Itallows for the design of units of work that focus on eveloping skis in relation to whole texts. «+ Inprovides students with guided practice as they develop language skills for meaningful coramunication through texts. (Feez 1998, ) CCeiticisms of this approach are similar to those made of competency- based approaches, namely: + It focuses on specific skills rather than a more general language profi- ciency. + Itmay be impractical in many situations. An integrated syllabus: Decisions about suitable syllabus framework for a course reflect different priorities in teaching rather than absolute choices. “The issue is, which foci will be central in planning the syllabus and which will be secondary? In most courses there will generally be a number of dif- ferent syllabus strands, such as grammar linked to skills and texts, tasks Linked to topies and fnctions, or skills inked to topics and rex. In ariving at a decision about which approach to syllabus planning to take, the course planners need to decide between macrolevel and microlevel planning units in the course. For example, a reading course might first be planed in terms of reading skills (the macrolevel planning category) and thea further planned in terms of text types, vocabulary, and grammar (the microtevel planning cat- gory). A syllabus right be organized grammatically atthe first level and then the grammar presented functionally. Or the first level of organization might be functional with grammar items selected according to the gram- matical demands of different functions. In practical terms, therefore, all sy- labuses reflect some degree of integration. Krahnke (1987, 75) concludes:Course planning and syllabus design 165 Por almost al instructional programs, it is clear that some combination of types of instsctional content will be needed to address dhe complex goals ofthe program. ... for most general teaching applications, whose goal is functional ability in broadly defined settings and structeral knowledge and communicative bility in specific sisatoas, « combination of functional, structural, stvational, and skill-based instruction isthe probable choice. On the other hand, in some second language teaching settings, skills and teks can be more narrowly specified, instrectional resources ae richer, or specific strucrural or formal knowledge is notequired by che program for students to succeed, and 2 ‘combination oftask-based, skill-based, situational, functional, and content insouction may be chosen. Developing instructional blocks So far we have described the processes used to make decisions about the content of a course as well as its syllabus framework. A course also needs to be mapped out in terms of instructional blocks or sections. An instuc- tional blockis 2 self-contained learning sequence that ha its own goals and objectives and that also reflects the overall objectives for the course, In- structional blocks represent the instructional focus of the course and may bbe very specific (c.g @ single lesson) or more general (e.g. a unit of work consisting of several lessons). Planning the organizational structure in 2 course invelves selecting appropriate blocks and deciding on the sequence in which these will appear. In organizing a course into teaching blocks one ‘seeks to achieve the following: + tomake the course more teachable and leamable + to provide a progression in level of difficulty + to create overall coherence and structure for the course ‘Two commonly used instructional blocks are planning by modules and by units, ‘Modules: This is a self-contained and independeat learning sequence swith its own objectives. For example, 2 120-hour course might be divided into four modules of 30 hours each. Assessment is carried out at the end of each module. Modules allow for flexibie organization of a course and can give leamers a sense of achievement because objectives are more immedi- ate and specific. Care needs to be taken, however, o ensure thatthe course does not appear fragmented and unstructured. Units: This teaching block is pormally longer thaa a single lesson but shorer than a module and isthe commonest way of organizing courses and teaching materials. It is normally a group of lessons that is planned around168 Chapter6 ‘a single instructional focus. (Sometimes units are referred to as a scheme of work) A unit seeks to provide a structured sequence of activities that lead toward a learning outcome. The factors that account for a successful unit include: + Length: Sufficient but not too mach material is included. + Development: One activity leads effectively into the next; the unit'does not consist of a random sequence of activities. + Coherence: The unit has an overall sense of coherence. + Pacing: Each activity within the unit moves ata reasonable pace. For ex ample, if there are five activities in the unit, one does not require four times as much time to complete as the others, + Outcome: At the end of the unit, students should be able to know or doa series of things that are related. is “The following comments by 2 leamer indicate that the organization of ‘the course units was not successful: “We did lots of diferent things in the course and many of them were quite usefil Butit's hard to see where all the separate things ft together. Also, [never knew quite what to expect, where we were going from day to day ‘The issue of unit structure is also crucial in developing instructional ‘materials. Jn planning an upper-intermediate-level course with a topical organization of units and an integrated syllabus (Richards and Sandy 1998), the following solutions were reached with respect to unit structure (see ‘Appendix 8). + Each of the tio books in the series would have 12 units. «+ Each unit would consist of 8 pages that divide into two 4-page lessons. + Each unit is organized around 2 general theme such as creativity, com- ‘munication, education and learning. + Each lesson focuses on a topic related to the unit theme. For example: Unit theme: creativity Lesson A: creativity and jobs Lesson B: creative products © += Within each 4-page lesson, each page has a distinct focus in both terms of topic treatment and language focus. For exaraple Lesson A Page 1: Fluency activities introduce the topic of the first lesson through {istening and oral work.Course planning and syllabus design 167 Page 2: Grammar exercises pick up an item that appears on page 1. Exer- cises provide controlled practice of grammar items leading to commu nicative practice. Page 3: Fluency activities provide further listening and oral work on 2 topic, related to the unit theme. Page 4: Waiting exercises on topics linked to the unit theme teach practical ‘writing and composition skills. Lesson B Page 1: Fluency activities introduce the topic of the second lesson through Tistening and oral work. Page 2: Grammar exercises provide controlled practice of grammar items leading to communicative practice. Page 3: Fluency activities provide further listening and oral work. Page 4: Reading activities develop reading skills and serve to initiate dis- cussion. ‘With tis unit structure ewo typasof coherence are provided —horizontal and vertical, Horizontal coherence for 2 unit is created through the linked se- ‘quence of activities within esch unit. Vertical coherence is created through the sequence that runs from the top of each page to the boom with each page culminating in an appropriate activity to bring the page to closure. Preparing the scope and sequence plan Once a course has been planned and organized, it can be described. One form in which it can be deseribed is as 2 scope and sequence plan. This ‘might consist of a listing of the module or uaits and their contents and an, indication of how much teaching time each block in the course will require. Ip the case of a textbook it usually consists of a unit-by-unit description of the course cross-referenced tothe syllabus items included. Appendix 9 gives part of a scope and sequence plan for New Ineerchange J (Richards, Proe- to:, and Hull 1997). “Hlaving considered the different processes involved in planning and de- ‘veloping a language program, we can now tur to issues that arise in creat Ing conditions for effective teaching of the course. These are the focus of Chapter 7,168 Chapter6 Discussion questions and activities 1. How are different proficiency levels characterized and distinguished in a course or program you are familiar with? What are the advantages or limitations of using proficiency ratings or band descriptions as de- scribed in Appendixes 1-3? 2. Compare two or more textbooks forthe same area (e.g. writing, speak ing, listening) and for learners ofthe same level. How similar are the syllabuses in each book? Examine the teacher's books for each course. ‘What justification do the autbors of each book provide forthe Kind of syllabus they employ? 3. Choose three different approaches to syllabus design that are possible forthe following types of courses and consider the advantages and lim- ‘tations of each approach: . 2 reading course 2 speaking course. 2 writing course 4. Examine three different textbooks ina particular skill area (e.g. read- ing skills, waiting). What approach to the selection and sequencing of content does each book adopt? 5. Do you think that grammar is a relevant component of 2 language ‘course? If so, for what kind of courses? What would te ole of gram- mar bein such a course? How would the choice of grammatical con- tent be determined? 6, Select two or thee elated Sunetions from the Threshold Level syllabus (ee Appendix 5) and consider the language that would be needed to teach these functions to lower intermediate learners in a speaking ‘course, What decisions are involved in selecting the language realiza- tons (or exponents) for functions in @ functional syllabus? 7. Consider the design ofa language course for arlne employees work + the transactions they engage in + the skills or behaviors involved in each transaction + the kinds of oral and written texts that are produced + the linguistic fearures ofthe texts 8. How isa situational syllabus elated to other syllabus options discussed in this chapeer? 9. Plan a topic-based ¢-bour unit of work in a course for a group of lear10. . 13. Course planning and syllabus design 169 cers you are familiar with (or for intermediate-level ESL students in a ‘general English class), Describe how the unit would do the following: + integrate different language skills + develop grammar from content Compare two units from two course books that are designed for the ‘same area and level. What unit structure does each book employ? How effective isthe unit structure for each book? Examine the skills listed in Appendix 6. How would you define “skills” ‘based on the examples given in the syllabus? Give an example of pedagogical tasks and real-world tasks that could be used in designing the following: a reading course a listening course ‘Examine the textbook nit in Appendix 8 and find examples of hori- zontal and vertical coherence as discussed on page 167.370 Chapter 6 Appendix 1 Proficiency descriptions for the domain of speaking Proficiency descriptions forthe domain of speaking from the ACTFL Pro- {ficiency Guidelines (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Lan- ‘guages. The guidelines desribe proficiency levels for speaking, stening reading, and vriting according to the levels of Novice, Intermediate, Ad- vanced, and Superior. They are intended as guides for program planning and ‘he development of objectives. Generic descriptions — speaking Novice Novice-Low Novice-Mid Novice-High The Novice level is characterized by the sbility to communicate minimally with leamed material ‘Oral production consists of isolated words and per- haps a few high-frequency phrases, Essentially no functional communicative ability. Oral production continues to consist of isolated words and Jearned phrases within very predictable areas of need, although quality is increased. Vocabulary is suf- ‘cientonly forhandiing simple, elementary needs and expressing basie courtesies. Usterances razely consist of more than two or three words and show frequent Jong pauses and repetition of interlocutr's words, Speaker may have some difficulty producing evea the simplest utecances. Some Novice-Mid speakers wll be understood only with great cffculty Able to satisfy partelly the requirements of basic communicative exchanges by relying heavily on Jeamed utterances but occasionally expanding these through simple recombinations oftheir elements. Can ask questions or make statements involving learned matecial, Shows signs of spontaneity although this falls shor of real autonomy of expression. Speech continues to consist of leared utterances rather than of personalized, situationally adapted ones. Vocabu- lazy centers on areas such as basic objects, places, and ‘most common kinship terms. Pronunciation may still be stronaly influenced by frst lenguage. Errors are frequent and, inspite of repetition, some Novice-High speakers willhave difficulty being understood even by sympathetic interlocutorCourse planning and syllabus design 171 Intermediate The Intermediate levels characterized by the speaker’s bility to: create with the language by combining and recomn- a bining leamed elements, though primarily in a reac- tive mode: ‘date, minimally sustain, and close in @ simple way basic communicative tasks; and = ask and answer questions. Intecmediate-Low Able to handle successfully a limited number of inter- active, task-oriented, and social situations. Can ask and answer questions, initiate and respond to simple : statements end maintain face-to-face conversation, ~ alzhough in a highly restricted manner and with much linguistic inacouracy. Within these limitations, can perform such tasks as introducing self, ordering @ meal, asking directions, and making purchases. Yo- ccabulary is adequate to express only the mostelemen- tary needs. Strong interference from nasive language may occur. Misunderstandings frequently arise, bot with repetition, the Intermediate-Low speaker can generally be understood by sympathetic interlocutor. Intermediate-Mid Able to handle successfully a variety of uncosnpl ‘cated, basic and communicative tasks and social situ- ations. Can talk simply about self and family me bers. Can asi and answer questions and participate in simple conversations on topics beyond the most im- mediate needs, e.g, personal history and leisure time " —gotivities. Userance length increases slightly, but speech may continue to be characterized by frequent “Tong pauses, since the smooth incorporation of even basic conversational strategies is often hindered as the speaker struggles to create appropriate language forms. Pronunciation may continue to be strongly in ‘fluenced by first language and fluency may still be strained, Although misunderstandings still arse, the Intermediate-Mid speaker cam generally be andes- stood by sympathetic interlocutors. Intermediate-High Able to handle successfully most uncomplicated com- ‘municative tasks and social situations. Can initiate, sus tain, and close a general conversation with a number of strategies appropriate to a range of circumstances and172 Chapter 6 Advanced, Advanced ‘Advanced-Plus topics, but eors are evident. Limited vocabulary still necessitates hesitation and may bring about slighty un- expected cixcumlocution. There is emerging evidence of connected discourse, pariculaly for simple nar- tion and/or deeription. The intecmediate-High spesker can generally be understood even by intriocutors not accustomed 1 dealing with speskers at this level, but repetition may sill be required. ‘The Advanced level is characterized by the speaker's ability to = converse ina clearly participatory fashion; ~iniiae, sustain, and bring to closure a wide variety of communicative tasks, including those that require sm increased ability to convey meaning with diverse language strategies due to a complication or an un- foreseen tan of events; ~ satisfy the requirements of school and work situa. ons; and narrate and describe with peragrapiclength con- nected discourse ‘Able to satisfy the requirements of everyday situations fand routine school and work requirements, Can haa- dle with confidence but not with fciity complicated tasks and social situations, such 2s elaborating, complaining, and apologizing. Can narate and de- scribe with some details, inking sentences together smoothly. Can communicate facts and talk casually about topics of current public and personal interest, using general vocabulary. Shortcomings can often be smoothed over by communicative strategies, such as pause filles, stalling devices, and different rates of speech, Cireumlocution which arises from vocabulary ‘or syntactic limitations very often is quite successful, though some groping for words may still be evident The Advanced-level speaker can be understood with out difficulty by gtive intelocutor. ‘Able to satisty the requirements of a broad vasiety of everyday, school, and work simations. Can discuss conerets topics relating to particular imerests and spe~ cial field of competence. There is emerging evidence of ability to support opinions, explain in detail, and hy-Superior Superior Course planning and syllabus design 173 pothesize, The Advanced-Plus speaker often shows @ well-developed ability to compensete foc an imperfect _gasp of some forms with coafident use of commu- nicatve strategies, suchas paraphrasing and cicuralo- cation. Differentiated vocabulary and intonation ae cffecvely used to communicate fine shades of mean- ing. The Advanced-Plus speaker often shows remark- able fluency and esse of speech but under the demands of Superior-level, complex tasks, language may break down or prove inedequate. “The Superior level is characterized by the speaker's abiligy o: = participate effectively in most formal and informal conversations on practical, social, professional, and alpsract topes; and ~ suppor opiaions and hypothesize using ntivestike discourse strategies ‘Able to speak the language with sufficient accuracy to participate effectively in most formal and informal ‘conversations oa practical, social, professional, and abstract topics. Can discuss special fields of compe tence and interest with ease. Can support opinions and hypothesize, bat mey note able to tailor language t0 audience of discuss in depts highly abstract or unfs- mila: topics. Usually the Superior-level speaker is only partially familiar with regional or ther dalect- cal Variants. The Superior-level speaker commands a wide variety of interactive strategies and shows g00d avareness of discourse strategies. The later involves ~the ability to distinguish main ideas from supporting information through syntactic, lexical, and supraseg ‘mental features (pitch, stress, intonation). Sporadic ez- rors may ocour, particularly in low-frequency struc- tures and some complex high-frequency structures rote common to formal writing, but ao paterns of er~ rorare evident. Enors do not disturb the native speaker cor interfere with communication,conde rat ieatuetyo2m, pmpoucnatig peop ante ‘Avo fanooumy —sTeaBoao5n 19))0 29291 Coomnesrg 8 WOR someog yudouddy ‘omoy e240 p94] a C661 pantea wo Sa-Ta aN wo BBppIEA Ke pardepe) BunuM isjona| suEMHO}AD JO Conus ¢ Kip 174pe mune be 1) ue690 1 yy adie sroding wads pemawy 175176 Chapter6 Appendix 3 Band descriptors for oral interaction skills ‘These descriptors are from UCLES/RSA Certificates in Communicative ‘Sails in English (Weir 1990). Certificates in all four areas ~ reading, write ing, listening, and oral interaction ~ are offered at four differeat levels. Tn order to achieve a pass at a given levely candidates must demonstrate to complete the tasks set with the degree of skill specified by Level I Level? EEE EH tr EPPS ee eee beteeeeeeee errr e eee ‘Accuracy ‘eis acceptable for promun- _Pronuncidtéon must be clearly Giation tobe heavily infoenced_ ineligible even if sil obvi by Liifitis generally intli- ove iafluenced by L. Gram agile. With support te eandi-matcaVexial accuracy i ge Gace mustbe able two clay any_ erally high, chough some erors coafisions caused by lexical that donot desuoy cemamunica- fx grammatical erors. tion are accepable. ” Appropriaey Use ofthe language mast be The use of language must be ‘broadly apropsiate to fine: generally appropiate to fune- ton. though itmay notedies- Hoa. The overall intention of pond to nave-spedkerexpee- the speaker must be geerally {Stone The inenton of the less speaker can be perceived by a sympathede listener Range Tris acceptable fo the candi-. A fair range of language mast ate to have a severely limited be available to the candidate range of expression andto Only in complex uxerances is hhave to search often fora way there aneed to search for toexpress the desived meaning. words. -— Flexibiliy Tae candidate is not expected There must be some evidence to take the initiative in conver- of the ability to initiate and sata, orto respond immedi- concede conversation and to ately toachange in topic. The adapt to new topics or changes inweclocutor may bave 1o make of direction, corsiderable allowances and ‘often adopt a supportive role. (continued)‘Course planning and syllabus design 177 ss Level 1 Level? Oe Ske Conurbutions limited w one Mustbe capable of expending for two simple uterances are with more than short-form acceptable, answers where appropriate. ‘Should be able to expand sim- ple uterances with occasional prompting from the interlocutor. eee Level 3 Level 4 eee ‘Recuracy Pronunciation must be elesly Pronunciation mustbe easily telligible, even if some influ- intelligible, hough some cnees from Ll remain. Gram- residual accent is acceptable, aticalexical accuracy is Grammaticalexiea! accuracy high, though occasional ius be consistently high ‘errors that do aot impede com- ‘munication ee acceptable. Appropriacy These of langzage custbe Tae use of language must be generally appropriate t0 entirely appropriate to conte, Einetion and to context. Tae function, and intention. There is {atenton of the speaker must nothing to eause confusion. bbe clear and unambiguous. Range ‘A wide cange of language must There must be only occasional be avaiable to the candidate, obvious limitations on the range ‘Any specie items that cause of language. Few allowances ‘Gifcaldes ean be smoothly have to be made for the fact that snbetnted or avoided. the candidate is nota native speaker Flexbiliy There must be consistent evi- The candidate must be able 1 dence ofthe ability wo "wum- “tum-take” and “direct” an ‘ake ina conversation and co intecaction appropriately and adapt to new topice or changes keep i flowing. of direction. Ske Mustbe capable ofmaking Must be capable of making. Jengthy contoutions where lengthy and complex contribu- fapproptiat, Should be able o tons as sppropriace, The inte ‘xpaad and develop ideas with locutor does not need to support minimal help from the inter- the candidate. locutor. _178 Chapter6 Appendix 4 Grammar items and their sequence in a first-year English course (from Axbey 1997) Preseat verb be ‘Subject pronouns Possessive adjectives Indefinite article: a/en Plural nouns: Tes 25 Prepositions: rom, in, near, at with there ilare ‘Countable nouns with some and any Definite article: she Plural noone: irregular Demonstrative pronouns: thisat, thece/hose ‘Adjectives havefhas got Present simple (Object pronouns Whose? How often? enough ‘carleannot (can't) {ike + aouallike + gerund ‘Adverbs of frequency Do you lite? Would you lite? ast verb be resent continuous for present Indefinite pronouns: everyone, ‘everybody, na one, nabody + singular verb smosfsomela few + pusal vet eshitell + infinitive Past simple Expressions wih go too + adjctivelnor + adjective enough When clauses wane + infiitive Imperatives countable/uncountble nouns with mangife, muchfle ‘Comparative adjectives Superlative adjectives Prepositions of place ‘Article: deinitefindefinicelzer0 Present continuouf for fixed plans ‘Verbs + prepositions Expressions with get {going to for intentions would you like + nouninfinitive ‘con for permission ‘connovean't for prohibition ‘should/shouldn’s for advice shout ‘polite behavior Possetsive pronouns resent pecfect IndeSaite pronouns should/shouldn't forgiving opinions williwon's for promises of belp (promiseirememberforger* iiitive ‘have 1o for obligation “Adverbs of manner Prepositions vwillwon’t For predictions Think sofhope so :Course planning and syllabus design 179 Appendix Threshold level syllabus From Threshold 1990 (Van Ek and Trim 1998). Language functions for threshold level 1 imparting and seeking factual information 11 reporting (describing and nazrating) 12 comecting 13 asking 14 answering questions 2 Expressing and finding ou aitinades 2.1 expressing agreement with a statement 222 expressing disagreement with 2 statement 233 eaguiing about agresment and disagreement 2.4 denying statements 2'5 stating whether one knows or does not know a person, thing or fact 216 enquifing whether someone knows or does not know 2 person, thing ox fact 2:7 stating whether one remembers orhas forgotten person thing or fact or action 2.8 enquiring whether someone remembers or has forgoten & person, thing or factor action 2.9 expressing degrees of probability 2:10 enquiring as to degrees of probability 2.11 expressing or denying necessity including logical deduction) 2.12 enquiring as to necessity (including logical deduction) 2.13 expressing degrees of certainty 2114 enquiring about degres of ceraiaty 2.15 expressing obligation 2.16 enquiring sbout obligation 2117 expressing abilityinabilty todo something 218 enquiring about ability or inability to do something 2.19 expressing that something is or isnot permed, or permissible 2.20 enquiring whether something is ori not permitted or permissible (acluding seeking permission) 2.21 grating perission 2 withholding permission 223 expressing wants/desies 2134 enquiring about wantsidesires 2.25 expressing intentions180 Chapter 6 2.26 enquiring about intentions 227 expressing preference 228 inquiring about preference 2.29 expressing pleasure, happiness 2.30 expressing displeasure, unhappiness 2.31 enguiring abou pleasureldispleasureappiness/onhappiness 2.32 expressing liking 233 expressing dislike 2534 enquiring about likes and dislikes 2.35 expressing satisfaction 2°36 expressing dissatisfaction 2.37 enquiring about satsfaction/dissatisfaction 238 expressing interest 2.39 expressing lack of interest 2140 enquiring about interest or lack of interest 2.41 expressing surprise 2.42. expressing lack of supeise 2.43 enquiring about surprise 2.44 expressing hope 245 expressing disappointment 2.46 expressing fear 2.87 giving reassurance 2.48 enquiring about fear worties 2.49 expressing gratiude 2150 reacting to an expression of gratitude 2.31 offering an apology 2132 accepting an apology 2.53 expressing moral obligation 2154 expressing approval 2.55 expressing disspproval 2156 enquiring about approvaidisapproval, = 2.57 expressing regret, sympathy 3 Deciding on courses of action (suasion) 3.1. suggesting a course of action 2.2 agreeing to a suggestion 3.3 requesting someone to do something 3.4 advising someone to do something 3.5 waming others to do something or to refrain from something 2.6 encouraging someone to do something 23.7 instructing or directing sormeone to do something 38 requesting assistanceCourse planning and syllabus design 181 39 offering assistance 3.10 inviting someone to do something 3.11 accepting an offer or invitation 3.12 declining an offer or invitation 3.13 enquiring whether an offer or invitation is accepted or declined 3.14 asking someone for something 4 Socialsing 4.1 atwacting attention 42 greeting people 4.3 when meeting 2 friend or acquaintance 44 replying to greeting from a friend or acquaintance 45 addressing a friend or acquaintance 406 addressing a stranger 4:7 addressing a customer or a member ofthe general public 4.3 introducing someone to someone else 49 when being introduced to someone, or when someone is being intro- duced to you 4.10 congratulating someone 4.11 proposing a toast 4.12 taking leave 5 Structuring discourse 5.1 opening 52 hesitating 5.3 correcting oneself ‘54 introducing a theme 5.5 expressing an opinion 5.6 enumerating 5.7 exemplifying 5.8 emphasizing -- 5.9 summarizing 5.10 changing the theme S.11 asking someone to change the theme 5.12 asking someone's opinion 5.13 showing that one is following a person's discourse 5.14 interrupting 5.15 asking someone to be silent 5.16 ‘giving over the floor 5.17 indicating 2 wish to continue 5.18 encouraging someone to continue 5.19 indicating that one is coming to an end 5.20 closing.182 Chapter 5.21 telephone opening 5.22. asking for [someone] ‘5.23 asking someone to walt : 13.24 asking whether you are heard and understood 15.25 giving signals that you are hearing and understanding 5.26 announcing new call 5.27 opening (leter) 15.28 closing (leter] 6 Communication repair 6.1 signalling noneunderstanding 622 asking for repetition of sentence 63 asking for repetition of a word or phrase 64 asking for confinmation of text 6.5 asking for confirmation or understanding 666 asking for clarification 677 asking someone to spell something 68 asking for something o be wrinen dowa 6.9 expressing ignorance of a word or expression 6.10 appealing for assistance 6.11 asking someone to speak moze slowly 6.12 paraphrasing 6.13 repeating what one has said 6.14 asking if you have been understood 6.15 spelling out a word or expression 6.16 supplying ¢ word ot expression Appendix 6 Skills syllabus for listening and speaking rom Malaysian Secondary Schoo! Syllabus form IV (1989). 1.0 Listening and Speaking “The componenton listening and speaking deals withthe skills of sound éis- crimination, extracting information, and prediction, in order to perform spe~ Gitte functions. The skills also include those of determining and using r=3~ {eters to suit different audiences, and for different purposes, so that students fare able to express their thoughts clearly and succincily and be able to fully participate in conversations and discussions. “The sub-skills that follow the main skills in this component are to be taught together with the main skills These sub-skills are not arranged in ahi-Course planning and syllabus design 183 cerarchy and are thus not intended to be followed as a rigid sequence. They need to be repeated in different but meaningful combinations. Objectives of the component on listening and speaking Listening to and discriminating: consonant clusters, sentence stress and in- tonation, diphthongs and homonyms Listening to and understanding: words, phrases and sentences; instructions, ‘messages; stories; talks; reports; opinions; poems; dialogues; informa- tion in reports, guides, charts, graphs, manuals, forms, and letters; de- seription of scenes, events, places, things, and processes end procedures ‘Speaking with correct pronunciation, intonation, word stress and sentence rhythm Asking for and giving: meanings of words, phrases and sentences; instnx tons; messages; talks; reports; opinions; information in repors, guides, charts, graphs, manvals, formas and letters; descriptions of scenes, events, places, things, and processes and procedures; and ‘Telling stories| Skill specifications ‘At the end of the English Language Programme for Form IV, stuclents ‘should be able to LLL Listen to and discriminate between: consonant clusters, diphthongs and homonyms. 1.2 Listen to and understand, and ask for and give meanings of words, phrases and sentences. 13. Speak with correct inconation, word stress and sentence ehythen 1/4 Listen to and understand, and ask for and give instructions on how to ‘ix things, such as 2 leaking tp. 1.5. Listento and understand, ask for and give and relay messages received ‘through the mass media, such as the radio and the television. 1.6 Listen to and understand, and tell stories on moral valves, such as self- reliance, diligence and public-sptitedaess. 1.7 Listen to and understand, ask for and give information contained ia talks on current issues, such as constmerism and bealih care. 1.8 Listen to and understand, ask for and give information contained in reports, such as newspaper repors and book repocs. 19 Listen to and understand, ask for and give information contained in charts, graphs and manuals. 1.10 Listen to and understand, ask for and give information contained in informal letters, in newspapers and in formal lewers of enquiry and complaint.184 Chapteré LI? Listen to and understand, ask for and give descriptions of seenes, such as tourist spots in the ASEAN region. 112 Listen to and understand, ask for and give descriptions of events, such as the SEA games. 1.13 Listen to and understand, esk for and give opinions on current issues, such as unemployment. 1.14 Listen to and understand selected poems of writers from ASEAN re- ‘gion. 115 Listen to and understand, ask for and give descriptions of processes and procedures, such asthe recycling of material. 1.16 Listen to and understand, and express displeasure and regret. 1139 Practice social skills such as interrupting a conversation, and joining in and participating ina conversation. “The following sub-skills need to be combined and taught simultaneously ‘with the above main skills where appropriate. Sub-stils of listening Discerning main ideas ‘Understanding sequence Noticing specific details Inferring ‘Comparing Predicting Determining relevance Distinguishing fect and fiction Differentiasing berween fact and opinion Generalizing . Classifying Sub-skills of speaking L. Using correct pronunciation 7 m. Questioning : Paraphrasing ‘0, Supporting and clarifying p. Summarizing 4 B romppooP - Using registers Speaking coherentlyCourse planning and syllabus design 185 Appendix 7 Designing a course from texts (from Burns and Joyce 1997)* eee ee ee erect eee ere Seee eee eter eee Sep Discussion and examples T Identify the overall context University: course focus is peparing -sadens for study at university 2 Develop an aim “To develop the spoken and writen language skis required to underake university seady 43 Note the language event “These could include: sequence within the context enrolling at university - praisal system. An appraisal system may have several diferent purposes: + to reward teachers for good performance + to help identify needs for further training + to reinforce the need for continuous staff development + tohelp improve teaching + to provide a basis for contract renewal and promotion + to demonstrate an interest in teachers’ performance and development ‘The purpose of the appraisal will determine the type of appraisal that is carvied out.Providing for effective teaching 221 DEVELOPING THE APPRAISAL SYSTEM ‘An appraisal system is likely to have greater credibility fit represents both teachers’ and administrators’ views. It should therefore be produced col~ laboratively and represent all points of view. However, any appraisal sys- tem needs to recognize that there is no single correct way of teaching. ‘Teachers have diffecent styles of teaching, and two teachers may conduct their classes very differently yet both be excellent teachers. Therefore, ci- teria for the recognition of good teaching have to be develoged that recog- nize the complexity of teaching as well asthe fact that ti @ uniquely indi- vidual activity. In language teaching, there are ao universally accepted criteria for assessing teacher effectiveness and several different Kinds of ap- praisal Approaches are used. Criteria are generally established on aa insi- tutional basis, drawing on general principles for teacher effectiveness and factors specific to the type of program in which the teachers work. For ex- ample, candidates taking the UCLES Cerificate in English Language ‘Teaching to Adults (UCLES 1998) are assessed during teaching practice oa planning and use of materials, classroom teaching sklls, and awareness of teaching and Teaming processes (see Appendix 3). Browa (1994) contains fan evaluation checklist that includes the following categories: “prepara tion.” “presentation.” “cxecution/methods,” “personal. characteristic,” ‘eacher/stadent interaction” (gee Appendix 4). Murdoch (1997) contains a questionnaire designed o idemify the perceived qualities and competencies ff good English teachers, end is organized according to three areas ~ ELT ‘Competencies, General Teaching Competencies, and Knowledge and Ati- tudes (See Appendix 5). ‘THE FOCUS OF APPRAISAL ‘Although appraisal usually involves observation ofa teacher teaching on= ‘oc more clases, the focus of appraisal may include a aumber of other as- pects ofa teacher's work, such as + lesson plans + teacher-made classroom materials + course outlines and handouts + class assignments + participation in profession development activities CONDUCTING, THE APPRAISAL. A teaching appraisal may be carried out by a supervisor, a colleague, the teacher himself or herself, or students.222 Chapter 7 «+ Appraisal by a supervisor: Supervisors often assume the role of appraiser, ‘hough many teachers fiad that they prefer appraisal to be carried by Someone other then a supervisor. The presence of a supervisor in the claseroom may inhibitthe teacher from performing this orher best. Such fssessments may also be flavored by subjective factors. In addition, if the Supervisor is largely an administrator rather than a classroom teacher, he doc he may not have a good understanding of the classroom situation, re- fulting in misperceptions about different aspects of the lesson In order [provide some consistency to appraisals, checklists are often used (see AP- pendix 4) «+ Appraisal by a colleague: Pear appraisal is generally less threatening for ‘teacher than appraisal by a colleague and may result in more constrac~ the feedback. A colleague will often have a beter understanding ofthe Gificuties a teacher faces and perhaps be able to suggest useful ways of addressing them. Appendix 8 presents an example of a peer appraisal form used in a large English program. The form was developed by teach cer in the program and provides an opporainity forthe teacher to respond to the appraiser's comments. + Selftappraisal Teachers themselves are often ina good position to assess their own teaching and self-appraisa is perhaps the least threatening form of teacher assessment. Se-eppraisal may take a variety of fomns: «= Lesson reports: The teacher may use stuctared descriptions of a lesson ‘with an evaluation of each component. (See Appendix 6 for an example of a self-evaluation fom.) «+ Teaching journal: The teacher may keep aregulat journal abouthis or hex ‘lass, and describe and reflect on different aspects of plansing and teach ing the couse. «+ Audio/video recording: Tae teacher may record a number of lessons of his or her elass or arrange to have someone else record them, review the recordings, and comment on the strengths or weaknesses of the lessons. «+ Student appraisal: Students aze in a’ good positions assess the effec~ tiveness of teaching, although the extent to which they aze able to do so depends on the typeof feedback instrument they ae given. Although st~ dents are often critical, they usually have a good sense of whether & teacher prepares his o her lesson, teaches relevant content, provides les- sons that are engaging, relevant, and at an appropcace level of diculy. ‘What snedents may not beable to recognize is how dificalt the course (Or a particular group of stadents) is to teach due to the personal dynamics of the class and its menmbers). Appendix 7 contains an example of a student sppraisal form.Providing for effective teaching 223 The learning process ‘Leaming is not the mirror image of teaching, The extent to which teaching ibieves i Goals WT abo dependent on how successfully leamers have been considered in the planning and delivery process. The following factors may affect how successfully a course is received by leamers. UNDERSTANOING OF THE COURSE Iris important o ensure thatthe learners understand the goals of the course, the reason for the way it is organized and taught, and the approaches to learning they will be encouraged to take. It cannot be simply assumed that leamers will be positively disposed toward the course, will have the appro- priate skills the course demands, or will share the teacher's understanding. Of what the goals of the course are. Brindley (1984, 95) states: ‘Wraen learners and teachers meet forthe frst time, they may bring with them diferent expectations conceming not only the learning process in general, but also concersing what will be learned ina particular course and how it wil be learned, The possibility exists, therefore, for misunderstanding o arse. tis, accordingly, of vital importance the, from the beginning ofthe course, mechanisms for consultation are set vp in order to ensure that the parties involved in the teaching-learaing process are aware of each other's expectations. If learners are to become aetive participants in decision making regarding their ‘own learing, then tis essential that they know the teachers postion and that they beable to state their own, Teachers, conversely, need to canvass lees” ‘expectations and be abe to interpret their statements of need, VIEWS OF LEAANING LLeamers enter a course with their own views of teaching and learning and these may not be identical to those of their teachers. How do they se= the roles of teachers and learners? What do they feel about such things as mem- crization, group work, the importance of grammaz, and pronunciation? Al- corso and Kalantzis (1985) found that teachers rated the usefulness of com- rmonicative actvies highly, waereas their leamers tended to favor more traditional activities such as grammar exercises, copying witten materials, memorizing, and dill work. What roles are leamers expected to play during the course? Courses may assume a variety of different leamer roles, suchas: + manager of his orker own leering 1 independent leerer224 Chapter 7 + needs analyst + collaborator and tearm member + peer tutor How happy are leamers with he roles expected of them? Will they need any special orientation or training in order to carry out hese roles effectively? LEARNING STYLES LLearnecs' learning styles may be an important factor inthe suocessofteach- ing and may not necessarily reflect those that teachers recommend. In & study of the leaming syle of adult ESL students, Walling (1985, cited in ‘Nunan 1988, 95) found four different learner types in the population he studied: a Concrete leamers: These learners prefered leamiig by games, pictures, films and video, talking in pair, learning through tbe use of cascemes, and going on excursions. ‘Analytical learners: Taese learners liked studying grammaz, sméying English books, studying alone finding their own mistakes, having problems te work oo, leaming through reading newspapers. Communicative learners: This group liked to learn by observing and lis- tening to native speakers, talking to friends in English, watching TV in En- ash, using English in shops, and s0 on, learning English words by hearing them and learning by conversations. “Authority-oriented learners: These soudents liked the teacher to explain everything, writing everything ina notebook, having their own textbook, Jeaming fo read, ssadying grammar, and leariog English words by seeing hem. ‘A questionnaire on preferved learning styles, classroom activities, and teaching approaches can be used to identify leamers’ learning style prefer- ‘ences. Where discrepancies ae identified between views of teaching and Teaming on the parof teachers and learners, these may have tobe addressed ‘rough leemer training, discussion, and orientation to the course. MOTIVATION Ikis also impottant to find out what the learners’ motivations are for taking the course. Why are the learners in the course and how wil it affect their lives? What do they want from ie? Which aspects of it are they most inter- ested in? Itmay be that leamers have very different priorities. For example, Brindley (1984, 119) cites the following preferences for three Iearners in an adult ESL class in Auswala to show how individual learner choices mayProviding for efective teaching 225 differ markedly. In such cases, counseling and individualized instruction may be needed, In this course I want Ranked Priorities for 3 learners Understand English grammar beer 2°33 ‘Write English more fluently and correctly 17 5 ‘Understand radio and TV better 56 6 Know more about Australian culeure 32 4 Understand Australians better when they speak to me 612 Read and understand newspapers better 44 2 Communicate better with my workmates w 5 9 ‘Leam more vocabulary 80 9 LLeam how to spel! better 9 8 8 ‘Leam how to pronounce English berer 797 suppoar Support mechanisms provided forleamers are another component of course delivery. These inchude the kinds of feedback learners will get about their Teaming and opporunities that are provided for faser or slower leamers, Self-aceess components might be provided to allow learners to address spe- cific earning needs and interests. One resource from among the many that have beca considered in this and ealiee chapters plays a key role in influencing the nature and quality of course organization and teaching in a language program: the instructional materials and resources that teachers use inthe clastoom. These ae the fo- cus of Chapter 8. Discussion questions and activities 1, How would you characterize the organizational culture and structure of ‘language teaching instiution you are familiar with? To what extent is the organizational culture a positive one, in your opiaion? 2. Consider a teaching context that you are familiar with. What factors in the school or institation create posi it ‘What factors do not? Suggest three changes thet you think would im- prove the quality of the teaching. 3. To what extent is 2 concem for quality reflected in the practices of your226 Chapter 7 ‘school oF an institution you are familiar with? What quality measures are or should be in place? ‘4, Examine the mission statement in Appendix 1. Prepare a mission state- ‘ment for your program or institution. Then reflect on the process of de- sreloping a mission statement and the role such a statement could play jn creating a quality culture inthe institution. '5, Use the guidelines for Best Practice in Appendix 2 to examine a lan- gage teaching instuion you are familiar with, To what extet do the {uidelines provide a framework for identifying good practice inthe ia- stitution? Are additional criteria needed? 6 What opportunities are available for teacher development in your in- stitution of an institution you are familiar with? Suggest three ap- proaches to teacher development that could be implemented and what each would seek to accomplish. i +7, Prepare a statement ofthe teaching philosophy that supports a program ‘you teach in or that you are familiar with 8. What provisions are made to assist inexperienced teachers in your ‘school or language programm? What incentives and zevards exis to Pro- vide continued motivation for excellent and experienced teachers? 19, Use one of the teaching evaluation forms in Appendixes 3 07 4 to eval- vate a weacher's class, How useful was the form? Would you wish tore ‘vise the form on the basis of your experience? 10. Complete the questionaire On the qualities of a good teacher in Ap- pendix 5, then compare your ratings in groups. Hol useful do you think uch an approach isto determining the qualities of a good teacher? 11, Da you think teachers can provide reliable self-appraisals of cheir own lessons? Why or why not? Examine the sef-appraisal form in Appes- dix 6 and try it out, if possible (or ask a teacher to ty it out). How ad- equate was it as a basis for self-appraisal? 12, Examine the student appraisal form in Appendix 7. Would you be able to use this form or a modified version of it in your own teaching?Providing for effective teaching 227 Appendix 1 Institutional mission statement ‘An example of an institutional mission statement (from Department of En- lish, City University of Hong Kong). The goals of the department “The Department of English has developed the following mission statement to represent its commitments and goals: pL PEPE CE eee eee errr eee eee eStore eee ‘The goals of the Department of English are to promote the effective learning and teaching of English and the learning land practice of professional communication skills in the City University and in the community, and to provide leadership in language and communication education in Hong Kong and the region. ——— ‘To achieve this, the Department of English: «+ offers degree courses in Teaching English as a Second Language and it Professional Communication + delivers instruction in English for students in the City University to meet their communicative, academic and professional needs «+ supports a technology-based learning environment for teeching profes- sional communication skills + seeks to provide staff with the opportunity for continued professional de- velopmeat + conducts research and development activities which support the Depart men's goals «+ provides resourced ind expertise in language education through seminars, ‘conferences, workshops and consultancies + encourages collaboration with other institutions228 Chapter 7 Appendix 2 Best practice in English language teaching* 1. Institution PHYSICAL FACILITIES A.quality language centre is characterised by: + clean and safe premises; += classrooms and offices which are not overcrowded: + adequate ventilation, heating, cooling and lighting; and = adequate precautions in case of fire. "The physical facilities contribute to an atmosphere conducive to learning. MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION A quality language centre: + is under the direction of an appropriately-trained and experienced man- agement and administration team which is knowledgeable about the de- sign, implementation, and evaluation of ELT programs; + seeks to attract and retain a staff of trained, dedicated, professional ELT practitioners; + recognises the iniporance of appropriate salary and benefits as well as the importance of staff development. The ceatre has clearly stated poli- cies concerning these issves; + reviews its employment conditions and procedures periodically in light of generally accepted ELT standards and local market conditions; and + takes account of input from teachers, support staff and students in mak- ing decisions regarding personnel practices, management of resources and program evaluation, Zs ‘The management strives to engender a positive teaching and learning envi- ronment, + Document prepared by EL centers in Indonesia (ALF), Thailand (ELCA), Laos (WUC), and Cambodia (ACE), for esablishing quality standards for language training centers in Souteae: Asia. Reprinted with permissionProviding for effective teaching 228 2, Staff TEACHING STAFF Acquality language centre: = employs teachers who have internationally recognised qualifications in language teachi «+ recognises that the number of contact hours, preperation hours and office presence of teachers directly influence teacher effectiveness; «+ ensures equal opporwunity regarding all aspects of employment, includ ing the possibility of job security of employment; and «provides supportin the form of administrative systems, office space, tele- Phones, duplicating facilites (with clear guidelines about copyright {aws), and space for professional development seminars and workshops. ‘SUPPORT STAFF ‘A quality language centre recognises the vital role that non-teaching staff play in supporting training activities and contributing to the quality of the service provided to clients. STAFF DEVELOPMENT. ‘A quality language centre: «actively supports and engages in continuing staff development forall em- ployees. There is continuous, ongsing in-service training, using a range Of learning modes conducted by members of staff as well as by invited trainers from outside; 4 Keeps to @ minimum the number of under-tained teaching staff and sup- port staff, There is a plan in place to ensure that staff development cP | portunities are maide available as eppropt 2 Supports membership in professional organisations, attendance at work Shops and conferences, and participation in professional activities outside the workplace; and + engagesin and/or encourages research on various aspects of ELT by staff. 3. Program management cuaaicuLum A quality language centre: «+ designs and implements curricula that are informed by an analysis of Teamer needs and the assessment of the learners’ levels of proficiency:230. Chapter7 + documents curricula, and such documentation includes details of programs goals and objectives, expected leamer outcomes, teaching materials, methodology, assessment criteria, and evaluation procedures; + assesses student progress on a regular basis. The instraments for assess~ ment are selected or developed according to principles generally recos~ nised in the field of ELT and ace culturally appropriate, They relate di- recdy to the stated goals and objectives of the training program. Students are regularly informed of their progress; + acknowledges that factors such as class size, course Jength and course in tensity are often beyond the control of the taining provider. However, curricula are developed with these considerations in mind; «+ engages in regular evaluation of its curriculum and courses in response to changing student needs, new trends in ELT and the changing global con- text. Teachers and students are involved in this evaltation which leads 10 program re-design, with the development of new approaches, new com- ponents, and/or new courses; and «seeks periodic extemal evaluation through consiltation with experienced, recognised professionals in appropriate fields, such as applied linguistics and ELT management. These individuals work with staff to share expert- ise and to provide objective appraisals of the program's effectiveness. 4, Resources [A quality language centre: «+ provides insuuctionsl matecials to facilitate successful language learning, ‘These resourees are up-to-date and accessible to all teachers and include print materials, video tape reconders and cassetes, audio tape recorders and cassettes, as well asa range of realiz: «+ recognises the contibution that computerised language instruction and selfsccess resources make to effective language learning and wherever possible aims to provide such resources; 7 + maintains a resoioe collection of relevant books, journals and other ra- terials which is easily accessible to teachers and students; and + documents procedures for the selection, evaluation, purchase and upkeep of equipment and materials and ensures that all concemed are actively in- volved in decision-making related to these matters.Providing for effective teaching 231 Appendix 3 Assessment criteria for teaching practice ‘Assessment criteria for teaching practice in the Certificate in English Lan- _guage Teaching to Adults (UCLES 1998). Scope By the end of the 6 hours’ teaching practice successful candidates, at pass level, should show convincingly and consistently that they can: Plan forthe effective teaching of adult learners by: + identifying appropriate learning outcomes; «+ selecting and/or designing tasks and activities appropriate for the leamn- ers, for the stage of the less and overall lesson objectives; «+ selecting and making appropriate use of a range of materials and re- sources: + adapting materials for use with a particular group: + preseating materials for classroom use with a professional appearance ‘and with regard to copyright requirements; + anticipating potential difficulties with language and tasks Demonstrate classroom teaching skills by: + establishing rapport and developing motivation; + adjusting their own language to meet the level and needs of the learners; + giving clear instructions; + providing eccurate and appropriate models of language; + focusing on appropriate specific language andlor skis; + conveying the meaning of new language with lear and appropiate con- text; + checking smdents’ understandiag of the new language; + clarifying forms of language «+ identifying errors and sensitively correcting students’ oral language; identifyiig errors and sensitively correcting students’ writen language; ‘monitoring and evaluating students” progress. Demonstrate an awareness of teaching and leaming processes by: + teaching a class with sensitivity to the needs, interests, and background of the group: + organising the classroom to suit the learners and/or the activity; + setting up and managing peir, group. individual, and plenary work; + adopting a teacher role appropriate to the stage ofthe lesson and the teach- ing context;232 Chapter 7 ‘away which helps to develop learner self-awareness and au- Focus, ‘The syllabus focus to include: Language awareness (Syllabus Topic 1) ‘The leamer, the teacher and the teachingflearning context (Syllabus Topic 2) Planning for effective teaching of adult leamers of Enatish (Syllabus Topic 3) Classroom management and teaching skills for teaching English to adults (Syllabus Topic 4) Resources end materials for teaching English to adults (Syllabus Topic 5) Professional development for teachers of English to adults (Syllabus Topic 6) Appendix 4 Checklist for evaluating a teacher's, lesson (from Brown 1994) Teacher observation form A: Observing other teachers Please try to keep in mind the following criteria when observing a teacher. Circle or check each item in the column that most clearly represents your evaluation: 4 excellent, 3 shove average, 2 average, 1 unsatisfactory, WA rot applicable. in addition or in leu of checking a column, you may write ‘comments in the space provided. 1. PREPARATION - Degresto which 1. The teacher was well-prepared and well-organized in class. : Commeat: NA4321 2. The lesson reviewed material and looked ahead to new Comment: Wa 4321 3, Te peepared goslvobjectves were apparent. Comment: NWAS321Providing for effective teaching 283 II, PRESENTATION Degree to which... 4, The class material was explained in an understandable way. Comment: NA S321 ‘5, The lesson was smooth, sequenced, and logical. ‘Commest: NAS321 6, The lesson was well-paced Comment: NA S321 7, Directions were clear and concise and smdents were able to carry them out Comment 8, Material was presented athe side's level of comprebensioa. Comment: NA 4321 NAS321 9. ‘An appropriate percentage ofthe class was stadent ‘production ofthe language. Comment: NA £321 10, The teacher answered questions carefully and satisfactory. Comment: NA4321 11. The method/s waslwere appropriate to the age and ability of srudens. Comment: 12, The teacher knew when the students were having ttouble understanding, Comment: NA4321 13, The teacher showed an interest in, and enthusiasm fo, the subject taught. Comment: NA4321 NAS321 Ii, EXCUTIONMETHODS 14, There were balance and variety in activities during the lesson. ‘Comment: 1S, Tre teacher was able to adopt tothe unanticipated situations. ‘Comment: NA 321 NAG321 on Unveresy234 Chapter 7 16, The material was reinforced. Comment: 17, The teacher moved around the class and made eye contact swith sadents. (Comment 18, The teacher knew sudents” names. Comment: 19, The teacher positively einforeed the smdenis Comment 20, Suadent responses were efTectively elicited (i.e, the order in which the smdeats were called on). Comment: ‘21, Examples and illustrations were used effective Comment: ‘22, instroctional sds or resource material was used effectively. Comment: ‘23, Drills were used and presented effectively. Comment: ‘A, Scuctures were taken out of artifical dell contexts and applied to the eal contexts of he student evlmare ‘and personal experiences. ‘Comment: 125, Exor perception. ‘Comment: 126. Appropriate err correction. ‘Comment Iv, PEASONAL CHARACTERISTICS : 27, Patience in eieting responses. Corament: 28, Clasry, tone, and auditility of voice Comment: 29. Personal appearance. ‘Comment 130. Initiative, esourcefulness, and creativity ‘Comment NA4321 Wa 4321 WA 4321 WA 4321 NA 4321 WA4321 Wa 4321 WA 4321 NA 4321 WA4321 NA 4321 WA 4321 WA4321 NA 4321 NA S321Provioing for effective teaching 235 31, Proauaciasio, intonation, fluency, and appropriate and accepuable use of language. Comment: NA4321 Y, TEACHER/STUDENT INTERACTION Degree to which. 232, Teacher encouraged and steured full student participation inclass. Comment: NA4321 33, The clas felt ree to ask questions, to disagree, or to cexgress their own ideas. Comment NA4321 54, The teacher was able to contol and direct the class. Comment NAS321 135. The students were attentive and involved. Comment: NA4321 136. The stadents were comfortable and relaxed, even during intense inellocual activity. Comment 237, The suadents wece eated ful, impartially, and with respect. Comment: 138, The students were encouraged to do their best, ‘Comment: 39. The teacher was relaxed and matter-of-fact in voice snd manner. Comment NA4321 40, The teacher was aware of individual and group needs. Comment 41. Digressions were used positively and not over-ssed, ‘Comment NWA4321 NAa321 NWA4321 NA4321 Wa 4321200 Unepier 7 ‘Appendix 5 Qualities and competencies of a good English teacher Questionnaire designed to elicit views on qualities and competeacies of ¢ ‘200d English teacher (from Murdoch 1997). Questionnaire: What makes a good English language teacher? Read each statement below concerning the qualities of an excellent BFL teacher. Thea send the number below corresponding tothe rating and most Closely reflects your own reaction to each statement, 1 = totally irrelevant; 2 = of minor importance; 3 = important; ‘4 = very important; $= absolutely essential. If, for any reason, ‘you do not choose to resct to a statement, circle NS (not sure). [if you feel there are other desirable teacher qualities which are not cov- ered by the statements in this questionnaire, please mention them in the ‘Comments section at the end of the form. Please indicate which Part of the {questionnaire your contribution relates to. Thank you. PART A: ELT COMPETENCIES 1. The teacher preseas language points in clear and intecesting ways. 12345NS 2. The teacher employs & range of techniques teach ew vocabulary. 12345NS 3, The teacher tie to relate anguage forms, functions and vocabulary to contexts relevant to students’ interests. 123.4 5 NS 4, The teacher employs a range of techniques for practising grammatical forms. 123455 5, The teacher sets up iteracve pai/group activities appropriately. 12345NS 6. The teacher employs a variety of acivises for developing speaking/istening/teading/writing sls. 12345NS 7. The teacher achieves a good balance between accuracy Focused, and integrative, content-focused activities 12345NS 8, The teachec uses games and puzzles effectively and appropriately, 12345NS 9, The teacher gives smdents suficient time to seépond to questions. 12345NSProviding for effective teaching 287 10, The tezcher encourages suns to asi questions. 11, The teacher eliits language and background knowles from seudents appropriately. 12, The teacher does not impede seudentleaming via overuse cof the mother tongue, of atempts to lear the students mother tongue, 13, The teacher isa good language model for the studects, 14, Teacher call dime is appropriate for the language level of the class. 15. Theseacher uses, and gets students to use, comect class room language. ~ 16, The teacher deals with erors systematically and effectively. 17, The teacher gets smdens to self-comect minor mistakes, 18, The teacher ges steno corectcomment on each others writen work. 19, The teacher makes students aware ofthe suategies they can se to lear English move effectively. 120, The teacher wsee/develope appropiate quizzes and tests to evaluate students" progress and increase motivation. 2. The teacher gives students some say inthe selection of classroom activities, 122. The teacher maintsias a dialogue with students to gauge their reaction to the materials and his/her teaching methods, 25, The teacher makes suudents aware ofthe pedagogic purposes of classroom activities. 24, The teacher takes into account students” different syle of language learning. PART 8; GENERAL TEACHING COMPETENCIES 1, The teacher has a goad classroom preseace and personality. 2, The teacher is patent, polite and enjoys helping students acquire new skillsfknowledge. 43, The teacher positions himselOherself well a different sages of the lass. 4. The teacher's style of dressing isan essec i the classroom. 12 12 2 2 345 NS 345NS 3450S 345.NS 3a5NS 345.NS 3455S 345NS 345.NS 345NS 345NS 345NS 345NS 345NS 34508298 Chapter 7 5, The teacher communicates an entbustasm forthe sbjec. {6 The teacher establishes @ good rapport with students. “7. The teacher has good suategies for dealing with inappro- pete student behaviour, 8, The teacher does not intimidate shy students inthe lass. 9. The teacher recognises seudent achievement and develops students’ interest in learning. 10, The teacher antends tothe learning abeds ofthe various ability levels in the class. 11, The teacher gives appropriate feedback to students about their progress. 12, The teacheris able vo adapt histher teaching plan to -~ respond to students’ immediate needs and resetions planned setivites 13, The teachers lessons have sufficient variety and change of pace to sustain stadents” interest. 14, The teacher prepares lasses adequately and bas clear sims and objectives. 15, The teacher uses a variety of techniques to ask questions and elicit sponses from students. 16. The teacher gives clear and sufficient instructions. examples or demonstrations befoce studeats begin activites. 17, The teacher oxganises students well 18. The teacher makes good use ofthe whiteboard, 19, The teacher makes good use of visuals and other media. 12, The teacher constantly checks to find out if stadenis have understood teaching points or benefited from activites. PART C: KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES 1. The teacher belioves that leaming English is vitally ‘mporeant for students’ future success 12. Tac teacher sees language learning as par of a larger process of promoting international contacts and interest in other coltres. 345NS 2345NS 2345S 2345NS 2345NS 2345 NS 2345 NS 2345S 2345NS 2345NS 2345NS 345.NS 3 45NS 345NS 2345S 2345NS 2345NS 234505Providing for effective teaching 238 “The teacher believes that education has a vital roe in etermining the furure nan of societies. 12345NS “The teacher is knowledgeable concerning the use of ferent vacites and styles of English in different socieies/uleures. “The teacher considers students’ cultural background 0 be of great imporance whea preparing an ELT course. 12345NS “Te teacher believes that he/she should empower seudents to become increasingly more responsible for their own progress in leaning 12345NS The feacher ie prepared to experiment and cary out lass- room research in cfer to further improve hisher teaching competence. 12345NS 3. Tae teacher makes constant efforts to maintin/develop bisther wa English communication skis. 1234588 10. “The teacher is aware of the value of professional develop iment activities and makes full use of available professional support. 1234588 “The teacher is enthusiastic about working with colleagues to raise the quality of ELT programmes. 12345 NS240 Chapter7 Appendix 6 Self-evaluation of a teacher's lesson (from Britten and O'Dwyer 1995) Date + Chass: Domain Imp=Improvable NA =Not Applicable | OK |Imp| NA [Language | 1] Were you teaching any specific language | content itera in this lesson? Iso, did you find out how many studeats | srasped the meanings? | Did enough students gerthe chance to re-use the target language items? 7 Did they use these ems to say anything meaningful? | Do they have e writen record ofthe new - learning? Sale | Were you tying to practise one specie sail | practice ora mixture? | ‘Were some tasks, or parts of tasks, appropriate for weak students and some for the borer ones? | Did they find the acdvides motivating? i 7 | Did most of te students get some practice in the target shils? Conection | ©) Did you concentrate on relevant points and void overkill in comecting mistakes? Did you at certain poin concentrate enly on the content ofthe students’ contributions and Sgnore exrrs of form? 3] Was tece a saitactory level of accuracy language practice? En0t did you locate and solve the problem? TD] Did you give ceape fer self-corection and peer correction?Providing for effective teaching 241 Dorin | [inp=Unponble Naw Nocapoiete [OK] tmp] Na Sager [11 | Didyou ey w do wo mech oreo ie? in lesson 12 | Could the activities have been better seqeoneet? : Glas] 35d you gency Kap saat of wa spoke Tenegement| | and whe ano mar caling oo? TH Didyoo make ee sone eluent ders paricpted (nor vountee? TS Ws tee as mac sent cw easier + alk? 16 [Bie dey os Engine ca oma? 77] Did you do anything t leave them with @ T Fesing of cheverent eae, | samunasse, look abead)? | | Oiier wo things you'd he | Wate you doebove | Wasteaa youdo todoberernexetime | itin planning the while ceaching the youtzachiiscass, | levon? lesson?242 Chapter? Y Lesson sructure Li Varieties of activities 1.2. Sequencing of acivites 13 Gary of taste, insmvedons 14 Viguals, reali 15 Srudents experience, knowledge, own lives (emery ‘New language ites 24 Presentation 22 Comprehension check 23 Reuse 24 Recordin notebooks Gee ‘Skills practice 31 Participation of weak smdeats 32 Teelofusk daly 33. Repetition and mechanial practice 34 Veaningfal practice 35 Sasenvto-smdent work Tone (Class management 4.1 Hands up, nominating stents speak 42° Nesvoluness 43 SadeawT names 44 Teacher alking dime (ees) st nets iapovenent 2 asicony 3 goat E eerieProviding for effective teaching 243 1]2[3]e |x Feedback ta students Sil Encouraging, praising, motivating sudents |s2 “Standard of correctness in accuracy work 33. Selfconection By students, peercorection 34 Jvoidance of comeeton during Muency work (commiinication) Gee I ois t improve before | 1. 2 next self-evaluation244 Chapter? Appendix7 Student appraisal form Example of student appraisal form, Department of English, City Univer sity of Hong Kong. Department of English: Teaching feedback questionnaire Explanation: The purpose ofthis questionnaire isto provide the nominated teccher with feedback on his/her teaching pecformance. Your feedbacks an Jmnportant element in the ongoing process of assessing and improving teach ing within te instttion. Please think carefully before making your judee- ments. Dieetions: Student comments should apply ONLY to the identified teacker and 10 hisher performance. ‘Stadt Members: Course Tides: Yer 19 Seesten, NOTE: This isa general questionnaire. Please indicate the reaching context (lecture ‘and/or torial o which your comments refer TEACHING In general, have found hat this teacher Suongly strongly disagree agree 1. bas communicated class mateialscleay. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. has been well prepared fo classes. 12-345 67 3, has organized class ime effectively. 1.234567 44 hastimulated my interestinthe subject «1-2 3 # 3 6 T ‘5, nas been responsive to student problems, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6, Having considered various aspects of the pecformancs of the nominated teaches, how would you rate the teaching overall? (Cirle one grade. Do not cirle the deseriptions.) . 1 2a 4 3 6 7 Nay poce Poor «Acceptable © Verygood ExcellentProviding for effective teaching 245 7. Which aspects ofthe teaching were most usefu!? 8, Which aspen ofthe teaching were least useful? course 9, How do you rate the content (topics, shils, et.) ofthis course? 1234567 Novoseful Very useful 10. How do you rate the course marerials (textbook, readings, et. inthis course? 1234567 Notusefal Very useful 1, Which aspects ofthe course were most useful? 12. Which espects of the course were least useful? 13, Any suggestions about how the course cpuld be improved?246 © Chapter7 Appendix 8 Peer appraisal form Example ofa peer appraisal form, Department of English, City University of Hong Kong. Department of English Peer Review ‘Report (use additional paper as required) ta ead opaasaesds Soassnsasensseceesastny fr santansABBAMIASRuasanseasomasianeeseaceeataeaes Nexile Nog <= Date: (Class Time: [Nature and goals of the lesson; —_——— 1. Aims and objectives ‘Were the aims and objectives forthe lessons clearly explained? Did the leson have a clear focus? Comments: 2. Appropriacy of materials How appropciate were the classroom activities to achieve the aimas and objec- How effectively was the content presented? ‘Was the matzral/content too much oF too litle for the lesson? Comments:Providing for effective teaching 247 3. Organization of the lesson How appropriate was the orgenization of the lesson? ‘Comments: 4, Stimulating learner interest ‘Towhat extent was the teacher able ro stimulate and sustain student interest for the duration of ie class? Comments: ‘| ‘5. Opportunities for learner participation Did the students have enough opportunities to parcipate ia the leasing Did all the stadents get enough oppormnites te participate in Comments: earning 6, Use of teaching aids “To what extent were the teaching aids (handouts, OHP, whiteboard, ete) used in the lesson effective? ‘Comments:248 Chapter7 17. Explaining difficult concepts “To what extent was the teacher able to explain difficult coneepts tthe ‘Comments: 8, Effectivencss 7 “Was the lesson effective? Why oF Why not? Comments. 9, Any other general abservations, Self-appraisal report and response (Space provided for teacher to respond.)Providing for effective teaching 249 References ‘Aleorso, C., and M. Kalantais. 1985, The learning process and being a learner in the AMEP. Repor to the committee of review of the adult migrant edu cation programm. Canberra, Austalia: Department of Immigration and Eth- nlc Affairs. Bailey, K. M, 1996, The best-laid plans: teachers’ in-class decisions to depart from their lesson plans. In K. Bailey and D. Nunan (eds. Voices from che language classroom. New York: Cambridge University Press. 15~40. Breen, M. No date, A pragmatics of language teaching: From practice to prin ciples. Unpablished manuscript Brindley, G, 1984. Needs analysis and objective setting inthe adult migrant ed- section program. Syéney: N.S.W. Adult Migrant Education Service. Briten, D., and J. O'Dwyer, 1995, Self-evaluation in in-service teacher train- ing. InP, Rea-Dickins and A. Lwaitama (eds.) Evaluation or development ix English language teacking. London: Macmillan 87~106. ‘Brown, H. D. 1996. Teaching by principles. Englewood Cliffs, Ni: Prentice Hal. CCarkin, S, 1997, Language program leadership as intercultural management. In ‘Christison and Stoller 1997. 49-60. Ctuistison, M.A., and F. Stolle (eds). 1997. A Handbook for Language Pro- ‘gram Administrators. Burlingame, CA: Alta Books. Davidson, J, and J. Tesh, 1997. Theory and practice in language program or- ‘ganization design. In Christison and Stoller 1997. 177-198, Esky, D, 1997. The TEP as a non-traditional entity In Christison and Stoller 1997.21-30. Henry, AR. 1997. The decision-maker and negotiator. In Caristison and Stoller 1997.77-90. Kells, H.R. 1988, Selfsmudy processes: A guide for postsecondary and similar “Service-oriented institutons and programs. 3d ed. New York: Macmillan. Klinghammer, $. 1997. The strategic planner. In Chrstison and Stoller 1997. 61-76. ao Leong, C., and A. Teasdale. 1998. ESL teacher competence: Professionalism in a social market. Prospect 13(1): 4-24. Lortie, D. 1975. Schoolteacher: A sociological study. Chicago: University of ‘Chicago Press. Marsh, H. L. 1994, NAFSA’: selfstudy guide: Assessment of programs and ‘services for international education exchange a1 postsecondary insti tions. Washingtin, DC: NAFSA: Association of Intemational Educators. Moris, P1994, The Hong Kong school curriculum. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Murdoch, G. 1997. What makes a good English language teache:? in TESOL “Arabia 1997 Third Intemational Conference, vol 11. Conference Pro- ‘ceedings Selected Papers, March, 96-108.250. Chapter? ‘Nina, D, 1988. The leamerentred curriculum. New York: Cambridge Uni- versity Press. Roberts, J. 1998, Language teacher education. London: Amold. Richards, J.C. 1998. Beyond eraining. New Yorks Cambridge University Press. Richards, J.C, and C. Lockhart 1996, Reflective eaching in second language classrooms, New York: Cambridge University Press. Stoller, F, 1997. The catalyst for change and innovation. In Christison and ‘Stoller 1997. 33-48. ‘TESOL. 19860. TESOL’s manual for self study. Washington, DC: TESOL. TESOL, 1986b. The TESOL core standards for language and professional ‘preparation programs, Washington, DC: TESOL. ‘Univecsity of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). 1996. Cam- Dridge integrated language teaching schemes: Cerificate in English lan- ‘guage teaching to adults. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ‘Univesity of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). 1998, Syl- Tabus and assesoment guidelines for course tutors and assessors. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press.8 The role and design of instructional materials Teaching materials are a key component in most language programs. ‘Whether the teacher uses a textbook, institutionally prepared materials, or bis or her own materials, insouctional materials generally serve sis for much of she language input lesinets Peseve and We lang tice that occurs in the classroom. Inthe case of inexperienced tears, ma- ‘eifals thay AHO SECVE Sa fou of teacher taining ~ they provide ideas on hhow toplaaand teach lessons as well as formats that teachers can use. Much of the language teaching that occurs throughout the world oday could not take place without the exteasive use of commercial materials. These may take the form of (a) printed materials such as books, workbooks, work- sheets, of readers (®) nonprint materials such as cassette or audio materi- als, videos, or computer-based materials; (c) materials that comprise both print and aonptint sources such as se access materials and materials on the Internet. in addition, materials noc designed for instructional use such as magazines, newspapers, and TV matecials may also play & ole inthe cur- sculum. ‘Conningsworth (1995, 7) suaumarizes the role of materials (particularly course books) in language teaching as + a resource for presentation materials (spoken and writen) + a source of activities for leamer practice and communicative interaction + a reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and so on + a source of stimulation and ideas for classroom activities + a syllabus (where they reflect leaming objectives that have already been determined) «+ support forless experienced teachers who have yetto gain in confidence Dedley-Evans and St.John (1998, 170-171) suggest that for teachers of ESP courses, materials serve the following functions: + as a source of language + asa learning support252 Chapters + for motivation and stimulation + for reference ESP materials may therefore seck o provide exposure tothe specialized agentes and registers of ESP, to suppor learning through simulating cog- ‘ave processes and providing a structure and progression for learers 12 follow, to motivate learners thro® 3g achievable challenges 208 “ateresng Content: and to provide f Sas. Some teachers use instructional materials as their primary teaching re- source, The materials provide the basis for the content of lessons, the bal- ance of Skills taught, and the kinds of language practice students tke part jn. In other situations, materials serve primacy 0 supplement the teacher's instruction, For leamers, materials may provide the major source of contact they bave withthe language apart from the teacher, Hence the role and ses cf materials in language program area significant aspect of language cur. fHeulum develosment In this chapter, we will examine the role, design, and tse of materials in language teaching, with particular focus on print mate- als end textbooks. Authentic versus created materials “When plans regarding the sole of materials in a language program are made, aniniual decision concer the use of authentic materials vesus created ma- terials. Authentic material refers to the use in teaching of txts photOr ‘raphe, video selections, and other teaching resources that were not SPe~ Cally prepared for pedagogical purposes. Created materials refers to texabooks and other specially developed instructional resourees. Some have argued that authentic metecials are preferred over created materials, because they contain authentic language and reflect real-world uses of language ‘compared with the contrived content of much created material. Allwright (1981, 173) thus describes « language course for foreign students ata British tniversity in which one of the guiding principles was “Use no materials, published or unpublished, actually conceived or designed as materials for Tanguage teaching Such an imperative seems to reflect very low opinion of the abilities of materials writers to create pedagogically weful language learning resources! Advantages claimed for authentic materials are Philips and Shetlesworth 1978; Clarke 1989; Peacock 1997): Thay have a postive effect on leamer motivation because they are it~ trinscally more interesting and modvating than cceated materials. There‘The role and design of instructional materials 253 isa huge supply of interesting sources for language learning in the media ‘and on the Web and these relate closely to the interests of many language learners. They provide authentic cultural information about the targetculture, Ma- terials can be selected to illustrate many aspects of the target culture, i cluding culturally based practices and beliefs and both linguistic and non- linguistic behavior They provide exposure to reat language rathet than the artificial texts found in created materials that have been specially waitten to illustrate par- ‘cular grammatical rales or discourse types. ‘They relate more closely 10 eamers’ needs and hence provide a link be- tween the classroom and students’ needs inthe real world. ‘They support a riore creative approach to teaching, Ta using authentic materials as a source for teaching actvitics, teachers can develop their full potential as teachers, developing activities and tasks that better match their teaching styles and the learning styles of their students. However, critics of the use of authentic materials point out: Created materials can also be motivating for earners. Published materi- als are often designed to look like teenage magazines and other Kinds of real- ‘world materials and may be just as intstesting and motivating for learners. “Authentic materials often contain difficult language and waneeded vo- cabulary items, which can be an unnecessary distraction for teachers and leamers. Since they have not been simplified or weit to any lexical or lin- ‘guistic guidelines, they often contain language that may be beyond the learners’ abilities. Created materials may be superior to authentic materials because they are generally built erourd a graded syllabus and hence provide a system- atie coverage of teaching items. Using authentic materials is « burden for teachers. In order to develop learning resources afound authentic mate‘als, teachers have to be prepared 10 spend a considerable amount of time locating suitable sources for mate- sls and developing aetvities and exercises to accompany the materials. Ta many language programs, teachers thus use a mixnue of created and authentic materials because both have their advantages as wells limitations. Furthermore, the distinction between authentic and created materials is be- coming increasingly blurred, because many published matecisls incorporate authentic texts and other real-world sources. Clarke (1989, 79) comments: ‘Such books [begin to} eke onthe aura, if not the actuality, of auteaticiy, containing considerable amounts of photographically reproduced ‘reali’, in the form of newspaper ances, maps, diagrams, memo pads, meaus, spplicaton254 Chapter8 forme, sdverisements, instructional leaflets and all the rest. Some books, indeed, Mmoet entirely consist of authentic material, including iustrations, extracted from newspapers, or magazines. Textbooks Commercial textbooks together with ancillaries such as workbooks, c25- sottes, and teachers’ guides aze pechaps the commonest form of teaching fuatetals in language teaching, Haines (1996,27) characterizes differences ‘otween past and current trends ia English language textbooks. Ther Now ‘author and academic centered ‘market led ‘uncertain global market specific fragmented markets European focus Pacific Rim/Latin American focus sel] what is published international or local culture Culture and methodology of origin indigenous learning simuations English for its own sake English for specific purposes ‘UKIUS publisher dominance rise in local publishing native speaker expertise nonnative speaker competence cculeurally insensitive culturally sensitive low riskicompetition ‘igh risk/competition line design design rich amtficial texts and tasks authenticity single-volume titles ‘multicomponentimultimedia ‘Textbooks are used in diffecent ways in language programs. For example, 8 reading textbook might be the basis for a course on reading skills, provid ing both a set of reading texts and exercises for skills practice, A writing textbook might provide model compositions and a listof topics for seudents to write about. A grammar textbook might serve as a reference book and provide examples as well as exercises to develop grammatical knowledge, 'A spealking text might provide passages for students to read and discuss. & listening text together with audiocassetes or CDs might serve as the pai- mary listening input ina listening course. ‘The use of commercial textbooks in teaching bas both advantages and disadvantages, depending on how they are sed and the contexts for their use, Among the principal advantages are: ‘They provide structure and a syllabus for @ program. Without textbooks a programa may have no central core and learners may notreceive a syllabus that has been systematically planned and developed.The role and design of instructional materials 255 They help standardize instruction. The wse of a textbook in program ‘can ensure thatthe students in different classes receive similar content and therefore can be tested in the same way. ‘They maintain quality. fa well-developed textbook is used, students are exposed to materials that have been tried and tested, that are based on sound leaming principles, and that are paced appropriately. They provide a variety of learning resources. Textbooks are often ac- companied by workbooks, CDs and cassettes, videos, CD-ROMs, and com- prehensive teaching guides, providing a rich and varied resource for teach- ets and leamers. ‘They are efficient. They save teachers’ time, enabling teachers to devote time to teaching rather than materials production, ‘They can provide effective language models and input. Textbooks can provide suppott for teachers whose first language is not English and who ray not be able to generate accurate language input on their own, ‘They can train teachers, If teachers have limited teaching experience, a textbook together with the teacher's manual can serve as a medium of ini tial teacher training, ‘They are visually eppeating. Commercial textbooks usually have high standards of design and production and hence are appealing to learners and teachers. As with all examples of created materials, however, there are also po- tential negative effects of commercial textbooks. For example: ‘They may contain inauthentic language. Textbooks sometimes present inauthentic language because texts, dialogues, and other aspects of coatent tend to be specially writen to incorporate teaching points and are oftea not representative of real language use. ‘They may distort content. Textbooks often present an idealized view of the woeld or fail to"represeat real issues. In order to make textbooks ac ceptable in many diferent contexts, controversial topics are avoided and in~ stead an idealized white middle-class view of the world is porsayed asthe norm. “They may not reflect students’ needs. Because textbooks are often writ- ten for global markets, they may not reflect the interests and needs of sti- dents and hence may require adaptation. “They can deskil teachers. If teachers use textbooks as the primary source oftheir teaching, leaving the textbook and teacher's manual to make the ma- jor instructioaal decisions for them, the teacher's role can become reduced to that of a technician whose primary function is to preseat materials pre- pared by others.256 Chapter & ‘They are expensive, Commercial textbooks represent a financial burden for stadents in many parts of the worl. Tn making decisions about the role of commercial textbooks in a pro- gram, the impact of textbooks on the programm, on teachers, and on learners thas to be carefully assessed. Evaluating textbooks ‘With such aa arty of commercial textbooks and other kinds ofinstuctional aterils to choose fom, teachers and others responsible for choosing ma- ‘iaats aged to be able to make informed judgments about textbooks and teaching materials. Eveluason, however, can only be done by considering Something in telation to its purpose. A book may be ideal in one situation ecause itmatches the needs ofthat situation perfectly. It has just the right cmovat of material forthe program, itis easy to teach, itcan be used with Tie preparadon by inexperienced teachers, and ithas an equal coverage of fgramiver andthe four sls The seme book ina different siuation, bow aie may tum ovt to be quite unsuitable. It contains too liule material tis Soc sufficiently challenging for eacher and stadonts, and has elements init (Goch as a grammar syllabus) thatare notneeded in the program, Before one er evaluate a textbook, therefore, information is needed on the following issues: The role of the textbook in the program wih thew a well-developed curriculum that describes the objectives sy Jabus and content of the program or will this be determined by the text ‘book? |. Will the book or textbook series provide the care of the program, or is it ‘one of several diferent books that will be used? «+ Willit be used wich small classes of large ones? + Will learners be expected to buy a workbook as well or should he text- ‘book provide all the practice students need? ‘The teachers in the program How experienced are the teachers in the program and what is their Ievel of training? «+ Are they native speakers of English? If not, how well do they speak En- lish? « Do teachers tend to follow the textbook closely or do they use the book simply as a resource?The role and design of instructional materials 257 + Do teachers play a part in selecting the books they teach from? «+ Are teachers free to adapt end supplement the book? ‘The leamers in the program + Is each student required to buy a book? + What do learners typically expect in a textbook? + Will they use the book in class and at home? + How will they use the book ia class? Ist the primary source of classroom activities? + How much are they prepared t0 pay for a book? Iris also necessary to realize that no commercial textbook will ever bea per~ fect fit for alanguage program. Two factors are involved in the development of commercial textbooks: those represeating the interests of the author, and those representing the interests of the publisher (Byrd 1995; Werner, etal 1995). The author is generally concerned to produce a text that teachers will find innovative, creative, selevantto their learners’ needs, ané that they will enjoy teaching from. The author is generally hopeful thet the book will be ‘successful and make 2 financial profit because e large investment of the au thor’s personal time and effort is involved, The publisher is primarily mot vated by financial success. However, in order to achieve a profit publishers zenerally recognize that a book must bave qualities of excellence that will istinguish it from its competitors. Ariew describes the compromises au- thors and publishers ofter have to make in order fo achieve their sometimes conflicting goals: “Avtuly innovative approach may be uafamiliar with teachers and so meet ‘bith thei resistance: it may be threatening tothe people response for text doptions, and it may create public controversy. A publisher's sucoess is Besed on the ability to satisfy the majority ofthe public; thus, the preference to aim for the mainstréam, to stelize sitations and vocabulary and arouse ii litle controversy as possible, These products of compromise may be a5 ‘boring asthe innovative materials are threatening. Falling too close to either ‘ead ofthe spectrum can bave a catastrophic impact oa a text's marketability. (Asiew 1982, 12) In an atempt to make an author's manuscript usable in as large @ market a5 possible, the publisher often has to change it substantially. Some of these Changes are necessitated by the fact that teachers with very different levels of expetience, training, and teaching skill might be using the book. Exer- ises should have explicit goals, procedures for using activities should be obvious and uncomplicated, and teachers should not have to spend much time working ovt how to use the material. In addition, content that would258 Chapteré snot be welcome in particular markets may have to be removed. As 2 conse- uence, much ofthe “favor” and creativity of the author's original mans seript may disappear. ope the same tne, the publisher will ry 1o satisfy teachers’ expectations as tp what a textbook ata certain level should contsin. For example. if 2a auoductory ESL. textbook does not include the present continuous in the East level of the book, teachers may feel that itis defective and not wish to nue it Artew describes the process of making the textbook usable in che ‘widest possible market 2s "homogenizatior Many publisher systematically delete all (or all but traional consieration 9) topics believe tobe contoversil oc taboo. This tendency has several sgniBaat ee sequeies. Besides making texts lok alike, these biases affect the weatment Sfeages cultures and may result inaccurate descriptions or charactcizations se weer becomes an ethnocentsie clone of the most conservative expression of cour own culture. (Ariew 1982, 12-13) Criteria for textbook evaluation CCanningsworth (1995) proposes four criteria for evaluating textbooks, pas ticulasly course books: 1. They should correspond to learners’ nceds. They should match the aims and objectives of the language learning program. 2. They should reflect the uses (present or Future) that leamers wall make of the language. Textbooks should be chosen that will help equip stt- (dents to use language effectively for their own purposes. 43, They should take account of students’ needs as leamers and should fs- ciliate their learning processes, without dogmatically imposing a rigid “method.” 4, They should have a clear role as a support for leaming, Like teachers, they mediate between the target language and the learner. ~ ‘Cunningsworth (1995) presents a checklist for textbook evaluation and se~ lection (see Appendix 2) organized under the following categories: + aims and approaches + design and organization + language content + skills + topic + methodology‘The tole and design of instructional materials 259 + teachers’ books + practical considerations Dudiey-Evans and St. John (1998, 173) suggest that operating with so many categories is often not very practical and it is easier to use two or three key criteria in the fist instance and then apply others if or when needed. They propose the following questions to ask when selecting ESP materials: 1, Will he materials stimulate and motivate? 2. Towhat extent does the material match the stated leaming objectives and ‘your leaming objectives? (Itis raze fora single set of published material ‘to match the exact learning needs of any one ESP leamer group, and 2c- tivities do not always meet the stated objectives.) 3, To what extent will the materials support the leaming process? “The type of evaluation a textbook receives will also reflect the concerns of the evaluator. One teacher may look at a book in tems of its usabiicy. “The teacher is primarily interested in whether the book works easily in her class, can be used flexibly, and could easily be adapted. Another teacher may look ata book much more eriticaliy in terms ofits theoretical orienta tion and approach. If itis a book that teaches conversation skills, what the cory of conversation is it based on? What kind of syllabus is it based on and Wwhat is te validity ofthe activites it makes use of? Two teachers evaluat- ing 2 writing text may likewise look ati from very different perspectives. ‘One may subseribe to a process-oriented view of writing and look for 2c tivities that practice such processes as generating ideas, drafting. reviewing, revising, and editing. Another may be more concerned to see that adequate treatment is given to different conventions for organizing éiffereat Kinds of texts, such as narrative writing, expository writing, and descriptive writing. In any language program, therefore, itis unlikely that 2 published checKiist can be used without adaptation 2s 2 basis for evaluating and choosing text- books. Based on th factors ia each situation, questions specific to that sit ‘uation need to be generated around the main issues involved in textbook evaluation and selection: + program factors ~ questions relating to concems ofthe program + teacher factors ~ questions relating to teacher concerns + leammer factors ~ questioas relating to learner conceras * content factors - questions relating to the content and organization of the riterial in the book «+ pedagogical factors ~ questions relating tothe principles underlying the materials and the pedagogical design of the materials, including choice of activites and exercise Opes280. Chapter8 Adapting textbooks Most teachers are not creator of teaching materials but providers of good Mperials. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998, 173) suggest that « good provider of materials will be able to: 1, select appropriately from what is available 2. be creative with what is available 3, modify activities to suit earners’ né 4, supplement by providing extra activities (and extra input) ‘Commercial textbooks can seldom be used without some form of 2dap~ radon to make them more suitable for the particular context in which they tvll be used. This adaptation may take a variety of foams. Modifying content. Content may need tobe changed because it does not suit the target Tearers, pechags because of factors related to the Ieamers’ ge, gender, socal class, occupation, religion or cultural background * Laing or deleting concent. The book ray costain too much or 00 Mile ore program. Whole units may have t be dropped, or pechaps sections Stunies throughout the book omitted. For example, a course may focus pri- Sparlly on stening and speaking skills and hence writing actives in the ‘book wll be omitted. “eeorganizing content. A teacher may decide to reorganize the syllabus of te book and arrange the units in what she considers @ more suitable ot. Gee Or within a unit the teacher may decide not to follow the sequence of tetivites in the unit but to reorder them for particular 22500, “Addressing omissions. The text may omit items thatthe teacher feels are Jimponane-For example ateacher may add voeabulary activites or grammar activities to a unit Modifying tasks. Exercises and activities may need tobe change 10 give them an addidonal focus. For example, 2 Uisteaing activity may focus only a listening for information, so itis adapted so that stents Listen 2 second orthid time fora different purpose. Or an activity may be extended t0 pro- ‘ide opportunites for more personalized practice. “Exonding tasks, Exercises may contain insufficient practice and addi sional practice tasks may need to be added. “The ability to be able to adapt commercial textbooks in these ways is an essential sil for teachers to develop. Through the process of adaptation the teacher personalizes the tex, making it better teaching resource, and in- dividualzesifor particular group of lamers. Normally this proces takes place gradvally 25 the teacher becomes more familiar with the book, be- Cause the dimensions ofthe text tat need adaptation may not be apparentThe role and design of instructional materials 261 until the book is tried out in the classroom. When a number of teachers in & program are teaching from the same textbook, it is useful to build in op- portunities for teachers to share information about the forms of adaptation they are making Preparing materials for a program In cases where institutionally developed materials are being considered for ‘ language program, both the advantages and the disadvantages of setting up a materials development project need to be carefully considered at the outset. : Advantages “Advantages of building a materials development componentinto a program include: ‘Relevance: Mateials can be produced that are directly relevant to,s01- dents’ and institutional needs and thatreflect local content issues, and coa- cers. Develop expertise: Developing materials can help develop expertise among siaff, giving them a greater understanding of the characieristics of effective materials. ‘Reputation: Instutionlly developed materials may enbance the reputa- tion ofthe instiution by demonstrating its commitment to providing mate- rials developed specitically for its smadents. Flexibiliy: Materials produced within the institution can be revised or adapted as needed, giving them greater flexibility than a commercial course book. Disadvantages Disadvantages also need to be considered before embarking on materials development. 7 Cost: Quality materials take time wo produce and adequate staff time as ‘well as resources need to be allocated to such a project. ‘Qualiry: Teacher-made materials will nt normally have the same stan- dard of desiga and production as commercial materials ané hence may not present the sare image as commercial materials. raining: To prepare teachers for materials writing projects, adequate training should be provided. Materials waiting is a specialized skill and po-262 Chapter 8 ‘entiol materials writers need the opportunity to develop the necessary ‘Gulls, Workshops can be developed for this purpose, as well asthe creation of writing teams that contain a balance of relevant expertise. * The nature of materials development Is also important to understand the nature of materials development and the processes that are typically involved if quality materials re o be cre- sted, Dudley-Evans and St. Jobn (1998, 173) observe that “only a small pro- portion of good teachers ae also good designers of course materials.” Many Teachers underestimate how commercial teaching materials are developed land the developmental processes that are norally involved. Preparing ef- Fective teaching materials is similar to the processes involved in planning ‘and teaching a lesson. The goal is to create materials that can serve as re ‘sources for effective learning, The writer starts with a learning goal in mind tnd then geeks to create a set of activities that enable that goal tabe reached. ‘Sholman’s (1987, 15) description of the central acts of teaching also epply to the processes of materials development, He sees tas « process of ans- formation: “The key o understanding the knowledge base of teaching lies athe intersection ot content and pedagogy, inthe eapecity of a teacher to transforma the content knowledge he or she possesses into formas that are pedagosically powerful and Det adaptive to che variations in ability and background presented by students ‘Shulman goes on to describe the transformation phase of this process as ‘consisting of: «+ preparation: ectical interpretation and analysis of texts, steturing and ‘segmentation, development ofa curricular repertoire, and clarification of purposes «+ repreceniatian: use of a representational repertoire that includes analo~ ‘Bes, metaphors, examples, demonstrations, explanations, ané so forth «+ selection: choice from among an instructional repectoire that includes modes of teaching, organizing, managing, and arrenging «+ adapting and tailoring to student characteristics: consideration of con- ceptions, preconceptions, misconceptions, and difficulties; language, cul~ fre, and motivations; and social class, gendes, age, ability, aptitude, in- terest self-concepts, attention In both materials development and classroom teaching the goals o develop a sequence of activities that leads teachers and learners through a learning Toute that is at an appropriate level of difficulty, is engeging, that provides‘The role and design of instructional materials 263 ‘both motivating and useful practice. Good materials do many of the things that a teacher would normally dos part of his or her teaching. They should: + arouse the learners’ interest + remind them of earlier learning, + tell them what they will be learning next + explain new leaming content to them «+ relate these ideas to learners’ previous learning + get learners to think about new content + help them get feedback on their leaming + encourage them to practice + make sure they know what they are supposed to be doing + enable them to check their progress + help them to do better (Rowntree 1997, 92) ‘Tomlinson (1998) suggests that good language teaching materials have the following characteristics: Materials should achieve impact. Materials should help learners feel at ease. Materials should belp learners to develop confidence. ‘What s being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and use- fal ‘Materials should require and facilitate leamer self-investment. ‘Leamars mast be ready to acquire the points being taught. Matecials should expose the learners to language in authentic use. ‘The learners’ attention should be drawa to linguistic features of the input. ‘Matecials should provide the learners with opportunities co use the target Ianguage to achieve communicative purposes. + Matecials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually delayed. + Materials should take into account that leamers have different learning. styles. 5 + Materials should take into account that leamers differ in affective att tudes. “Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction. ‘Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging intellee- tual aesthetic, and emotional involversent that stimulates both right anc left brain activities. Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice. Materials should provide opporvanities for outcome feedback.264 Chapter® _This ay seem a somewhat cumbersome listo apply in actual practice, ANY canny cf teaching mata wil ave to develop his or he own sof ens principles that caa be ceferred to in planning and assesing ak” warning Sy are writen. For example, I used the following checklist in > vat nga et of loyleve peaking materials, The Uist identifies te quale ties each unit in the materials should reflect: «Gives learners something they can take away from the lesson 1 Teaches something learners feel they can use 2 Gives leamers a sense of achievernent 1 practices learning items in 2n interesting and novel ay 2 provides a pleasurable earning experience 1 Provides opportunities for success 1 provides opportunites for individoal practice 1 Provides opporcanities for personalization 1 provides opportunities for sefassessmnent of learning ‘Each draft of the mateils was then examined to assess the extent to WhiCs © th piniples were elected, Achieving these gous through the design of {Rese Pi onal materials depends onthe at experience, sks and raft of the matezials developer. Decisions in materials design tn Chapters 5 and 6, the following processes of program design and mate, als design were discussed: + developing aims «+ developing objectives + developing a syllabus + organizing the course iato units + developing a structure for units + sequencing units - ‘when the proces of waiting begins, futher decisions need to be made, ‘These concer: + choosing input and sources «+ selecting exercise types cHoosing INPUT AND SOURCES spatter what type of materials are being prepared decisions concerning inputaze involved. nputrefersto anything tat nitates th learning ProeessThe role and design of instructional materials 265 and that students respond to in some way in using the materials, The fol- lowing are examples of ingut questions in the design of different kinds of matecils: (Grammar materials: Will the new grammar items be presented through the medium of texts, conversational extracts, ora corpus of ucteraaces? How will these be selected? ‘Listening materials: Willthe source of lstenings be authentic recordigs taken from real-world sources, scripted materials on different topes, or 2 mixture of both? “Reading materials: What kinds of texts will students read (such 2s mag azine articles, newspaper articles, extracts from books), and how will these bbe chosen? Writing materials: Wil students be shown exazples of different types of compositions? Will these be examples of real texts or will hey be specially writen? Will exemples of student waiting also be included? If so, how will: these be chosea? For example, Raimes (1988) sees the primary texts in a ‘writing course as: the students’ texts: that i, the writing students do the teacher's texts: that i, the comments teachers write on their papers “ther euthentc ters: supplementary readings for writing stimulus ané close analysis ‘Speaking materials: What wil the source of speaking activities be? Wil dialogues, recordings, texts, topics, pictures, situations, and so oa be used, and how will these be selected? ‘Often writers star with resources taken from magazines, books, the In- temet, television, or radio. (A large amount of material is available on the ‘World Wide Web, including articles, photographs, audio and video materi- als, and much of itcan be used free) Its important, however, to realize that ‘many ofthe sources for teaching materials that exist in the ceal world have ‘been created by someone and that copyright permission may be required in order touse itas a source of teaching materials in an institution or textbook, ‘even if they are adapted or modified in some way, Its normally not possi- ble, for example, to use the following without permission from the copy- right holder: + segments taken from commercially broadcast materials (radio, video, mu- sical recordings) + magazine arcles, newspaper articles, chapters from books However, if materials aze being used for legitimate educational parposes and not being sold to make a profit itis often possible to obtain permission266 Chapter 8 withoot payment of afc. A ltr is writen roche Copa holder (suc sa publisher) outlining the wish to use the ‘materials and describing how thoy wl be used and in what quanties. Roventcts 1997) SELECTING EXEACISE TYPES One of the most dificult decisions in writing is deciding one 9S ofex: oe epee wl be use. Tae issue is how to create exercises TE reise Sin de use of sks and procesoes related to specific WOE teach- reg objeesives. A review ofthe exercise types used i ONE commercial in aia good sarng pint In Richart (1990), for she exercise type elated to different types of listening Sls are presented as follows: ‘Beercises that develop “top-down” listening aarrren wo part of a conversation and infer the topic of 8 conversation. | Era plonuzes and then listen to conversations about the pictures and match thera with the pictures. 1 Tisen to conversations and identify the seting. : List at Key pont te covered in talk an then suber eS sequence while listening to the tak. UEP nation about atopic, then iste to ataikon te FOE and check Svhether the information was mentioned oF NOt «Rend one side of a teleghore conversation and guess ‘He speaer’s 3e- sponses: then listen tothe conversation, « Pipa at pictures of people speaking and guess whet they might be saying fe doing; then listen to their actual conversations «= Conplet a sor, ten Baten to ow the sory really onde 1 Guece what news headlines might refer to, then listen t nevS broadcasts about the events refecred t0. -Exereses that ivotve listening for interactional purposes + Distinguish becween conversations that have an ‘joteractional and a trans- actional purpose. « [igwa to conversations and select suitable polite comment ‘and other phatie responses. cw errances containing complements or prise and choose Si able responses. _ DHesesPOTDqversations containing small talc and iadicste when the speaker is preparing to introduce a real topic. « Poeun to conversations and rte them according tothe degree of famnil- iarity of the speakers.‘The role and design of instructional materiais 267 «+ Listen to conversations and check whether the speaker is issuing areal in- ‘Vitation or using a pseudoinvitation to close a conversation. Grellet (1981) contains an extensive taxonomy of exercises for teaching reading skills. Under the category “understanding meaning,” she illustrates exercises of the following types: Involving a nonlinguistic response to the text + ordering a sequence of pictures + comparing texts and pictures + matching + sing illustrations + completing a document + mapping it out + using the information in a text «= jigsaw reading Involving a linguistic response to the text + reorganizing the information: reordering events «+ reorganizing the information: using grids + comparing several texts + completing a document + question types + study skills: suramarizing + stady sills: note taking Crandall (1995) gives further useful suggestions for the design of exer- cises in reading materials (see Appendix 1). Candlin (1981) contains an ex- reise typology forthe desiga of communicative exercises. Reviewing pub- {ished materials for information ofthis Kind is a good way to geta sense of the range of possible exercise types that can be used in materials. Managing a materials writing project “Matesals writing projects are of different scope and dimensions. Some may te the responsibilty ofan individual teacher, others may be assigned to a Clam of wmters, The management ofa team-based writing project involves addressing the following isves: ‘Selecting the project tear: How masy people will ake part inthe pro} ect and what will their roles and responsibilities be? In a small in-bouse project there may be two or tree writer sharing responsibilities for all s+288 Chapter 8 pects ofthe project. Ina large scale project, however the following People might be involved: « project director: responsible for overall management of the project, for rering goals and ensuring that targets are met, and for Lissing with al parties involved «= byrizers: those responsible for writing all components of the course 1 hedia specialist: a person who caa help with such aspects as use of au- sual materials and computer software «= calor: a person who reviews everything the waiters have produced and ‘prepares the final version of the materials for publication or duplication « Gluerator: someone responsible for preparing and selecting art and ilk Iustrations «+ designer: the person whois responsible forthe layout, type style, eraph- es, and the overall format of the materials Plonning the number of stages involved: A materials project always goes trough several diferent stages of development. Typical stages might in- clude: + first draft + comments on first draft + second draft further comments tuyout of the materials «+ Snel revisions of materials “These processes are not necessarily Linear. Carey and Briggs (1977, 286) comment: "Many activities occur simultaneously, and one often works one ‘artof a product through a phase of design nd then cycles back and begins the same phase again with another part of the product.” THdentfying reviewers: A crucial source of input (0 the developmental process is erical feedback on materials as they aré written, A Key person Fesomeone who can cast a critical eye over the materials as they are drafted ‘and provide constructive feedback on thea. People involved ina materials ‘writing profect should be open to feedback and suggestions and be prepared to undertake extensive revisions of materials if necessary. Things that seer perfectly obvious tothe writer may aot suike another person in the same ‘vay, In commercial projects this ole is undertaken by editors and review- ters, In institutional projects, this responsibility needs to be assigned to a member ofthe project teamn. It is also useful 10 involve the participation of Claseroom teachers in the process to review materials as they are written, Focus groups can also be set up consisting of five or six experienced teach‘The role and design of instructional materials 269 cers who meet to discuss materials in progress and give suggestions for im- proving them. Planning the writing schedule: A vriting schedule can now be developed swith dates assigned for the different stages inthe process. Even though as~ pects of the writing process are often cyclical, as noted, for practical plan- Fing purposes the different stages inthe writing process need to be tepre- sented withia a tentative time frame. "Piloting the materials: Piloting involves trying out materials with a zep- resentative group of learners and teachers before they are made available for wider use in order to identify problems or faults in them that can be iden- tified before they are used more widely, Piloting seeks to find answers (© {question such as these: «+ Are the materials comprehensible and the instructions clear? + Do they contain any editorial or content errors? * Is the pecing of the materials appropriate? + Do the materials do what they are supposed to do? + Do they address learners’ needs? + Is there sufficient quantity of practice material? + Are the materials sufficiently interesting and engaging? Davison (1998, 184) comments: {In genera piling provides a feel for whether ce material actually “works” ot coe wether the alms ofthe material are flflled; whether itis appropdate ia Tovel content, and approach: whether it relates well to teachers’ expectations dad stages of évelepenent, and whesber i successfully promotes leering, “The intention isto have a group of teachers and students work through the materials in conditions as close as possible to those under which the final ‘version of the materials will be used. However, itis often not possible to pi- Tot materials in a near-final form, because art and design may await fnal- jeation of the manuscript. practical solution is tohave sections ofthe ma- terials piloted by different teachers rather than have a few teachers ry out sllof the materials. This can speed up the piloting process and enable more ‘eachers to participate. Following the piloting, both soudents and teachers Complete a review sheet or questionnaire and may also be interviewed to find our what they think about the materials. Any problems identified can be addressed at this stage. Ia some cases, tis may involve a substantial rewriting ofthe materials "Design and production: Design issues refer tothe layout of text and art oneach page. An effective design isa major factor inthe reception and us- Silty of materials. Will art and illustrations be added tothe manuseriptand270 Chapter ‘who will be responsible for these? Production issues relate to the priating of the materials. Will the materials be printed from the writers’ files, eset, ‘photocopied, laser printed, or sent to a commercial printer? “An example of how some of these issues were addressed in a materials development project is given in Appendix 3. Monitoring the use of materials [No matter what form of materials teachers make use of, whether they teach, from textbooks, institutional materials, ot teacher-prepared materials, the ‘materials represent plans for teaching. They do not represent the process of teaching itself. As teachers use materials they adapt and transform them t0 suit the needs of particular groups of learners and their own teaching styles. ‘These processes of transformation are at the heart of teaching and enable ‘good teachers to create effective lessons out of the resources they make use (of Icis useful, therefore, to collect information on bow teachers use course books and other teaching materials in their teaching. The information col- lected can serve the following purposes: + to document effective ways of using materials + to provide feedback on how materials work «to keep a record of additions, deletions, and supplementary materials teachers may have used with the materials + to assis othe teachers in using the materials Monitoring may take the following forms: + Observation: classroom visits to see how teachers use materials and to find out how matecals influence the quality of teaching and interaction that occurs ina lesson «+ Feedback sessions: group meetings in which teat discus their expe- Hence with materials : «+ Writen reports: the use ofreflection sheets or other formsof writen feed- back which teachers make bref notes about what worked welland what did not wotk wel, o give suggestions on using the materials «Reviews: written reviews by a teecher or group of teachers on their expe~ ences with aetof materials and what they liked or disliked about them + Students reviews: comments from students on their experience with the materials Having considered the different processes and elements that constinte the development and implementation of a language curriculum and the‘The sole and design of instructional materials 274 Approaches to evaluation 287 + the syllabus and program content: for example, now felevant and enges- ing twas, how easy or etuls, how successful ests and assessment pro cedures were + classroom processes to provide insights shout the extent o which apro- gram is being implemented appropriately «materials of instruction: to provice insights about whether specific me- terials are aiding student lean « the teachers: for example, how they conducte thelr teaching, what their perceptions were of te program, whet they taught + foacher taining: to astess whether tsining teachers have received is ad- equate «+ the students: focexammple, whet they leamed ftom the program, their pet~ ception oft, and how they participated ini «+ monitoring of pupil progres: to conduct formative (in-progress)evalus- tions of student learning + leamer motivation: to provide iasighs abou te efeciveness of teach- cnn aiding students to achieve goals and objective ofthe sebool « the institution: for exerape, what administrative suppor was provided, “what resources were used, wharcommonicarion networks were employed « Teaming environment: to provide insights about the exent to wich st- dents are provided with a responsive environment in terms of thei edo- cational needs «staf davelopment: to provide insights about the extent to which the school System provides the staff opportunities to increase thei effectiveress « davision making? to prove insights sbout how well the sehcal st — rincipats, teachers, and others ~ make decisions that eave in learer benefis (Sanders 1992; Weir and Roberts 1994) Since the 1960s, curriculum evaluation has become oF increasing interest to educators and curriculum planners. Funding for national curriculum proj- fens in many pars of the world was often linked toa requirement to provide valuation reports thst demonstrated accountability, that helped guide im- provement of ongoing projects, and that documented what happened in eur- Heulum projects. Increasingly since then, schools, program administrators, fad teachers have had to be accountable forthe funds they received or for the programs they have been responsible for, and this has created the need for an understanding of the nature of curriculum evaluation, The scope of evaluation has moved from a concera with fest results tothe need co collect {information and make judgments about all espects of the curriculum, from planning to implemeniation (Hewings and Dudiey-Evans 1996).288 Chapter9 Purposes of evaluation “Weir and Roberts (1994) distinguish between two major purposes for Fan guage program evaluation, program accountability, and program develop- meat. Accountability refers to the extent to which those involved in a pro- iam are answerable forthe quality oftheir work. Accountablity-oriented evaluation usually examines the effects of a program or project at signifi ‘cant end points of an educational cycle and is usually conducted for the ben- fit of an external audience or decision maker. Development-oriented eval tation, by contrast, is designed to improve the quality of @ program as itis being implemented. It may involve staff who are involved in the program as well as others who are not and may have a teacher-development focus (Weir and Roberts 1994, 5). The different purposes for evaluation are re ferred to as formative, illuminative, and sunvmarive evaluation. Formative evaluation Evaluation may be cazried oot as part of the process of program develop- rent inorder to find out what is working wel, and what is not and what problems need to be addressed. This type of evaluation is genesally known, 2s formative evaluation. Te focuses on ongoing development and improve- Inent ofthe program. Typical questions that relate to formative evaluation + las enough time been spent on particular objectives? 1 Have the placement tests paced students at the right eve in the program? + How wel isthe textbook being received? . + Is the methodology teachers ae using appropriate? + Are teachers or students having dificulties with any aspect ofthe course? + Are students enjoying the program? If not, what can be done to improve their motivation? ~ + Are students getting sufficient practice work? Should the workload be in- creased or decreased? + Ts the pacing ofthe material adequate? Information collected during formative evaluationis used to address prob- lems that have beea identified and to improve the detivery ofthe program. Example’: During the implementation of a new primary course in an EFL ‘context itis found that rather than using the task-oriented communicative ‘methodology that provides the framework for the course, ¢ umber of teachers are resorting to 2 teachec-dominated drill and practice mode ofApproaches to evaluation 289 teaching that is not in harmony with the course philosophy. In order to ad- dtess this problem a series of Sanurday moming workshops are held to iden tify the kinds of problems teachers are having with the materials. Videos are used to mode! more appropriate teaching strategies and teachers agree to at- tempt to implement in their classrooms some of the techniques they have seen demonstrated and to report back on their experiences at subsequent ‘workshops. Example 2: A few weeks after @ course on integrated skis has started itis found tha there aze different perceptions of what the priorities in the course ae, Teachers are spending very different amounts of time on different com ponents ofthe course and are empbasizing different things. seres ofmeet- Jags are held to review teachers’ understanding of the course objectives and to further clarify the weighting that should be given to different course components. Peer observation is then suggested as a way for teachers to compare teaching styles and priorities and to enable them to achieve acon- sensus conceming teaching pracees. Example 3: A 10-week course on conversation skills has been stared for 2 group of low-level learners, Pronunciation is not a major element of the course because it is assumed that most pronunciation problems will sort themselves out after a few weeks. However, four weeks after the course has ‘commenced, teachers repozt that a number of students have persistent and ‘major pronunciation problems that the course is not addressing. [cis decided to refocus one section of the course to include a pronunciation component. Individual diagnostic sessions are held with students who have the most se~ sous pronunciation problems, and laboratory works wellas classroom dime js alloued to systematic pronunciation work for the remainder of the course. Nluminative evaluation “Another type of evaluation can be described as illuminative evaluation. This refers to evaluation that seeks to fiad oat how different aspects of the pro- ‘gram work or are being implemented. It secks to provide a deeper undez- Standing of the processes of teaching and learning that occur in the program, ‘without necessarily seeking to change the course in aay way as a result, Questions that might be asked within this framework are: + How do students carry out group-work tasks? Do all students participate equally in them? «What type of error-comrection strategies do teachers use?280 Chapter 9 + What kinds of decisions do teachers employ while teaching? + How do teachers use lesson plans when teaching? 2 What type of teacher-suudent interaction pattems typically occur in classes? + What reading strategies do students use with different kinds of texts? * How do students understand the teacher's intentions during a lesson? + Which students in a class are most or least active? ‘Example 1: A teacher is teaching 2 course on reading skills and has devel- ‘oped 2 course which focuses on a wide variety of reading skills, such as skimming, scanning, reading for details, surveying & tex, ertcal reading, fand vocabulary development. All ofthe skill receive regular focus through curthe couse. The teacher is interested in finding out what te students per teive to be the main point ofthe course. Students complete a short ques- tionnaire at dffereat times during the course in order to describe their perceptions of what the course is secking to achieve. At times there is adi ferent pereeption on the part of students a tothe purpose of different ac- tivities, or even of whole lessons. After reflecting on this phenomenon, the teaches comes to understand that leamers’ perceptions of a course may re- fect whet they ace most interested in or whet they feel they need most help with ata particular point in time. ‘Example 2: A teacher is interested in learning more about teacher~soudent interaction in her owm classroom. She invites a colleagus to visit her class ‘and to carry out a series of classroom observations. The observer is given the task of noting how often the teacher interacts with different students in the class and the kind of interaction that ovcurs. This involves noting the ‘Kinds of questions the teacher asks and the extent to which she acknowl edges and follows up on students’ questions. From the data collected by the observer, the teacher is able to assess the extent to which she or the students ‘control classroom interaction and gets a better understanding of,how she uses questions to “scaffold” lesson content. Example 3: A teacher wents to find out more about how students carry out ‘group work and whether he is sufficiently preparing students for group- ‘work tasks. He arranges to record different groups of students carrying out ‘a group-work task and reviews the recordings to find out the extent to which students participate in group discussions and the kind of language they use. ‘On reviewing the recordings, the teacher is pleased to note tha the strategy of assigning each member of a group a different role ducing group tasks ~Approaches to evaluation 291 such as coordinator, language monitor, or summarizes ~ is proving effective jn ensuring that group members participate actively in tasks. Much classroom action reseaich or teacher inquiry can be regarded as 2 ‘ype of lluminative evaluation. Block (1998) discusses the imporance of| this type of evaluation in understanding leamers’inerpretations ofthe lan- {guage courses they atend and how learners make sense of thei lessons. He suggests that teachers interview leamers regularly to find out how they terpret whet is going on in a course. Rickards and Lockhart (1994) describe a piece of classroom setion research ofthis kind carried out by two primary school teschers who sought to understand the following questions about their classes: + What learning stuategies were used by successful lamers in ther classes? + Do the lamers use English ouside ofthe classroom? + Do they feel good about earning English? “The teachers collected information on two leamers over aterm, using cass- 00m observation, learner jourals, end interviews. They found thatthe suc- cessful learners had identified a number of helpful leaming strategies that they applied indifferent ways; for exemple, in helping to remember things they had studied, the children gave these examples: It is easy to remember witea you listen, To it over and over again. T practice with friends and family. I stick sentences on my wall in my room. spend lots of ime going over with my book because [ike it and Learn. I ‘would still study it if my teacher dida’t see it or mark it. ‘From their classroom research the teachers concluded: Even though we did't leam anything particularly surprising from our investigation, it was useful to confirm and make explicit some things which ‘we knew inalively. We have eared 2 useful strategy to use in order to more cffectivaly facilitate our stadent' learning. The strategy involves asking the following questions: How cid you go about doing this? Which way of doing this wocks best for you? ‘Summative evaluation A third approach to evaluation is che type of evaluation with which most teachers and program administrators are familiar and which secks to make292 Chapter 9 decisions about the worth or value of different aspects of the curriculum. ‘This is known as summative evaluation, Summative evaluation is concerned vith determining the effectiveness of a program, its efficiency, and to some Setont with its acceptability. It takes place after a program has been imple- mented and seeks to answer questions such as these: + How effective was the course? Did it achieve its aims? + What did the students learn? How well was the course received by students and teachers? Did the materials work well? “Were the objectives adequate or do they need to be revised? + Were the placement and achievement tests adequate? 1 Was the amount of time spent on each unit sufficient? + How appropriate were the teaching methods? 1 What problems were encountered during the course? In order to decide if a course is effective, criteria for effectiveness need to be identified. There are many different measures of a course's effective ness and each measure can be used for different porposes. For example: "Mastery of objectives: One way of measuring the effectiveness of a ‘course is to ask “How far have the objectives been achieved?” Each objec tive in the course is exarnined aad criteria for successful achievement of teach objective are chosen. In a course on speaking skills, for example, an objective mightbe: In group discussions srudents will listen to and respond to the opinians of others in their group. The extent to which the students hhave mastered this objective at the end of the course can be assessed by the teacher's observing students during group discussions and recording on @ scale the extent to which they listen and respond to opinions. If students” pesformance on this objective is poor, reasoas would have tobe identified. Perhaps, for example, insufficient opportunities were provided in the course for students to practice this task, perhaps the materials relating t this ob- jective were too difficut or not sufficiently interesting. However, mastery of objectives does not provide a full picture of the ef- fectiveness ofa course, Objectives can be achieved despite defectsin course. ‘Students may have realized that che teaching or materials were poor oF in- Sufficient and so speat alot of extra time in private smdy to compensate for it Or perhaps mastery of an objective was achieved but the seme objective ‘could have been covered in half the amount of time devoted to it, Or the pro- ‘grammighthave achieved ts objectives but students have a very negative per- ception of it because it was not stimulating or the pacing was inappropriate "Performance on tests: Apart from the relatively informal way of assess- ing mastery of objectives, formal tests are probably the commonest meansApproaches to evaluation 293 used to measure achievement. Such tests night be unittess given a the end of each unit of teaching material, clas tests or quizzes devised by teach ets and administered at various stages throughout the course, of as formal exit tests designed co measure the extent to which objectives have been achieved, Weir (1995) points out that achievement tests can have an impor- tant washback effect on teaching and learning, They can help in the making of decisions about needed changes to a program, such as which objectives need more atention or revision. Brindley (1989) reports, however, thai programs he studied ia Australia, eachers preferred to rely on informal methods of ongoing assesement rather than formal exit tests. About the use of informal methods, he coments “This does not seem tobe shfficiently explicit co meet the expectations and requirements of either administrators or learners for more formal information on lamers’ achievement of a course ora unit... The informal methods of ongoing ‘assessment provided by teachers do not provide the kind of explicit information ‘on achievernent required by learners and adminisuators. (Brindley 1989, 43) “Weir (1995) argues for the need for beter measures of summative evalua- tion and for the development of progress-sensitive performance tests for use uring courses. “Measures of acceptability: A course might lead to satisfactory achieve- _ment of its objectives and good levels of performance on exit tests yet sill be rated negatively by teachers or students. Altematively, if everyone liked 2 ‘course and spoce enthusiastically of i, could this be more important than the fact that half te students failed to reach the objectives? Acceptability an be determined by assessments of teachers and students. Reasons for a course being considered acceptable or unacceptable might relate te such factors as time-tabling, class siz, choice of materials, or teachers’ teaching styles. ‘Retention rate or reénrollment rate: A measure of a course's eifective- ness that may be important from an instiation’s point of view isthe extent to which stidents continue inthe course throughout ts duration and the per- centage of students who reenroll for another course atthe end. I there is a ‘significant dropout rate, is this tue of other courses in the institution and the community or isi a factor ofa given course only? “Efficiency of the course: Another measure of the success of a course is how straightforward the course was to develop and implement. This may be a reflection ofthe number of problems that occurred daring the course, the time spent on planning and course development, the need for specialized ‘materials and teacher training, and the amount of time needed for consulta- tions and meetings.294 Chapter 9 Examples of different approaches to determine program effectiveness are given in the appendix. Issues in program evaluation Weir and Roberts (1994, 42) propose abroad view of evaluation thats char- acterized by: «a need for both insider and outsider commitment and invelvertent to en- sure adequate evaluation + a central interest in improvement, a5 well as the demonstration of the “product value” of a program or project or their components «+ an associated commitment to a deeper professional understanding of the processes of educational change, as well asthe results ofthat change « systematic documentation for evaluation purposes both during imple~ ‘mentation and atthe beginning and end of a program or project's life «+ a willingness to embrace both qualitative and quanditative methodology appropriate to the purpose of the evaluation and the context under review ‘These principles raise the following issues in the evaluation process. The audience for evaluation ‘There are many different levels of involvement ia language teaching pro- ‘grams and this creates different kinds of audiences for evaluation. In plan~ hing an evaluation itis important to ideatify who the different audiences aze land what kind of information they are most interested in (Elley 1989). For ‘example, in developing a new textbook series for public schools funded by the minisuy of education, officers in the ministry (who might not be spe- cialists in language teaching) might be primarily interested in how the ‘money provided forthe projects speat and whether all components of the project (student books, teacher guides, and workbook) are available is Schools by aspecifie date. Teachers teaching che materials might be prima- rly concemed thatthe books provide sufficient matecal forall the classes on te school timetable. An outside consultant mightbe interested the de- sign of the matecials and the kind of classroom interaction and language practice they provide for. Vocetiona traning centers might be interested in ‘Whether the course prepares schoo leavers for vocational taining programs conducted in English, Therefore, evaluation fas to satisfy all interested paz ties. Questions diferent audiences might be inteested in areApproaches to evaluation 295 Studenis ‘What did T learn? How well did I do compare to others? ‘How well will Irate this course? How will this help me in the furure? Do I need another course? Teachers How well did I teach? ‘What did my students learn? ‘Were my students satisfied with the course? How useful were the materials and course work? How effective was the course organization? Curriculum developers Is the design of the course ard materials appropriate? ‘What aspects of the course need replacing or revising? Do teachers and students respond favorably to the course? Do teachers need additional support withthe course? Administrators “Was the time frame of the course approprite? ‘Were the management and monitoring ofthe course successful in identify- ing and recdfying problems? Were clients’ expectations met? ‘Were testing and assessment procedures adequate? ‘Were resources made use of? Sponsors Was the cost of the course justified? Did the course deliver what was promised? ‘Was the course well managed? Is the reporting of the course adequate? ‘Shaw and Dowsett (1986, 66) suggest that three audiences are identifi able for all summative evaluation of language courses: + otier teackers in the program, for course design and planning purposes (che main audience) + managers of the institution or program, for the purpose of determining ‘course offerings and placement «+ the curriculums support or development unit, forthe purpose of monitor- ing the curriculum296 Chapter 9 Inplanning an evaluation, these different kinds of audiencesneed to be care fully identified and the results of the evaluation presented in 2 way that is appropriate for each audience. Participants in the evaluation process “twotypes of participants are typically involved in evaluation ~insiders and outsiders. Insiders refers to teachers, students, and anyone else closely in- ‘Yolved in the development and implementation of the program. Formative evaluation, for example, is often carvied out by teachers who can monitor ‘a course as it develops to check the extent to which itis working, what dif- fioulties are encountered, how effective the materials ae, and what modi- fications would ensure the smooth running ofthe program. Students art of- ten key participants in the summative evaluation of the program, providing evidence of their gains in language proficiency and completing evaluations ‘on the way the program was taught and the relevance of what they have Jearned to their needs, An important factor in successful program evalua tions is often the involvement of key insiders in the process of designing ‘and carrying out the evaluation, because as a consequence, they will have fa greater degree of commitment to acting on its results. Outsiders are others who are not involved in the program and who may be asked to give fan objective view of aspects of the program. They may be consultants, inspectors, or administrators whose job itis to supplement the teachers" perceptions of what happened in a course with independest observation and opinion, Quantitative and qualitative evaluation Quantitative measurement refers to the measurement of something that can. be expressed numerically. Many tests are designed to collect information that can be readily counted and presented in terms of frequencies, rankings, cor percentages. Other sources of quantitative information are checklists, surveys, and sef-ratings. Quantitative data seek to collect information froma ‘a large number of people on specific topics and can generally be analyzed statistically so that certain pattems and tendencies emerge. The information collected can be analyzed fairly simply because subjective decisions are not usually involved. Traditionally, quantitative data are regarded as “rig- orous” or conforming to scientific principles of data collection, though the limitations of quantitative information are also recognized, hence the need to complement such information with qualitative information.Approaches to evaluation 297 Qualitative measurement refers to measurement of something chat cannot be expressed numerically and that depends more on subjective judgment or observation. Information obiained from classroom observation, interviews, journals, logs, and case studies is generally qualitative. Qualitative ap- proaches are more holistic and naturalistic than quantitative epproeches and ‘seek to collect information in natural setings for language use and on au thentic tasks rather than in test situations. They are normally more ex- ploratory and seek to collect @ large amount of information from a fairly ‘small number of cases. The information obtained is more difficuleto analyze because itis often open-ended and must be coded or intespreted. Qualitative data are sometimes regarded as “soft” or les rigorous than quantitative data, but such information is essential in meny stages of program evaluation. Tn lenguage program evaluation both quantitative and qualitative ap- proaches to collecting information are needed, because they serve different purposes and can be used to complement each other. For example, in as- sessing students” achievement at the end of a course on spoken English, the following procedures might be used: + performance on an oral proficiency test (quantitative) + observation of students’ performance on classroom tasks with evaluation using a holistic rating scale (qualitative) «+ students” self-assessment of improvement in their speaking skills (quali- tative) The importance of documentation ‘The more documentation that is available about a course, the easier itis t© arzive at decisions about it, Relevant documentation includes: ‘Course statistics: information on why students chose the course, stadeat numbers, attendance, class size, drop outs, use of facilities such as library or self-aceess center. This kind of information provides an overview of the nature of the course and its mode of operation and may reveal certain pat terns or problems. "Relevant course documents: corapilation of all relevant documentation about the course, such as descriptions, publicity matecils, statements of aims, objectives and sjllabus, course materials, teaching guides, newslet- ters, newspaper articles, repors of planning meetings. ‘Course work: examples of test, class assignments, examples of stu- eats’ work. Written comments: anything that has beea written about the course by external assessors, teachers, leamers, managers.288 Chapter 9 Institutional documents: anything thats available about the school orin~ stitution, hing policy, job descriptions, needs analyses that have been con- ducted, reports of previous courses. ‘Course reviews: a written account of a course, prepared by the teacher cor teachers who taught the course. This shouldbe botb descriptive and re- fective. I should be an account of how the course progressed, what prob- lems occurred, te perceived swengtns and weaknesses ofthe course, and suggestions for the future, A well-wsiten review isa useful resource for ‘thers who wil teach the course and also provides a record of the course. ‘Weir and Roberts (1994, 12) comment: “One shudders to think how many times the wheel has been reinvented in ELT programs and projects around the world. Whereis the collective memory of decades of projests? Where ddoes one goto learn from the mistakes and successes. of sila projects in the past?” Implementation ‘The purpose of evaluation is to promote review, reflection, and revision of the curriculum based on careful compilation of information from 2 variety of different sources. In ordes to make decisions based on the evaluation, it js first necessary to review the process of evaluation to ensure thatthe eval- uation was adequately designed. Questions that help determine this are: ‘Scope: Does the range of information collected include all the signifi- ‘cant aspects ofthe program being evaluated? "Audience: Does the information collected adequately serve the needs of all the intended audiences? ‘Reliability: Hes the information been collected in such 2 way that the same findings would be obtained by others? “Objectivity: Have ateragts been ade to make sure that there is no bias in the collecting and processing of information? Representativeness: Does the information collected accurately describe the program? ‘Timeliness: Is the information provided timely enough tobe of use to the audiences forthe evaluation? Ethical considerotions: Does the evaluation follow accepted ethical stan- dards, eg. such that congidentiality of information is guaranteed and in- formation obtained in a professional and acceptable manner? (Stfflebeam, MeComnick, Brinkerhoff. and Nelson 1985) ‘Once it has been determined thatthe evaluation meets acceptable stan dards of adequacy, itis necessary to decide how to make use of the infor- mation obtained. The following processes are normally involved:Approaches to evaluation 239 + Review all information that was collected. + Disseminate findings to relevant parties, + Decide on what changes may need to be made. + Identify costs and benefits of proposed changes. + Develop a plan for implemencation of changes. + Identify those responsible for taking follow-up action. + Establish procedures for review of the effectiveness of changes. ‘Examples of the Kinds of changes that might be needed are: + revision or replacement of some of the course objectives + preparation of supplementary materials to complement the textbook + selection of a new textbook to replace the book currently being used + reorganization of the sequence of skills aught within a course + organization of in-service taining for teachers + development of a peer review process for teachers + development of a materials writing project + setting up of brown-bag seminars for staff to share teaching expericaces ns Procedures used in conducting evaluat ‘Many of the procedures used in conducting evaluation are similar to those described elsewhere in this book, though their purposes may be different. Chapter 3 on needs analysis, for example, discusses « number ofthe proce- duces mentioned here from the perspective of needs analysis. Here we will consider their role in evaluation and possible advantages or limitations of ‘each procedure Tests Different types of tests can be used to measure changes in learning at the cad (or at intermediate stages) of a course. These tests may «+ instinstionally prepared tests such as exit tests designed to measure what students have learned in the course + intemational tests, such as TOEFL, IELTS, or a Cambridge proficiency test if these are related to the course aims and content + textbook tests such as those provided in teachers’ manuals or as part of @ commercial course + student records, such as information collected throughout the course based300 Chapter 9 con course work or continuous assessment. This information may be used fo anive ata final score or grade for a stadent without using 2 final test “Advantages: Tests can provide a direct measure of achievement, partic- ‘lary if they are based on student performance, tht is they ar criterion referenced. "Disadvantages: Its not always easy to be sure that changes in learning as measured by tests are direct result of teaching or are linked to other fac- fore, And if there is poor performance on achievement test, this does not {entity the cause of the problem. Is it the teacher, the materiel, the stir dents, or the course? Further investigation is normally needed. Suudenteval- ‘tation should not be confused with course evaluation. In addition, sound teats tests that reflect principles of reliability and validity ~ are difficuleto construct. - Comparison of two approaches to a course ‘Two different versions of a course might be taught and the results as meas- ued by student achievement compared. The comparative approach seeks to Compare the effects of two or more different teaching conditions. Ik meas: tures the efficiency ofthe curriculum by comparing the zelative effectiveness of two different ways of teaching it “Advantages: The comparative approach seeks to contol al relevant f20- tors and to investigate factors rigorously. ‘Disadvantages: This approach usually imposes artificial constraints on ‘the teacher, One teacher, for example, might be required always to give eX: plisiterror correction and another to give only indirect error correction. But Jecause of human factors, itis very dificult o maintain these Kinds of dif- ferences, It is uswally impossible o control all relevant variables and the re- sults are therefore usuelly inconclusive. Interviews Interviews with teachers and students can be used to get their views on any aspeat ofthe course. Normally, structured interviews provide more usefUl information than unstructured interviews. "Advantages: In-depth information can be obtained on specific questions. ‘Disadvanages: Interviews are very time-consuming end only a sample of teachers or students can normaly be interviewed in depth; hence the rep resentativeness of their Views may be questionable.Approaches to evatuation S01 Questionnaires “These can be used to elicit teachers’ and students’ comments on a wide range of issues, “Advantages: Questionasires are easy to administer and information cen bbe obtained fram large numbers of respondents. Disadvantages: Questionnaires need to be carefully designed if they are toelicit unbiased answers, and information may be difficult to interpret. For example, ifstudents indicate thet they found a particular unit in acourse dif- ficult, follow-up investigation may be needed to determine exactly Why they percelved it to be difficult. Was it the unit itself or was it badly taught? Teachers’ written evaluation “Teachers cen complete a course evaluation using a sauctured feedback form that elicits comments om all aspects of the course. ‘Advantages: Teachers are in a good position to report on a course and a well-designed evaluation form provides information quickly in a way that is easy to summarize. Disadvantages: The information obtained may be impressionistic and biased, because it presents only the teacher's point of view. Diaries and journals ‘Teachers can keep an ongoing record of thei impressions and experiences of a course. Diaries provide a aarrative record of things the teacher does, problems encountered, critical indents, time allocation, and other issues. “Advantages: Diaries and journals provide relatively detailed and open- ended information and can capture information that may be missed by other Disadvantages: It's difficult to decide how to use the information ob- tained, Diaries are impressionistic and unsystematc. They also require co- operation and etme commitment on the par of the teacher. Teachers’ records ‘Use ean be made of available writen records of courses, such as reports of lessons taught, material covered, attendance, students’ grades, and time al- location. “Advantages: Records can provide a detailed account of some aspects of the course.302 Chapter $ Disadvantages: Not all of the information collected may be relevant. ‘Some information may be impressionistic and represent only the teacher's point of view. ‘Student logs ‘Students might be asked to keep an account of what happened during a ‘course, how miuch time they spent on different assignments, how much time they allocated to homework and other out-of-class activities. “Advantages: Provides the students’ perspective on the course and gives insights thatthe teacher may not be aware of ‘Disadvantages: Requires the cooperation of students and time comm ‘ment. Students may not see the benefit of such an activity. Case study “Acteacher may conduct « case study of a course or some aspect ofa course For example, the teacher might document how he or she made use of les- son plans throughout « course, or trace the progress of particular learner. "Advantages: Case studies provide detailed information about aspects oF ‘course, and over time the accumulated information from case studies can [provide a rich picture of different dimensions of a course. ‘Disadvantages: The information collected may not be typical or repre- sentative, and case studies ere time-consuming to prepare. ‘Student evaluations ‘Students can provide written or oral feedback on a course both during che ‘course and after it has been taught, commenting on features such as the teacher's approach, the materials used, and their relevance to the students’ needs. ‘Advantages: Student evaluations are easy to obtain, provide feedback on ‘a wide cange of topies, and eaable large numbers of learners to be involved. ‘Disadvantages: Information obtained may be subjective and impres- sionistic and is sometimes difficult to interpret or generalize. Audio- or video-recording Lessons can be recorded to provide examples of different teaching styles and lesson formats. “Advantages: Recordings can provide a rich account of teaching in real time and record information that is difficult to document in other ways.Approaches to evaluation 303 Disadvantages: The presence ofthe recording iastrumentor person mak ing the recording can be disruptive and can bias the data. Good recordings are difficult to set up. Observation Regular observation of classes may be made by other teachers oF a super- vicer Observation is usually more useful ifitis structured in some way, sbeh ey giving a specifi task to the observer and by providing procedures for the observer to use (2g, checklists or rating sales). advantages: Observers can focus on any observable aspect of the lesson andean provide an objective eye, identifying things that may not be apper~ arto the teacher If teachers observe each others classes, it also provides 2 basis for follow-up discussion and reflection. ‘Disadvancages: The observer's presence may be intrusive, As noted ear- ier, obsecvation isa specialized skill and requires preparation and explicit guidance itis to be useful. ‘Weir and Roberts (1994, 134) summarize the foous and procedares avall- able in program evaluation: Focus Procedures Teacher beliefs Pre/Post: questionnaires imerviews observations review of lesson plans ‘Teacher abilities Observations/videotapes Self-assessment quizzes Pre/Post: questionnaires interviews observations review of lesson plans, ‘Teacher practices Record of activities Lesson plan reviews Observations/videotapes Interviews Questionnaires ‘Student behaviors Student interviews ‘Stadent questionnaires ‘Teacher logs304 Chapter 9 Student behaviors Observation (cont.) ‘Teacher interviews ‘Student learnings Chapter/unit tests Standardized test “Teacher logs ‘Student assignments ‘Comparison of present term grades to previous ‘grades (or grades of another group of students) Student interviews Teacher questionnaires ‘Student questionnaires ‘Teacher interviews a Discussion questions and activities 1. Whatprocedures canbe used to carry outs formative evaluation anew program a its being lrplemented? Identify the goals of such an eva diagoa for e program you are familiar with and suggest procedures tet ould be used to achieve these goals. 2. How useful do yoo think illuminative evaluation is fn program evalus- tion? Diseuss a program you ae familar with and sugges information that could be collected as par of the proces of illuinasve evaluation, ‘What use could be made ofthe information collected? +3, Wha do you think ae the best ways to measure the effectiveness of a language program? Discuss a program you are familias with and com pare different options for determining its effectiveness. 4, imagine that you have been asked to visita schoo or istration and to conduct an evaluation offs language programs. List some ofthe ques- fone you would want to ask the school's directors in planning how you vill cary out the evaluation 5. As part ofa program evaluation, you want ro assess the adequacy of teachersraining provision for teachers in the program. Diseusshov you would approach this seve and procedures you could use. 6. Review ie two examples given in the eppendix, Evaluate the evaluation design and suggest how the evaluation might have been improved or done diferent.Approaches to evaluation 305 Appendix Examples of program evaluations Example 1: Evaluation of a primary English course in an EFL country ‘A new primary English program is developed for an EFL context. English has not been ranght previously at this level and will now be taught from year 2 of primary school. Three years are budgeted for the development of ma terials for the program and for taining of teachers. The new course is in- troduced on a progressive basis over 4 years, beginning with 16 schools in year 1, 32 schools in year 2, and so on. An evaluation is required after the program has been ia place for 3 years. The evaluation adresses formative, ftluminative, and surnmative issues. Because not all schools can be examn- ined in depth, the following evaluation plan is developed: «= questionnaire to all schools and teachers involved inthe new program + an in-depth seady of eight representative schools weeks Time frame: “Audiences for the evaluatior + curriculum development unit in ministry of education + minisry of education officials + schools (teachers and principals) + teacher trainers in teacher-taining colleges “The eight targeted schools were soudied in the following way: + classroom observation + interviews with teachers and principals + interviews with seudents + tests to determine levels of achievement + documentation (minutes of teachers’ meetings, teachers’ reports, teach- cers’ teaching logs) ‘Taree reports are prepared: + a report for the curriculum development unit + acepor for schools and teachers + areport for teacher trainers ‘The first report was en overview and summary of all the information col- lected and the strengths and weaknesses of the program that were identi-306 Chepter9 fied, with recommendations for modifications in different aspects of the ‘program as well as more school-based support for some aspects of the Pro- ram. “The second reports focused on the things students appeared to be learn~ ing ané problems teachers had reported as well as suggestions from teach- cers and schools on how aspects of the program could be fine-tuned. Com- ments on the appropriateness of the teachers’ methodology were also included. “The third report commented on the extent 10 which the teachers were fe- fleeting principles and practices chat had been emphasized in the teacher ‘raining that all teachers had received. Problems teachers identified were summarized as input to future teacher-training sessions. ‘Example 2: Evaluation of courses in a private language institute ‘Alarge peivate language institute with up to five hundred smdents in courses atany given time and offering a range of general English courses a5 well as ‘company courses wants to develop an evaluation system for its courses and to gather information thet will be useful in strategic planning. The empba- sisis primarily surmmasive, Other aspects of evaluation (Formative and illu- ‘minative) are dealt with incidentally by teachers and coordinators. Audiences for the evaluation: + the owners and board of directors ofthe school + the school director + coordinators and teachers Both qualitative and quantitative measures needed to determine the following: + client satisfaction + teacher competence + teacher satisfaction adequacy of placement and achievement tests adequacy of course curticulum and materials ‘adequacy of teaching methods efficiency of course development and delivery adequacy of administrative structures and support * course marketing and financial matters ‘Time frame for the evaluation: 3 weeksApproaches to evaluation 307 Evaluation data was collected in the following ways: «+ Expert review. A consultant was hired to review existing curriculum and tests: a marketing consultant was hired to review course marketing and ‘business management practices in the school. «+ Focus groups. Meetings were held with representative groups of teachers, ‘Sudents, and coordinators to identify strengths and weaknesses of exist- ing practices and to recommend changes. + Sudent evaluations of courses and teaching. A detailed evaluation form ‘was developed to gather stadent feedback on differeat aspects of the courses and the teaching + Observation, Coordinators were asked to conduct at least two observa- tions of each teacher, to identify teachers’ strengths and weaknesses, and to make recommendations for in-service taining, «+ Test analysis, A seview team was established (0 revi achievement tests. ‘Tost results, Test scores are reviewed forall classes to detecmine the per- ‘centage of students in each class who achieve a passing grade. [fess than 10 pereent of students eckiave the grade the course is targeted for, closer scrutiny is undertaken to determine the cause. «administrative review. A management group reviewed all administrative Deocedures and systems and asked teachers to complete 2 questionnaire ton the adequacy of existing administrative systems. «+ Selfreports. Teachers provided reports oa how much time they spent on ‘course preparation, individual student consultation, reading, professional development and administrative matters. Interviews. Interviews were held with student representatives to deter- sine students’ perceptioas of che institute, its teachers, and its programs, and to compare it with other institutions. ‘Several documents reSulted from the evaluation: = An overall summary of the evaluation and its findings for the principal ‘and to serve as a public decursent for any interested persons. «A report for the owners and board of dzectors of the school that briefly deseribed how and why the evaluation was conducted, an analysis ofthe ‘Strengths and weaknesses that were identified, and recommendations for follow-up action. «+ A report for coordinators and teachers with curriculum development re ‘ponsibilides outlining findings in relation to course offerings, tests, ma terials, and teaching. placement and308 Chapter 9 + A repor for classroom teachers on the main findings in relation to teach- ts, teaching, and students. This report served as the focus of working ‘groups who were given the task of recommending changes in course de- livery and other areas. + A copy of all the reports for senior management. This information was t0 ‘be used to formulate a strategic plan for the next 5 years’ operation of the instituteApproaches to evaluation 308 References Block, D. 1998. Tale ofa language learner. Language Teeching Research 2(2): 148-176. Brindley, G, 1989, Assessing achievement in the leamer-centred curriculums. ‘Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research. ‘Brown, J. D. 1995. The elements of language curriculum. Boston: Heinle and Heinle Elley, W. 1989. Tailoring the evaluation to fit the context. In R. X Johnson (ed), ‘The second language curriculum. New York: Cambridge University Pres, 270-285. Hewings, M, and T. Dudley-Evans. 1996, Evaluation and course design in EAP Herfordshize, UK: Prentice Hall Macraillan. Richards, J.C, and C. Lockhart. 1994. Reflective teaching in second language ‘claserooms. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sanders, JR. 1992. Evaluating schoo! programs: An edueator's guide. New- ‘bury Park, CA: Corwin Press. Shaw, J. M., and G. W. Dowsert, 1986. The evaluation process in the adult m= “grant education program. Adelaide: Adult Migrant Education Program. ‘tatflebeam, D., C. McCormick, R. Briakerhotf, and C. Nelson. 1985. Con- ducting educational needs assessment. Wingham, MA: Kluwer Niof, Weis, C. 1995. Understanding and developing language tests. Hertfordshire, ‘UK: Prentice Hall Macmillan. Wein, C., and J. Roberts. 1994, Evaluation in ELT: Oxford: Blackwell.Author index ere, Co 23-24 ‘Alevander LG. 9. (6,27, 38 Allen. 32 alien 5.9 7 ‘Allg, R252 ‘apples 18 ‘son, 257,258 ‘aoetbch, ER 55,119,128, ‘aber S178 Baily, KM 217 Bais, J, 119 Bean, WC, 99 Berwick Ry 51.62 Block. 781 Blooms 125 Bobbie, 1-16, 129 Borgaees. 6-1, 27.95 Breer 217 Baggs L268 Bendy, Ga 5, 56, 6, 140-4, 203, 204-25, 283 rinkertof, 52,298 Bran, D. 158 Brten, 0.28043 Brown HD, 221, 3235 Brown 1D. 123 Baines 3.135 Bruno, AV. 106 Backing, As 155 Boron U.35.109 Bur, A. 140, 163, 185-86 Bur M12 By POST Candin, C.257 Carey. 1288 Cun, 3.229 (Caras 2 cheer 33 Gai B30 ladinin . 1, 56-57 Ga JL, 42289, 90, EE (Clk, DF 252, 253-58 ee RAL Colinas, M119 Comeaiss 13 enol EM. 56-57 ‘Canta J. A. 128,267, 72-78 Gras 6. 119 (Canlagowonth A 251,258-58, 2775 asian $18, 23, 28-29 Davidson 98-201, 218.219-20 Davison P28 Denving 52.38 Dewey 5,117 Docking. Ra 12 ewaen,G39,295-56 acley vane T, 251-52, 259,260,262, 27 Dany 12 Eines W113 Elly, W, 38.298 ety. D 205-6 ve J, 2950. 43,45 Een, 69.27,93 Face La Foca S, 157. 163.164 Fadigy CA. 139 Frokat MA 125-25 Frsee Py SUD, 118.118 ie, C.9.18 taser Re 132 Gere 3, 57-58, 62-86, 89 it812 Author index ren F267 Grognee AG. 128 Fares, 0.254 Hala, MAK 30 Hanley 1.0135 eng A.B. 202 Mewiogs M297 Hinararh 2,9. 119,158 Hie Wo, WK 225,41, 115 Hobie, S,25-28 Hoey Ma 31-32 Homby. AS, S610, 14 15.16.2021 Howse. AP R29 Hueeson,S.53 Hapher Davie, 6, 28°20, 43 al, 167.185 agi. F,0 Jashaon,E, 135-34, 136 Iassenvaa Diet, A, 6-7, 27.83, Sohne A 8S Joe, EF, 8 Jason BK, Jordan, 30.31 Joye, Hy 10,183, 185-86 upp 7.26.28, alanis, 223-24 Kale. 2,220 ally, G56 Kin, KW, 116 Kinshaloe 3118 Kijeterd E1314 Kiagharner, 105-6, 203 Kiakake, K, 157, 1665 Lodo, 813,25, avg. C, 205,209,217 Levis, 65-64, 8 10.5,10.73 edie 21,09 ine, Ry 132 Hse, 67.5283 Tiskie-Gaspare, J.B 147 Loetbac, €,206-7, 218,291, (ae, 209 Love.P, 187 Mecarchy M712 Mecarmick, 31,288 Mackey, Metaren F118 Mager RF 139 warkee, N50 Marsh C, 117-18 are L220 Marin, 19-20 ha, 5 138 Moris P97, 103-4, 118.201, Mase i135 row L130, OHS, 159 Mandy. 32 35-35,41, 157,169 Morsech 6, 221,236-37 tan, 1 139 aon, 5.2. 154 ‘Neson,. 31.298, Nese, J.C. 26 Nieto <0 Nebel 140 ‘Norn. N. 129 Noa, D. 12,101,228 OrDuyee 126083 O'NaiILR 3.9.24 (rating, 025,108 Patines HE. 54, 8,10 Pahge Bs 73-75 Peseock M, 252 Pape 18 Padpe MK, 252 : Plenerase, M12 Pag Wy 117 Porter LS Prints 130,47 Prat D, 51, 90-51, 124-25 Prosi S167, 198 Raines, An 265 Richd C3, 5, 10,5758, 864,73, 80, 166, 167, 197-98, 206-7. 217.218. 266,277-83,291 Richersch R3515, 207,288.29, Robinson, P33, 38-36 Rodgers, 3,38 41, 10-5, 106, 108-10 Rownues, D265 Se John, M, 251-52, 289, 260,252 Sender, 1.257 Sandy, C166, 187-9 Senate BA. 128-29, Seba, N32 34 ‘Sh J $9, 295-96 Shetlesworh, C, 282 Sto. Dy 3 Stulmaa, L262 ‘Skea, B16 Soom BM, 138 Spence Fy 19 Steaowe, L135 Seem, 1.35 Severs. 33 ‘Soles #23 ‘Seulcbeam,D. 51, 56, 65,298 ‘Seale 52 Teasdale A 205,209,217 Teg. R19, ‘Tesh 199-201, 218, 219-20 Author index 313 Teoma EL ‘ellefon 1 129, 131-22 ‘Teniaon. 8.263 Tein J. M 179-22 Tle R39, 10| Unmacher PB 15,119 an Bk, JL 27,38, 17982 Van ET 627, 1518,27,99 an Os, C1 6-7.27.98 ies, A 135 Wek 147, 16-17, 287, 28, 25,298, 338,303 Mera 257 esshe Ma, 138 West M628, 1718 west Ye 16 wae, Rte vita. E135 nine 156 Witsoe 32 Wig, DA 9, 15,3697 Wills D138 Wiis 5.158 Yate, 138,10Subject index sexdenie ronson, 65 eeepc, measures of. 299 ecounbiiy 1,288 ACTFL Prefiianty Guidlines, 141, 170-73 ‘easton couse evaluation, 285 opion Ses eamples showing impact of 105 anu of 103 (gusrtonecosceieg, 105-4 2 Saton analy 103-5 ‘irdelum outcomes, 120-22 eed from node analyse, 121-22 trample of, 13-26 ppoons of im eect, 120-21 ‘aera Connell on Teaching of Foreign Langssgss(ACTFL. 18, ter nly of oval foezsion, fn eats ‘aalyia, 63 aly tare, 224 soup spprose, 36 Sopris ayes, 200-22 condi april, 221-22 ‘evcoping. 221 fonssof, 221 since for couse svleton, 294-56 ‘Aucholingual Met (1950-1970).3 Saiobides exoring ineuricslam evalanon, 202-3 a echo, 22 Ancona Meo 25 ‘australian Mra Edacaon rogacy 119-20, 13-31, 135-36, 167 autene mates, 252-54 ‘vantages ad disdvanageso, 252-83 mice of created atl ab, 253-54 borgy-odented eres 226 ‘xtonomous eeu, 102 314 lai in voesbulry selection banking model of efseason, 11617 base weebolay, sr lene sybus ‘taro bjecves, 132-40 ‘es prsons in Bagh anguage ching, 7319-20, 228-30 dy aye, fr teachers. 212 Cambridge English Lascon (Hine). 9, 1e-19 case sues ‘teat development. 277-83 neue eauaton, 302 in ponds analyeis, cena, grammatical lisbets and 11 ere in English Language Teaeting ‘Ads, 231-32 cane of command, 19 ‘onologel segeesig. 150 ashe Tgusges 26 (Gas on, eocing contest, 208 ‘Saecquss apps by. 222. 246-18 (Cellns Cabal English Cour (Wilts and ‘wats, 154 ‘comueticatve Aperoch (1970-peeat 3, 77,36,215. ‘commericave competence. 36 enmscictve foneson, 37-38 ‘Cermnaicave Language Testing (CLT). 127,36-38, 108, 12-55, communicative learners, 224 ‘conmonicstve neo, aden a, 13 ‘commasicative sabes, 15253 Compare appeanct 0 curietn ‘oataton, 300 Competney-Baseé LaoguageTeching {CUD 162 cextcomes in, 128-52 ‘Silat in 57.19cee ene, 224 onsuvevies, 117 ona based opin) sls, 152, 15755 coatanive analy 13 Soopers leasing see! of teaching, 215 Coun of Europe, 26-27, 38,36,37 soase content, 147=49 couse gues 213, (Course Basi Scene Engh See and aro). 29 ome pinsng. 145-97 cous cozentan, 7-49 nue ional, 156 Soares a0, 11-67 ety level and, 166-47 fxitevel and, 46-87 irscarsonal oes, 165-67 sop and segues ia 155, 167 ‘ylabu Facmwork in, 152-65 course tinal, 135-45 ‘course reviews, 298 ‘overage a vorabulay secon. 8 (eed materia, 252-54, 261-70, ‘sranage and dlsadvanags of 252-53 friar of eter mari nd 255-58 cial padagogy. S19 rea! theory 118229 vectra competency. US20 ‘aol eeracy (15 ‘otra plan, 19-20 curielom ‘anes, 39 Heology of. se Hesogy of te curiestan ouedose 9,208 certcvlimchaege, sation analy nd, 90-91, 105-5, 106 108-10 cutis ceveloper, ad course eration, 25 curicelm development ‘ae ety of 277-83 orponets of 1-42 eesion making eles in <2 efiod,2 ‘developeenal stages ia 42 cidemeans model of, 41 au sages, 40 ‘nangnage propa desi. aarsand proces of, 38-40 podem 2 ote modal of AL a5 Subject index 315 caricau develope (cnt): “yer modelo, 35-40 Jeealieangsagecuclum development curiam evan, 206-308 sips of language progam sod, 286-87 fidence foe, 2396 ene cy of 302 example of 305-8 Formative, 285-89, 296, ‘Bamintve, 299-51 Implant of 298-99 ‘mpacanoe of Socuseiaon in, 297-88 ieeetsd interest in.257| ues in, 290-99 arian in. 796 pocedoer wed in 295-306 utpne of, 288-58 ‘asia. 97 Space, 296 anratve, 291-58, 795-86 cela ouorses sin ad, 20-22 oerpeeny-tased program, 128-32 onangings, 15837 ‘hjcives and, 122-28 ‘randasde movement and, 152-33, 197 62 ating, 120-33, ceric neal 3.66 (lel gracaton. 134 ‘eel met, Tyee moe! of cuca. develope a, £9 ecionceaking tts. 152 (efning power ia vosbulry seen 8 (evloprent rece evaluation, 288 Direct Metod (1850-1930, 3.5, aroee sali 30,5052 ‘Sspenon in vocsbly sles. 7-8 soe of esponsibilies, 213 documentation ie evalua process, 297-58 by eachers, 29-20 et used moodlogy. 25 econo efiieney, 115-1 ftv eashing, 198-250 eauion charstdees ang, 198-208 Ierlng press nd, 23-28 seater acces and 209-14816 Subject index efeive wacing (or): teaching process and, 214-22 iene of use 293 fexpowerrent, 11819 feemesas mode, 401.115 ‘English as 2 Foreign Language (EFL), see "TESUTEFL sppaich English a3 Second Language (ESL). ee siscoure aay in, 20, 31-32 fester an, 251-52 ‘eed analy in, 32-36, Si se aso oes seals) segie arly in, 30-31 eset Eaglch, 29-0, «5-46 ‘jabs deepen fr, 152-83, 157 Englch x Focus tves (Allen 2nd ‘Weadono). 32 Eagleh Language Insnte, Usiversiy of ‘Michigan 14, 25,28 English Programs in America, 205-6 ny level, deserbing, 146-47 ‘Sgupmeat in teaching content 207-8 (hi, of evaluation proces, 298 ‘alaing euestom, sr cairn rakon cstaing esting ‘ppl steno, 20-22 amnative wastion, 218 coslunng ebook, 256-89, 74.75, exchanges 163 cites, deeribing, 185-87 feotiack 214 oqnatve eatuaon, 288-89 ‘rarpios of, 282-89 ticipants in 256 ‘eerdont in, 288 Steen, 218 fens, 163. ffequeney pation and 13 ‘pommel sylabuses and, vocabulary seleeon. 6-8 funcional laa, 152, 138-56 com of, 155-55 Seve 1555 General Service Ls of English Words A (65, 8.8, 15, [P18 36,47 sous assumption enceming. 112 evelopment of, 12-20 of sede analysis, 0 _gadaton, 10-18 spproscbes 613 cjeial, 1-18 Tinea 13-14 ripe of 10-11 ial 018 games ‘bai nit ofanguags 1S in tee yeat English cours, 178 in mle evelopment program, 265 cana selon, 6 5-15 Grammar Traniaien Method (4909-1900, grammatical competent, 36 ranrtcalsylsbus, 25, 155-54 cron of, 15-54 Cecopeent of, 10-15. 16,153 ‘ample, 20-21 Gai to Poser and Usage in Englch (ale) 16 help ines, fortechors, 214 ideniteadon of prblems, 219 ideology of be cuiclem, 113-20 ‘endemic ronal, 114-15 oll pris, 119-20 Teame-centreess, 102 117-18 ell aoe economic eeiney. S17 socal reonstucionisa, HEY ELS, 146-47, 179-75, 299, ‘gina evan, 239-91 examples of 290-91 eerdons in, 289-50,291 implemenuios. of rluaon pokes, 2-59 inforation 39 ks, 162 Information 2, 183 iexinsioal Beers ‘examples shoving impacf, 98-99 Ieuan sid 0f 97 stot 98 eur of 97 payee of 58 fp susoa says, 97-99 inprusonal blocks, 155-67 several teas. 251-85 sutheni, 252-54israel mates Cont (pened, 252-86, 251-70 (see aio materia ‘eveloproeec progam) eal develope propa, 261-70 ronitorng wo f 270-71 felein language acting, 291-52 fetenene. 213, textooks, 2-61 Innegated abs, 161-65 Thoin Report Veabulry Stein (Greer ca). 9 intra eramicatons, 202-5 ia euieum eluate, 300 I aede aati 61 = ‘ntti fealty. gation and, 13 Sigs ees, 162 Keen seres (O'Neil. 26 Lado Engl eres 25 Iangutge cereals development ‘scene 81 Sonmmnictve language teaching. 26-38 (std satis in, 25254, 251-70 ‘Ceshim ees and 3.05 ‘efined,2 froeeganee of euriclum approach as, 38 Engl 28-36 rasan, 10-15 (panes aletion a4, 9015 ‘isdcal backround of, 2-4 eames and 26,27, 32 suerions 1 each fc ns ets of, 2-26 sylabes design and 15-16 vecabelay seein in 9 ev leo curoaara evelopment easily, gamma syllabuses ad, 1213 earner cues, 102, 17-18 learpecevalaion of coral, 302 teachers, 22,2445 tetra cos samples bowing inpact of 102-3 lseoe 101-2 aur of 101 sinaon atalysi, 101-3 Specie pores (ESP) and, Subject index 917 tenes fcos (ee) in extook evehston 257,259 veamer tangunge srg. ees anys, sis teaver ees end cous eatin, 295.302 langage curelor development, 26-27,32-36 language ents, 15 sevnifom, 15 see alo ne alysis iews of ming, 3-28 learing snaegy thor, 1336 esnag sys. 206 excl slabs, development of, 814, 16, ise Lines approach, Tle motel cucu, evlopnet a lincer gration 13-14 Toque diane, zndason a, 13 Tesieg inmate dovelepnen: pop, 265, 286-67 sis yb fo, 10,11, 18284 mace, 16D “Marc A Cour of Sy” 135 mae se tsrcns mses (petri development progam, 261-70 aaage an dsndratages of, 251-52 ‘ae ay of Springboard cours, 277-83 ecko in teri eign, 264-67 sign and production fr, 269-70 denying rovers in 268-68 inca sources in 262-66 ssaragng, 267-70 ane of teri development, 262-64 odag mars 209 project tam fox, 267-88 ‘lestng xis (79. 266-67 ager of velopment 268 ‘wring shes fo 259 smerbanie model, 198-200, 215, ‘evtng, in necs ais 6 vests, 218318 Subject index riers, 160 trssionsstement, 202,227 rods nearing. 37 Frodals as nteiona Becks, 165 ‘peng of teachers, 218 fae of mates, 270-71 tvaton io eaingpeocess, 26-25 Naural Approach, 108 eed, sagucnsing by. 10-51 eed nays, 31-89 adequacy of #2 Recisteing, 58-89 Sine derived fom 121-22 designing, 6-6 {in Bap for Specie Purposes (ESP). 3236.51 cxanpn of, 5259, 68-71, 7-88 ole 90 Macby mode fo 33-36 tatu of needs sad 58-85 eed for fersign angeages ia Baop, 26-27, 2 eed eosin, 3435 rocedares fo condecting, 59-63 orpscs of, 52-54 ossonaars i, 0, 9, 72-88 Sells wxonomy ia 35-36 ‘auger population fo 51-88 sing of 5 ‘wer of S257 ‘sing information cbalsd in 6-67 scgodated carer, 102 New inercharge Richart al) 167,195: onlanguage ovcomes, 133-37 ‘ened, 133 exams of 133-35 soaking sl, 160-61 soconal tus 37 objectives, 122-28 ‘tava, 199-40 creams fuse of, 127-28 (fined, 120, (2-3 ‘ramps of, 123-26 messing mastery fn yer mode of cau deepen, o bsertion ‘reo evan, 305-4 bate Com): Te node analy, 61 fencers, 218-19, 232-35 ‘office of Bdocaon, US. 129 ‘operative modelo teaching, 235 pion exchange tks, 162 cranie model of organizations ext, 200-201, 215 crgnisanal clue, 198-201 Freche model, 199-200, 215 rgni del, 200-201, 215, ‘xparinatonalramener, 204 ‘edenaon es echer 312 parts whalesencncing. 151 Passages (Richard and Sandy), 187-56 Passport vckingiam and Whine?) 156 petagony ‘cit, 11819 tas of 162 in texoak eal, 258 pee elation, 22, 246-48 pee oberon, 218-19, 252-35 Deruaive texts, 163 Philippines eee reseceetsasing progam 131-52 pie! eecion of oes analysis 56 ‘reeauisit leaming sequencing by. 151 problersolution arose, 31-22, 162,215 for conducting needs analysts 59-43 tirieuam enlunen, 29-308 peylatus framework, 163 pocet oprah 1 aching, 215 proces objecsies 35-37 eind, 33, 135| examples of, 135-37 proteins development oppor fr, 206-7 protien sale 17 ‘progr evaluation eee cuclum evaluate ropain fvters io texhook akaon, 256,259 ‘pogresivian. 117 eject ites ramplee stwing inact of. 96-57 Exot 95, quai evahnon, 297 aay ssa, 203-tSubject index 319 oni indestor, ination, 201-7 sequencing coset. 150-51 icv, 204 Dy enonology. 150 exible ogaizaonal frewoc, 204 Dy eee, 150-51 Jntraleoeesueations 005 by prereguste lering, 158 sariontatemert 202.22 ope nd, 149-51. 167 cpporiie for eachereveopmest fon singe eorex, 150 206-7 pone professional weatmentofwache, 205.6 _ by whole to prtor prc woke, 151 Fini usrance mechani, 203-4 shared planning. by eacher, 219 seg plan, 202-3 ‘Smut a vocabulary selec, 8 sui incteatrs, esha, 218-20 ‘Simplet complex sequesing 50 Giana cvahaten, 296 ‘Simply, grammatical sabeses ak LT ueoneales Singapore Primary Slabs, 120-22, 126, incriclor evaluation, 301 136-37 designing, 9, 773 “Sinaoea Met (1950-1970), 3.2425 Sndesiablewocber gules 296-39 sisadonal ylabus, 132, 155-57 in pnts analy, 60, 9, 72-88 flan analysis, 90-11 sare, 3-88 : ‘option ct 8 103-5 Gurnee change te, 90-91, 10845, 106, ange fn vorabuary seleecon, 7-8 108-10, ‘onal pproach, Tle mode of ef 9 ‘cure development 5 40 (galt, 105-5, 108 seating Emporare of 91-55, in mata developmen prog, 265, inratna fate 97-99 78 Tears factors 101—3 ski ead foe 160 projet for in 95-57 Reading Metod(1920-1950).3 ose fon in 95-95 reaver ass, 162 ‘SWOT analy in 108-6 108, recognition vorabolay, 5 teaches etor ia, 98-101 seoncrpuliss 117 sizeof hook 207 enelioer a, 293 (esos 159-51, 170.73 182-86 fetvence sles sab fr 160, alls monary gir ays 30-31 cxample of. D-H Research, Developmen, sed Difsiea model, aus of, 35-36 16 simiing, 10 renin ate 293, SLA thes. 162 view, eachet. 216 : socal efiieny, LIS I7 wd, for teachers, 216 deci econreonism, 118-19 tecieal oes seaoning, 150 Trample showing ioc of 96-85 Shere of wore, 165.57 Herat 93-54 {ten English, 26-30, 5-46 sasue of 93 ‘ope, nite of, 149-5, 167 aston analy, 93-98 felesion, 15 secicesononi eal. 215-17 gma 5-15 speaking ese saree of chosing eure coment fo, 148-49 octet. £9 ‘rsa development fr 265 self spesial f cher, 22, 260-85 ‘Slaps fc 160,16, 170-73, [pléstnps neo rai, 60-61 aoa ssifsdy, 20 speciaon, 19 ‘mnatce gratia neaing. 37 spokes 37-38320 Subject index spin padaticn, 15-14 pia sequencing, 151 Sponsors and eure cvleaon, 295 ‘Springourd cou, development of, 277-83 aff roc, neahing cote, 207 holden, fa nens analy, 4-85, 56-57 ads movement 132-33, 137, 1 Story tex, 163 seg plan, 202-3. Senet Method (1930-1960), 34,25, 104, src slabs, 10-15, 16 20-21 25, 15358 Struc of Engl The Pie). 4 ‘Soden gs in uricular craton 302 ‘Paden se ene epining mite!” ‘Bunmative evlanton, 291-84, 295-56 ‘exsre of cous effects and, 284 seesons in, 292 supervisors, appraisal by 222 Sapper er lesres, 25, ferences, 212-16 soppen san tacing cote, 208 ‘SWOT analysis 105-6108 syllabus, defied 2,152 syllabus design susumpions enderying. 5-16 eines. 2 syllabus framenork, 152-65 ‘commanicaive, [52-55 ompetency bse, 157 159 content-based (opie. 152.157=59 factor ehootng, 152 functional, 152 154-56 ‘gexnmatel (acta. 10-15, 16, 20-21, 25.1584 Imegeste, 164-85 Seva, 8-9, 1 16,156 sens, 15215857 Sls, 159081, 182-88 euciral Granada), 10-15, 16,20-21, 25,1558 eeu, 152 161-63, teu base, 157, 163-64, 185.86 topical Cone ase) 152, 157-89 flab planing, 149 ‘Suheti ppreash, 35 target population forse analy, $758 sak analy in eed analysis, 62 ‘spb based yltus, 152, 161-65 teachabdig a wocabolay sles, & tenbes fos, 205=18 core componeat of knowledge, 208-10 tnd cours eatin, 295 rvlopment porns, 267.213 ‘examples shoving impat of, 10-101 Eatof 99 ae of, 9-100 ennai spear of English (NS), a profesional weautent 205-6 {Rein carole evaluation, 302 in stuaion nays, 99-101 ellsandquaifoaios, 208-12.213 ‘appetfor teachers 202-14 in textbook evaluen, 56-57 teacher roe rom ia eching contest 208 teacher zecrds, a cuit eehation ‘301-2 teacec work spe in caching conte, 208 Teaching ond Learning English ara orien Language (is), 14 weiehing coment, 207-8 teaching nies, 222,301 vesehing iis, ie acing cortex 208 vecbing Journals, 222, 301 ‘eaching mater, se inseuedonal mueials ‘excing metods, ‘exching model and pape, 215-18 agreement on, 216-17 ‘eaches pics, 217 ypesot 215-16 Teathing of Sacral Words ond Setence ‘Peners Tha (Plmet14 teaching roess, 214-22, ‘rloting teaching, 28, 220-22 ‘intiing geod tesco, 218-20 ‘exching made! and pnpes. 215-18 tesehing lease 213 ‘echaeal approsch, Tyler model of carieeham evelopeear as «O ‘TESUTERL approach 25 1 context of ean, 15 English az compzory suber 53 facie om grammatical sruces end. lillebaed venus academically sed, us ssedads movement and, 133‘TESLITERL appost (cont) teacher hls and 29 topibased sylabses in 138 ‘TESOL, 209 ‘TecofEaglsh asa Forign Language (TOEFL), 46-97.299, ‘ncuictum ealeaton, 299-300 tesuring peforrance o, 292-83 see alo specie ezt ‘enn Adit Pefornance Level Study (16 teres sys, 157, 15-64, 185-86 textoots, 254-61 doping. 260-61 scvrntages an csndvannges of, 254.5 vant, 56-89, 272-75. emogeniaon process ane. 258, ‘leaiag langage. 15-16 secular stein by. ‘Teel Love, 77, 36,38. 116,152, 155 175-82 opin (content-based ylbus, 152, 1778 ‘orl Phys Response Meto6. 8 cranzdingiforstion, 160 angela Spach, mses analysis, 59 Subject index 321 LUCLES Cerin a Language Tseng > ‘Adulis(CBLTA), 210,21 LUCLESIRSA Canine Communizaive Sk, 167, 196-77 vee sytem, 27, 165-57 iso, see tildes weeding ‘ostbulary a bai uit of guage 15 sostbulay selection, 3 ‘bse vocabulary nd £9 ey approsches 6-9 ernie in 8 ‘aageo dpersion in 7-8 cexociar and, 6 wor equeney in 8,22 whol langsge approach tm eaeing, 216 whole pt qeeing, SE wor frequen it, -8, 11 swideg couse chering cores conta fo 148 leis developeent oe 265, {il lisbes fo, 10, 173-75 Wag Selene English (Swale). 29