13 World Integrated Pathogen and Pest Management and Sus 1995 Advances in PL

13
WORLD INTEGRATED PATHOGEN AND PEST

MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD
Jeffery w. Bentley, Jairo Castafio-Zapata and Keith L. Andrews
Zamorano, Apartado Postal 93, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
I. Introduction 249
II. Chemical Control and Sustainability 252
A. Insecticides 252
B. Fungicides 255
C. Reducing Synthetic Pesticides with Seed Treatments 256
III. Cultural Control and Sustainability 257
IV. Host-plant Resistance and Sustainability 258
V. Biological Control and Sustainability 261
VI. Weeds 263
VII. Soil Health and Sustainability 264
VIII. Social Systems and Sustainable Agriculture 266
References 269
I. I N T R O D U C T I O N
Green Revolution euphoria has been challenged by too many critics to discuss
here (see, for example Gore, 1992; van Veldhuizen and Hiemstra, 1993). By the
1960s and 1970s the advances in agricultural technology had led to environmental
degradation and created skepticism about the benefits of science and technology
(Ruttan, 1989). High input agriculture is increasingly recognized as degrading
and not profitable (Stinner and House, 1987). The Green Revolution wasn't all
bad; millions escaped starvation, the International Agricultural Research Centers
(IARCS) formed a network for global agriculture and, if we learn from our
mistakes, we now recognize that technical progress may have social and environ-
mental costs we cannot pay.
Hardly any one argues that modern agriculture is sustainable. According to
Klaus Lampe, Director General of the International Rice Research Institute
(IRRI), today's methods of rice production are not sustainable and a better use
of land will be possible only through better family planning ( F E D E A R R O Z ,
1993). It is time for scientists to stop glibly promising to feed a geometrically
ADVANCES IN PLANT PATHOLOGYmVOL. 11 Copyright9 1995 Academic Press Limited
ISBN 0-12-033711-8 All rights of reproduction in anyform reserved
250 J. W. Bentley, J. Castafio-Zapata and K. I. Andrews
expanding human population, when one day they will not be able to deliver
(Ruttan, 1989). Sustainable agriculture includes a stable and lower human
population. High yielding varieties (HYVs) and improved agricultural practices
are only transitory measures. Even with Green Revolution technologies, 41 000
a day die of starvation. In the next two to four generations we will have to produce
as much food as in the entire 12 000-year history of agriculture (Freeman,
1989-90). Many authors call on science and technology to help feed a ballooning
human population (Ruttan, 1989, Saxena etal., 1989; Plucknett, 1993). Part
of that increase will have to come from reducing pest losses, without destroying
the Earth's capacity to keep growing food.
The Green Revolution was based on: (1) the rapid spread of new HYVs of rice
and wheat in developing countries; (2) the nine-fold increase in fertilizer use
between 1952 and 1983; (3) the great expansion of irrigation; and (4) the use of
high amounts of pesticides (Freeman, 1989-90). Worldwide grain production
increased from 623 million tons in 1952 to 1447 million tons in 1983. Most of
this increase was due to high amounts of fertilizers and pesticides applied to the
HYVs planted in large-scale monocultures. But, the HYVs of rice, wheat and
maize produce high yields only in response to high inputs. HYVs need between
70 and 90 kg of N ha-1, when the average amount available in most developing
countries is only one third of that (Freeman, 1989-90).
Thanks to the new HYVs, many countries in Asia and Latin America are still
self-sufficient in rice and wheat, but for how long? There is a maximum yield that
any land can support and there is a finite (and even decreasing) amount of farm
land.
Rice, wheat and maize are the three leading food crops in the world, together
providing more than half of all calories consumed by the entire human popu-
lation (FAO, 1987). Most rice is grown in south, southeast, and east Asia from
Pakistan to Japan. Of the 26 leading rice-producing nations, which include
only two nations of Latin America (Brazil and Colombia), 18 are in Asia (Huke
and Huke, 1990). Rapid population growth puts increasing pressure on the
already strained food-producing resources. The rate of population growth in
those developing countries where rice is the most important food is well above
the world average. The following statistics given by Huke and Huke are amaz-
ing: worldwide, 100 million people are added every year, of which 60 million
depend on rice. It is predicted that Asia will be one of the continents more
affected by starvation. The main concern is that more than 90% of the rice-
consumers live in Asia where 60 % of the world' s people live. The world' s popula-
tion will reach 6200 million by the year 2000 and 8400 million by the year
2025. This implies more people to feed on less agricultural land. The challenge
is enormous.
While academics debate the definition of 'sustainable', our interest should be
less words and more actions that contribute to sustainability. While we write
sympathetically about traditional agriculture, we do not believe that sustainable
agriculture is merely traditional or that no elements of modern agriculture are
World Integrated Pathogen and Pest Management 251
sustainable. We cannot be certain of the sustainability of new practices, but

many modern practices seem unsustainable (e.g. most synthetic pesticide use,
conventional tillage practices, irrigation leading to salinization). Only very old
farming systems have had the opportunity to prove their sustainability (e.g. the
rice terraces of southeast Asia, European peasant farms, or the chinampas of
Mexico). Old farming systems have survived by evolving, not by being static. A
system can fail for biological, technical or human reasons (see also Denevan,
Chapter 2, this volume).
While future historians (if there are any) will be the only ones who really know
if today's pest control techniques are sustainable, all of us must use our best judge-
ment now to decide if our crop protection techniques can feed the people without
ruining the resources of future generations.
Pathogen and pest management in sustainable agriculture includes:
1. Giving local or indigenous technical knowledge a place of honor in the activity
of scientific learning.
2. Stopping genetic erosion.
3. Giving up ecologically destructive technologies, especially those based on
chemicals.
4. Preserving the soil.
5. Stabilizing and then slowly reducing the human population.
Crop diseases cause an annual worldwide loss of 13-20%, worth US$50 000
million (James, 1981). Since the beginning of agriculture 12 000 years ago, plant
diseases have affected human welfare, sometimes catastrophically. Perhaps the
first well-documented disaster was the famine provoked by potato late blight
Phytophthora infestans (Mont) de Bary in Ireland in the late 1840s; about 1 million
people starved to death and another 3-4 million migrated to North America.
That epidemic was only the beginning. In 1943, in Bangladesh, another fungus,
Bipolaris- (Helminthosporium) oryzae (Breda de Haan) Waksman & Henrici,
the causal agent of brown leaf spot of rice, caused a terrible famine. The disease
took half of the rice harvest and about 2 million people starved to death
(Padmanabhan, 1973).
In 1970, another Helminthosporium species, H. maydis Nisik & Miyake, the
causal agent of the southern corn leaf blight, destroyed about 15 % of the United
States' maize crop, worth $1000 million (Fry and Thurston, 1980). Even though
epidemics in food crops have been known for centuries, they were uncommon
until the extensive cultivation of HYVs starting in the 1960s. Traditional
agroecosystems had high genetic diversity. The genetic uniformity of modern
crop varieties offer short-lived resistance to insect pests and pathogens (Bramble,
1989). HYVs, the high use of nitrogen fertilizers, more intensive management
practices and extensive monoculture increased the severity of many diseases.
Many practices of modern agriculture have increased plant disease problems.
Cultivating large areas with genetically similar plants in dense monoculture
selects for pathogens that thrive on that host-genotype. Nevertheless, modern
252 J. W. Bentley, d. Casta~o-Zapata and K. L. Andrews
intensive agriculture will probably continue planting extensive areas with little
genetic variability (Fry and Thurston, 1980).
Unfortunately, we know relatively little about tropical plant production and
still less about tropical plant pathology and entomology. For example, 90% of
the insect species of Britain have been described (LaSalle and Gauld, 1991),
while perhaps half of the Earth's 50 million insect species are in the tropical
rain forests, in danger of becoming extinct before being described (Erwin, 1988;
Wilson, 1988).
II. CHEMICAL CONTROL A N D SUSTAINABILITY
Arthropod pests (mainly insects and mites) are controlled by chemicals, cultural
practices, host-plant resistance and biological control. Eleven arthropods a year
will probably be added to fauna of the USA about seven becoming pests (Hoy,
1988). There is no reason to assume that other countries, especially tropical ones,
are any less susceptible to pest invasion than the USA. The rapid introductions of
pests to new areas will challenge our creativity for the rest of our careers.
Developing countries consume only 25% of the world's pesticides (Anon,
1979). Total volume of pesticide use is highest on maize (Zea mays L.) followed
by rice (Oryza sativa L.), cotton (Gossypium spp.), soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.],
and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). These five crops use 56 % of all insecticides,
fungicides and herbicides, equivalent to approximately $6100 million (Dekker
and Georgopoulos, 1982). Field tests with foliar fungicides to control diseases
such as rice blast can produce yield increases from 1 to 2 t ha-~ (Castafio-Zapata
and GNvez, 1972; Montoya, 1983; Yanuar etal., 1985; Nasrun etal., 1989),
which suggests that fungal diseases can destroy up to 25 % of the potential crop.
By 1985, over 370 000 t of pesticides were produced annually (Jewell, 1987).
Preventative measures include resistance breeding and cultural practices; cura-
tive measures are mostly chemical (Plucknett, 1993).
A. Insecticides
Few argue for more insecticides. Almost everyone writing about insect pest
control assumes that conventional insecticides are not sustainable. Ironically
they are still the backbone of pest control. Freeman (1989-90) argues that the
careful and appropriate use of insecticides is necessary to save harvests to feed
the hungry.
Some people write about improved application techniques for insecticides,
like new 'ultra-low volume' sprayers (which spray ultra-high concentrations of
chemicals) for use by small farmers (Matthews, 1990). McKenzie and Byford
(1993) support insecticides for pests of cattle. In their experiments, horn flies
(Diptera: Muscidae) developed resistance to all insecticides tested, but mixes
and rotations of insecticides slowed resistance by one to seven generations. Most

authors still supporting insecticides recognize the need to reduce their use.
Sechser (1989) mildly defends insecticides, but calls for more sampling and
improved application styles that kill fewer natural enemies. Advanced chemical
technologies may be more benign than older ones. Semiochemicals, the stuff of
insect communication, are less or non-toxic, and can be used in small amounts
to attract or confuse insects. Hoy (1988) suggests that semiochemicals could be
used to enhance control by natural enemies.
Most of the hard-core advocates of insecticides must be spending their time
making and applying pesticides rather than writing about them. Gore (1992)
claims that 13 000 times more pesticides are produced now than when 'Silent
Spring' was published. This seems unfathomable in the IPM (integrated pest
management) era, but IPM often increases and justifies pesticide use (Luna and
House, 1991).
IPM has continued to support pesticides and now even the agrochemical com-
panies have no trouble espousing IPM. A 1993 paper by ACRE, an organization
that is supported by 'the makers of America's crop protection chemicals' cynically
urged pesticide dealers to advocate IPM because 'those who would further
regulate you and your customers have fallen in love with IPM, or what they think
is IPM, as a solution to the perceived environmental problems of agriculture'.
The paper went on to stress that IPM uses chemicals.
It is time to question IPM's pesticide connection. According to the World
Health Organization (WHO), in developing countries approximately 750 000
people are injured and up to 14 000 die every year from pesticide poisoning
(Chengappa, 1989). Pesticides are the major force destroying natural enemies. In
conventional agriculture many species have reached pest status only because their
natural enemies have been eliminated. That was the case in Latin America with
whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Genn.), the vector of bean golden mosaic virus (BGMV).
In developing countries pesticides constitute over 40 % of all purchased inputs in
farming compared with only 6% for developed countries (Adam, 1977, cited in
Pollard, 1991). Despite a 234 % increase in insecticide inputs, 548% increase in
fungicides and 5414 % increase in herbicides over the period of 15 years (1964-79)
in Brazil, there was only a 16.8% increase in production of the 15 major crops
(FAO, 1986).
Current losses to pests in agricultural systems that use pesticides are from 20
to 50 %, as much as before the chemical era (Hobbelink, 1991). The Brundtland
report called for no new agrochemicals to be used (Hinrichsen, 1987). There
is no evidence that reducing pesticide use lowers yields in developing countries
(van Veldhuizen and Hiemstra, 1993). On-farm experiments in the Philippines
showed no increase of pest damage in rice plots without pesticides (Fujisaka et al.,
1992). The notion that insecticides help produce higher crop yields is based on
a common, but flawed, experimental design that uses small test plots of dubious
validity. In pesticide trials, pesticide drift and the movement of herbivorous
insects from one small plot to another cloud the results (Sterling etal., 1992).
254 J. W. Bentley, J. Casta~o-Zapata and K. L. Andrews
Unfortunately, intercropping and host-plant resistance experiments are also

commonly done on plots so small that the results should not be extrapolated to
commercial fields.
Many cases could be cited of environmental contamination caused by insec-
ticides. For example, because of agricultural runoff into estuaries on the west
coast of Mexico, clams and other commercial seafood species contain lindane
and aldrin above levels permitted by the FWPCA (US Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration) (Galindo-Reyes etal., 1992).
One argument against the sustainability of insecticides is the danger of residues
in food. However, there is little evidence that pesticide residues damage health
in the US (Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1990). Lewis (1990) argues that traffic accidents
are the only important mortality risk from any modern technologies. However,
medical diagnoses in the developing world do not reveal how many people die
from applying pesticides. Deaths diagnosed as strokes in the Cabanatuan area of
the Philippines for men aged 15-34 years rose 291% after the insecticide endrin
was adopted, rising from 4.59 to 18.0 deaths per 100 000 people. The rate of death
only increased for young adult males, the ones applying insecticides, suggesting
that millions of pesticide deaths worldwide may be misdiagnosed (Loevinsohn,
1987).
While chemists may be able to develop newer, safer insecticides, Darwinian
evolution guarantees that any pesticide will select for resistant arthropods (Quiroz,
1983; Simms, 1987; Sechser, 1989; Luna and House, 1991; McKenzie and
Byford, 1993; Groeters etal., 1993). This is perhaps the greatest argument
against the sustainability of insecticides. Insects inevitably evolve resistance to
them.
Gould's brilliant paper on the evolutionary potential of crop pests describes
weeds, plant pathogens and insect pests as masters of surviving the farmers'
assaults. 'Many of the short-triumphs of pest control have carried within them
the seeds of longer-term failure' (Gould, 1991). The history of the war between
farmer and pest teaches us not to underestimate the capacity of any pest species
to resist attempts to destroy it, whether it be a weed, a pathogen or an insect
(Gould, 1991).
The solution is not just to keep inventing new insecticides in a chemical arms
race with bugs. Insects resistant to one toxin are preadapted to be resistant
to others (Simms, 1987). Five hundred arthropod pests are now resistant to
chemical control (Dover and Croft, 1984; Georghiou, 1986, cited in Whitten and
Oakeshott, 1991; Eckert, 1988). Only 230 were resistent in 1971 (Quiroz, 1983).
Ironically, bees and other beneficial pollinators are among the insects most
seriously decimated by insecticides (Kevan etal., 1990).
Few farmers have escaped the impact of resistant pests, especially on inten-
sively treated crops like rice, maize, sugarcane, cotton, fruits, vegetables and
several greenhouse crops. Anywhere cotton is grown, the pests that attack the
crop (over 25 species of beetles, caterpillars, bugs and mites in 36 countries)
have become resistant (Georghiou and Mellon, 1982).
Insecticides are also not sustainable because they create major pests from
secondary ones by destroying their natural enemies (Luna and House, 1991).
For example, in Brazil insecticides made the tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens)
(F.) a major pest, more important than the boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis
Boheman) in some areas (Ramalho etal., 1990). Insecticides made whitefly a
major pest in cotton in the Sudan (Eveleens and Rahman, 1993). Insecticides
can also increase weeds by killing their natural enemies (Smith, 1982, cited in
Luna and House, 1991).
Much of the abuse of insecticides is connected to profit motives. For example,
in Trinidad and Tobago, pesticide salesmen encourage farmers to use an average
of $1526 worth of insecticides per hectare, even though social wasps (Polistes
spp.) and other natural enemies can control the insect pests on tomatoes
(Pollard, 1991).
Insecticides have provoked serious crop losses in some countries. Cotton yields
in the Sudan were lowest where insecticide use is highest (Eveleens and Rahman,
1993). In Indonesia in the 1976-1977 season, 500000ha of rice fields were
heavily damaged by brown planthoppers (Nilaparvata lugens) (Stap.), which
ruined 350 000 t of rice, enough to feed 3 million people. Government pesticide
subsidies of 70-80% encouraged massive pesticide applications. Pesticides not
only failed to control the planthoppers, but also killed vertebrates, beneficial
insects and people. I P M was adopted as government policy in 1979. The pro-
gram included training extension agents and some farmers and prohibited 57
insecticides. Only a few narrow spectrum ones were allowed. By 1987, pesticide
subsidies were withdrawn. Since then rice production has increased more than
the human population and there have been no more planthopper problems.
Trained farmers did not need to use insecticides on rice. The government saved
$100-150 million per year on insecticides (Oka, 1991; see also Pearce etal.,
1990). From 1985 to 1988 the Sandinista government subsidized 95-98% of
pesticide costs in Nicaragua. Pesticides were applied as often as time allowed.
Some people even bought pesticides and poured them out, just to keep the bottle
(Hruska, 1990). Once subsidies were dropped so did pesticide use. Interest in
biocontrol is now high.
B. Fungicides
The discovery of the Bordeaux mixture 100 years ago was the first important land-
mark in the history of chemical control of plant diseases. Commercial production
of many crops, including Green Revolution ones, would be difficult or impossible
without chemicals to control diseases. The discovery of the dithiocarbamate
fungicides 50 years ago, and the introduction of several systemic fungicides in the
late 1960s, are the two most important events in the history of chemical control
of diseases (Anon, 1979).
Vine crops use most of the world's fungicides, followed by rice, vegetables,
deciduous fruits, potatoes and small grain cereals (Schwinn, 1982a). About 70%
of all fungicides are used on the above crops, almost exclusively against foliar
diseases. Vines and rice use about 50% of the fungicides. Rice and small grain
cereals have the highest potential for using more fungicides (Schwinn, 1982b).
For several types of diseases, chemical control is still weak or not possible at
all. Even for those diseases that can be controlled, the major fungicides are
technically out-dated; most of them are good for preventative use only. They are
neither systemic or curative.
Technical progress since the late 1960s in systemic and curative fungicides is
amazing. However, it has led to the new problem of resistance (Schwinn, 1982b).
Furthermore, most of the fungicides available are protectants. The farmer has to
apply them following a prophylactic schedule, when the probability of infection
has reached a certain threshold level. The new action systemic fungicides, even
though they have a significant curative action, are used erroneously as if they
were protectants.
Chemicals to control plant disease select for resistant strains of the pathogenic
species. In general, cases of insecticide resistance have been better documented
than those involving other pest groups, but costly crop failures due to fungicide
resistance is causing considerable concern. Over 150 crop plant pathogens are
known to be fungicide resistant (Dover and Croft, 1984). First, resistance
appeared to the pyrimides, later to the benzimidazoles, and most recently, to
the acylalanine metalaxyles (Schwinn, 1982b).
Resistance was practically unknown in plant pathogens as long as only inor-
ganic chemicals were used to control plant diseases. Traditional European
farmers still get good results from the old Bordeaux mix (Bentley, 1992a). Resis-
tance was observed in isolated cases, with few of the organic protectants, but
became a major problem after the introduction of the specific-acting systemic
fungicides and antibiotics (Anon, 1979).
Resistance has forced farmers to think more carefully about pesticides. In
the United States, a recent study by the National Academy of Sciences found
that of 4500 samples taken from fruit and vegetables, 80% contained hazardous
residues (Anon, 1993). The situation in developing countries could be worse
(FAO, 1986).
C. Reducing Synthetic Pesticides with Seed Treatments
Even those who support pesticides usually agree that less is better. Pesticide use
can be reduced by seed treatment with systemic pesticides. Seed treatment is
effective against seed-borne and root diseases, especially in tropical areas with
optimum conditions for disease development. Seed treatment with fungicides can
control seedling blast of rice (Ahn, 1981; Castafio-Zapata and Klap, 1991), seed-
borne and root diseases of beans (Trutmann et al., 1992) and seed treatment with
insecticides can control beanfly (Ophiomyia spencorella) on beans (Trutmann et al.,
1992) and aphids in winter barley, reducing the incidence of barley yellow dwarf
virus (Leclercq-le and Dedryver, 1992).
Chemical treatments of infected seeds reduce infection caused by several patho-
gens, increase germination, emergence, vigor and sometimes yield (Papavizas
and Lewis, 1975; Segura and Dfaz, 1975; Ellis et al., 1976; Willis, 1983; Castafio-
Zapata, 1985; Pedersen etal., 1986; Wright and Hughes, 1987; Castafio-Zapata
and Zepeda, 1990; Trutmann et al., 1992). Chemical seed treatments in an IPM
program help increase crop production, but require training programs to ensure
that users understand them. Chemical seed treatments are not a new concept;
but, surprisingly, their use as a technology for resource-poor farmers has been a
neglected area of research.
III. CULTURAL CONTROL A N D SUSTAINABILITY
Cultural control is more than mechanical operations, such as tillage and burning.
It involves many aspects of crop and soil management, including crop rotation,
time of planting and harvesting, seed storage, fertilizer rates and cropping system
diversification (Palti, 1981 ; Mabbett, 1982; Prasad et al., 1983; Page and Bridge,
1993; Qu6n6herv6, 1993). Although some cultural control practices, such as crop
rotation, are general practices that affect a variety of pests, many cultural controls
are relatively pest-specific, requiring knowledge of the life history and habits of
the target pest (Luna and House, 1991).
Altieri (1992) devotes a short book to the idea that increased biodiversity
reduces pests. He cites dozens of studies that show that more plant species in a
field lead to more natural enemies and fewer pests. Traditional farmers have
often grown several crops together and it is refreshing to see intercropping being
legitimized by agricultural scientists. Most of the experiments cited by Altieri
compare insect populations on monocrops with those on mixed crops of two or
three species. For example, intercropping sunhemp and cowpea with cassava on
C I A T (Centro lnternacional para Agricultura Tropical) experiment station trials
in Colombia lowered insect pest damage to economically acceptable levels (Gold
et al., 1989). Experiments are valuable for showing the value of intercropping
for crop protection, but a natural history approach that looked at the insect
populations and yields in traditional farmers' fields, where 20 plant species are
sometimes grown together, might be even better.
Increasing demands for food can lead to new, unsustainable cultural practices.
In Nigeria, African rice gall midge damage was exacerbated by, among other
things, more land planted to rice and by a wider range of planting dates which
allowed rice pests to build up (Umeh et al., 1992). The Balinese water temple net-
works evolved to regulate irrigation over large areas. The temple networks
scheduled a fallow period which helped reduce pests. In the 1970s when farmers
ignored the fallow and planted continuously, rice losses to planthoppers reached
50%. In 1988, the fallow was observed and pest losses were less than 1%. Now
development agencies intend to do away with the temple system (Lansing and
Kremer, 1993).
In Africa, the staple food crops, sorghum, maize and cowpea, are attacked
by stemborers, leading to 30-80 % crop loss. The International Center of Insect
Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) in Kenya recognizes that stemborers are diffi-
cult to control by insecticides. ICIPE's researchers see intercropping as the
most promising control strategy for stemborers (Saxena et al., 1989). Intercrop-
ping in India has also been shown to give farmers higher profits (Gupta and
Aggarwal, 1992).
To combat pests successfully in a sustainable agriculture, it seems less risky to
apply the old practices of ancient farmers. As Gould says: 'if one were to dream
of control measures to which insect pests truly could not adapt, food deprivation
might be the most evident candidate'. The age-old practice of crop rotation is
based on this approach; farmers alternate planting of a pest's host plant with a
plant that it cannot feed on, and the pests die of starvation. This strategy has
proved effective for centuries.
The 12-year civil war in E1 Salvador helped show the value of organic amend-
ments. La Providencia co-operative, in San Agustln, Usulut~in, could not buy
agrochemicals during the war. The farmers used coffee pulp as fertilizer and
used vegetal residues and wild plants to repel insect pests. Coffee yields at
La Providencia range between 300 and 400 kg ha-1, a sustainable, higher value
production with minimum inputs (Henrfquez, 1993).
Organic agriculture seeks to minimize insect pest problems by creating condi-
tions favorable to naturally occurring sources of mortality such as parasites,
predators and by helping plants become more pest resistant. Pesticides, concen-
trated fertilizers and large-scale monocultures must be avoided (Van Driesche,
1989).
Organic producers do not use synthetic pesticides. However, some chemicals
approved for use in organic agriculture still have the potential to cause outbreaks
by destroying natural enemies. Sulfur, for example, is used on fruit to control
plant diseases but is very damaging to predaceous mites and entomopathogenic
fungi (Van Driesche, 1989).
Cultural practices have one of the highest potentials for reducing yield loss due
to plant diseases. They can be manipulated to minimize inoculum production,
survival and dissemination, as well as infection of many pathogens and disease
development, yet this area of disease control receives the least attention among
the major control measures.
IV. HOST-PLANT RESISTANCE AND SUSTAINABILITY
Speaking for the C G I A R system of international research centers in the develop-

ing world, Plucknett (1993) writes that the system has now adopted sustainability
as part of its mandate and favors breeding resistant plants as an alternative to
pesticides. When host-plant resistance cannot be achieved, the centers 'must turn
to other measures, including biocontrol'. This bias in favor of plant breeding
comes from the C G I A R ' s older role of breeding the modern, high yielding crop
varieties of the Green Revolution. Host plant resistance is the cheapest and safest
method of controlling plant disease (Plucknett, 1993).
Before 1960, rice yields per hectare in much of the world were extremely low.
By 1966, IRRI had produced a variety with yields ranging from 6 to 10 t ha-1.
The I R R I varieties were taken to various countries of Asia and Latin America
for adaptive research and propagation. By 1969 the HYVs were covering about
23 % of the Intensification Program Area of Indonesia. As a result, rice produc-
tion doubled from 13.7 million tonnes in 1966 to 26.3 million tonnes in 1979
(Suhardjan and Iman, 1980). The first group of introduced HYVs had a narrow
genetic base. Those varieties were more vulnerable to devastation by insect pest
and diseases. In 1975, the yield losses caused only by the brown planthopper
(Nilaparvata lugens (Stap.) were estimated to be about 0.7 million tonnes of rough
rice (Suhardjan and Iman, 1980). Similarly, in Korea the HYV Tongil was
released in 1972 (IRRI, 1976) and yielded 30% more than the common varieties.
By 1977, Tongil and its derivatives were grown on 54 % of the rice-growing areas
of Korea. Due to the intensive monoculture, the fungus Pyricularia o~zae Cav., the
causal agent of rice blast, broke the resistance of Tongil, provoking epidemics of
blast and heavy losses of Korean rice production (Kiyosawa and Cho, 1980).
The selection of genotypes adapted to acid soils in the humid tropics is the most
successful example of the use of plant breeding to reduce the need for inputs. Acid-
tolerant varieties are being planted over large areas that previously could not be
planted without heavy lime applications, favoring resource-poor farmers. Acid
soils are distributed over extensive areas of the humid tropics and subtropics,
where they represent an important but fragile resource covering more than 1510
million ha in tropical Latin America, Africa and Asia (Rao et al., 1993).
Differential aluminum tolerance of genotypes within species has been reported
for rice, maize, wheat, oat, sorghum, bean, soybean and sugar cane, among
others (Foy, 1992), suggesting that this potential can be used to improve acid-
soil adaptation in high-yielding varieties.
In 1982, the CIAT Rice Program started a project to develop upland rice lines
adapted to depleted soils and resistant to diseases (particularly rice blast and the
hoja blanca virus) and insects pests (especially planthoppers and spittlebugs). The
rices were also selected for good yield potential and high lodging resistance under
favorable conditions (Sarkarung, 1986). More than 1300 lines were acquired,
many adapted to high A1, low-nutrient conditions, besides being resistant to rice
blast disease and brown leaf spot (Sarkarung, 1986). Castafio-Zapata (1991a)
introduced 200 of those lines from CIAT to Sumatra, Indonesia. More than
60% of the lines, in addition to being highly tolerant to A1 toxicity, were resis-
tant to blast disease, the most important limiting factor of upland-rice produc-
tion in acid soils. A similar successful approach has been followed for cassava
(E1-Sharkawy, 1993).
Methods have been developed for screening and testing host-plant resistance
and for tolerance to several biotic and abiotic stresses. In rice, for instance,
the International Network for Genetic Enhancement of Rice (INGER), IRRI,
Philippines, organized nurseries for finding and testing resistance to several
major diseases. The program has identified many disease-resistant rices. The
same has been achieved at CIAT, Colombia, for several biotic and abiotic
constraints of upland rice production (Rao etal., 1993), cassava (E1-Sharkaway,
1993), and common beans (Pachico and Schoonhoven, 1989). The CIAT Bean
Program decided to concentrate on a low input strategy of resistance instead
of breeding for yield because beans are susceptible to many insect pests and
pathogens and because poor farmers did not have access to chemical control
(Pachico and Schoonhoven, 1993).
Although plant breeders are incorporating resistance into commercial varie-
ties, good sources of stable resistance have not been found for many important
diseases. Varieties resistant to one disease are often susceptible to others. Breeding
must emphasize varieties that resist a wider complex of diseases (Castafio-Zapata,
1991b). Incorporating multiple resistance into commercial varieties had been a
long undertaking and the so-called 'pyramiding of resistant genes' has had only
limited success. The most important disadvantage has been the breakdown of
resistance due to new physiological races of the pathogens, especially obligate
parasites such as those that cause rusts and downy mildews and facultative
parasites such as the causal agent of rice blast. In wheat, many rust races that were
prevalent in the past are insignificant today because of breeding that incorporated
specific resistances into modern wheats.
However, new rust races continually appear to threaten production because of
the pathogen's capacity for mutation and sexual reproduction (Wiese, 1987).
Downy mildew is one of the world's worst agricultural diseases because it attacks
many crops (Moffat, 1992). The causal agent of rice blast, P. oryzae, is highly
variable and the rice varieties having race-specific resistance are rapidly overcome
in the tropics. A few commercial varieties have been highly resistant to the
pathogen but only for a short time (Ahn, 1981; Castafio-Zapata, 1991b). Hope-
fully, however, this drawback is expected to be overcome by using other breeding
strategies such as multilines, gene deployment, varietal diversification, or concen-
tration of slow blasting components (Castafio-Zapata, 1981). In addition, recent
advances in understanding both plant defense mechanisms and pathogen action
are opening the door to designing new strategies for helping plants turn aside
infections (Moffat, 1992). Recent advances in biotechnology now allow the DNA
of genes to be isolated chemically and transferred via cell and tissue culture into
whole plants.
Plant breeders have made little effort to work with farmers. This is ironic since
breeding is one of the things that farmers and scientists both do. For example, the
Lenca of Honduras keep a red maize for the disease resistance it gives to other
varieties (Ard6n-Mejia, 1993). Early experiences with farmers and breeders
have been positive. Ashby et al. (1989) helped farmers and CIAT work together;
researchers benefited from knowing the qualities farmers select for. The bean
varieties chosen by farmers for early release were grown for more years than
finished varieties, saving breeders time and money while giving farmers more
acceptable lines (Sperling etal., 1994).
Genetic erosion is perhaps the greatest threat to the sustainability of plant
breeding. US vice-president A1 Gore thinks it is the greatest threat to the global
food system (Gore, 1992). Plant breeders depend on genetic material from wild
plants and from landraces. Both are disappearing fast. Habitat destruction
extinguishes many wild congenerics of crops. Although some farmers continue to
grow a mix of HYVs and traditional varieties (Bellon, 1991), many landraces are
lost as farmers adopt plant breeders' varieties. A few private organizations are
working to save landraces. Native Seed Search helps organize farmers in the US
southwest who raise traditional crops (Soleri et al., 1991). Saving seeds on-farm
is becoming more important in light of the limitations of seedbanks. A seedbank
in a revolution is more vulnerable than a shopping center in a riot. Since 1989,
two seedbanks have been destroyed in the former USSR, one in Georgia and
another in Azerbaijan (Gillis, 1993). Shining Path guerrillas blew up the CIP
(International Potato Center) buildings in Peru (Gore, 1992).
Plant breeding for pest management is probably not sustainable. Insects over-
come the resistance of new plant varieties as easily as they develop resistance to
insecticides (Simms, 1987). The HYVs in general were bred for high yield, and
tend to be more susceptible to insect damage, as shown by a study of maize in
Ecuador (Evans and Zambrano, 1991).
Harms (1992) admits that HYVs have less pest and disease resistance than
landraces, but claims that by paying more attention to resistance and by using
new tools (including genetic engineering) plant breeders can breed genetic resis-
tance into many crops (Harms, 1992). Biotechnology may well help breed pest
resistance into plants, although pests will probably evolve their way around the
resistance just as fast as they adapt to pesticides or conventionally bred crop
varieties (Walgate, 1990). Reducing losses to pests may be the plant breeders
only option, if it is true that we have already reached the yield potential of the
HYVs and chemical fertilizer (Byerlee and Husain, 1993). E1-Sharkawy (1993)
is hopeful that cassava breeding can still double farmers' yields, but there is more
potential for plant breeding of cassava than other crops, because scientists have
studied cassava less than others.
V. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AND SUSTAINABILITY
Biocontrol is a possible alternative to intensive pesticide use. Even though syn-

thetic fertilizers and pesticides produce high crop yields, environmental balances
have been disrupted and considerable crop damage by insects and pathogens still
prevails.
According to Waage and Greathead (1988), most reviews on biological control
begin with a defensive list of the successes of biocontrol. This is probably because
the public still has a negative view ofbiocontrol because of some early experiences
with vertebrate predators (what we call mongoose paranoia): people think that
once an introduced natural enemy has eliminated the pest, it will become a
nuisance itself. The Organization of African Unity almost failed to accept the
mealybug project because of such fears (Waage and Greathead, 1988).
Biocontrol is becoming so well established that even chemical giants like Ciba-
Geigy are getting involved, researching parasitic wasps and entomopathogens
(Sechser, 1989). Although classical biocontrol has been tried on about 300 pests,
only about 120 attempts have worked. However, the biocontrol successes are
impressive because once a natural enemy of a pest is established no further
investments are needed and the introduced species pose no environmental risks
(Cate, 1990; Pimentel, 1991; Scott, Chapter 7, this volume).
Parasitoids have been successfully established in too many places to mention.
Some successes include control of citrus blackfly (Aleurocanthus woglumt) in Oman
(Al-Mjeni and Sankaran, 1991), Florida (Tefertiller et al., 1991) and Central
America (Quezada, 1990) and control of cereal aphids in Chile with four parasitic
hymenoptera (Quiroz, 1983). Control of cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihott)
in Africa has been the biggest biocontrol project and has saved billions of dollars
annually in crop losses (Mwanza, 1993; Plucknett, 1993).
Conserving native natural enemies is also important (Pollard, 1991). Examples
include rearing dragonfly larvae (Odonata: Libellulidae) and releasing them in
water supplies in Burma to control mosquitoes Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)
(Sebastian et al., 1990). In Bangladesh some farmers have maintained rice yields
without pesticides by cultivating insectivorous fish in their rice fields (Kamp et al.,
1993). Kgdnay reports taking charge of a cane plantation in Argentina in 1967.
Previous management had been 'fighting ants just because they were ants'. Once
they stopped killing ants, other insect pests disappeared, as the native ants
began to fulfill their role as pest predators (Kgdnay, 1987). Experiments in
Nicaragua showed that insecticides killed ants and increased insect pest popu-
lations (Perfecto, 1991). Ants are among the best pest control agents in the
tropics. They recruit other workers to prey, have large populations, and can
survive even when pest populations are low (Way and Khoo, 1992). The most
important way to conserve native natural enemies is to stop using insecticides,
as the Indonesian case has shown (Oka, 1991; van de Fliert and Winarto, 1993).
Hoy (1988) supports genetic improvement of natural enemies to make them
pesticide resistant.
Entomopathogens are being used increasingly in the developing world,
including Thailand, Egypt and Brazil (Jones, 1988; Jahn, 1992). It remains to
be seen if entomopathogens are much of an improvement over chemical insec-
ticides. While less toxic to humans and other vertebrates, pests develop resistance
to biological insecticides (Simms, 1987; Groeters etal., 1993).
One important difference between known biological agents and synthetic
chemicals is that biologicals are almost always protectants, while many modern
insecticides and fungicides are systemic and also may be used once infection has
started (Jacobsen and Backman, 1993).
Exciting developments in biological control of plant diseases have occurred
during the past 20 years (Lewis and Papavizas, 1991). Only five biocontrol pro-
ducts are now registered for use by the US Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) for control of plant diseases (Jacobsen and Backman, 1993). There are few
products because biological control research for product development has been
done for only 15-20 years, while synthetic fungicides have been under develop-
ment for more than 60 years.
Pest resistance has not been reported for biological agents, except in Galltrol-A
for control of crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefasciens) (Smith & Townsend) Conn.
(Ryder and Jones, 1990) and Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner for control of diamond-
back moth (PluteUa xylosteUa L.) (Groeters etal., 1993). Nevertheless, this may
reflect the limited development of biocontrol products instead of an inherent low
potential for development of resistance to biological control products.
IPM programs need more biocontrol products for controlling diseases. These
products have to be as efficient as common pesticides. Micro-organisms will
probably assume an increasingly prominent role as pest control agents as we
look forward to new environmentally responsible technologies. To control many
pests in the future, biological control may be the technology of choice, and
scientific interest and reallocation of resources towards using live fungi, bacteria
or virus for agricultural pest control has increased significantly (Jacobsen and
Backman, 1993).
Vl. WEEDS
We have neither the expertise nor the space to address weeds properly. This is
unfortunate because weeds are potentially the most damaging pest (Hoy, 1988).
Genetically engineered crops, bred to be resistent to herbicides, are an ecological
menace, encouraging herbicide use and damaging the environment (Simms,
1987; Gore, 1992). Forty-one weed species are now resistant to herbicides (50
according to Dover and Croft, 1984) and 32 diseases of crop plants are caused by
herbicides. Reduction in levels of soil organic matter, degradation and con-
tamination of groundwater, human cancers and general impoverishment of the
ecosystem have all been associated with herbicide use (Kloppenburg, 1988).
There has been some work with biological control of weeds, especially by using
plant diseases (Strobel, 1991). Despite their other disadvantages, weeds may be
sources of flowers for beneficial insects, and encourage neutral insects which may
serve as alternative food for predators or parasites (Altieri et al., 1977).
VII. SOIL HEALTH A N D SUSTAINABILITY
The basis of sustainable plant protection is plant health, and soil fertility is
crucial. Chemical fertilizers are not sustainable (Stinner and House, 1987; Crews
and Gliessman, 1991). A tonne of fertilizer increases yields less each year it is
applied (Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1990). Potassium and phosphorus are minerals.
They have to be mined. Like fossil fuel, one day they will be exhausted. The
best way to improve and restore soil quality and productivity is by proper and
regular additions of organic matter, especially by crop rotations, cover crops,
crop residues, animal manures, composts and reduced tillage (Papendick and
Parr, 1992).
Plant health depends on the biostructure of the soil (Kgtlnay, 1987). Beneficial
micro-organisms recycle nutrients, decompose organic waste and protect plants
from pests. These micro-organisms thrive on organic matter, which also detox-
ifies soil (Parr etal., 1992).
Adding green manure controls soil pathogens by increasing the amount of
saprophytes such as Trichoderma spp. In India, green manure and crop rotation
to control common scab of potatoes (Streptomyces scabies (Thaxter) Waksman &
Henrici) has been known for 60 years (Millerd, 1922, 1923, cited by Trehan and
Grewal, 1980).
A startling 0.7 % of the world's topsoil is lost annually (Brown and Wolf, 1984;
cited in Parr etal., 1992; see also Gore, 1992, chapter 6; Hobbelink, 1991, chapter
1). Agriculture has become like a business rushing towards bankruptcy by eating
away its own capital assets. Again, there is no easy solution. Canadian agriculture
of the 1930s was low-input, but had higher rates of soil erosion than now (Gracey,
1990). There were problems with soil erosion in ancient Mexico (Garcfa-Cook
and Merino-Carri6n, 1990). Maintaining soil fertility also means keeping the soil
fr,~m washing and blowing away and from becoming loaded with salt and other
toxic minerals. Soil conservation is one of sustainable agriculture's greatest needs.
Chemical fertilizer hurts soil structure by depriving soil of organic matter
(Mountjoy and Gliessman, 1988). Chemical fertilizers build up toxins in soil
(Janzen, 1973; Parr etal., 1992). In India, continuous use of fertilizers has
deteriorated soil fertility and reduced crop yields (Perumal, 1993). In Tanzania
farmers adopted a chemical approach and their maize yields went from 4 t down
to 1 t. Fertilizer use lowered production, increased pests and damaged the softs
(Warden, 1993).
Sometimes chemical fertilizers improve plant growth and increase yields, but
they also predispose plants to diseases and insect pests. Different kinds and
amounts of fertilizers affect the development of plant diseases. In rice, the supply
of nitrogen is essential for plant growth, helping to increase yields everywhere rice
is planted. Nevertheless, high doses of nitrogen can reduce yields if rice blast
attacks either foliage or panicles (Montoya, 1983). Special attention must be
given when recommending nitrogenous fertilizers at seedling and panicle stages,
when rice plants are more susceptible to P. oryzae. In general, more nitrogen
fertilizer induces greater severity of rice blast (Castafio-Zapata, 1991a).

Similarly, high nitrogen fertilizer rates favor higher brown planthopper (N. lugens)
populations (Suhardjan and Iman, 1980). Rice farmers have to use less nitrogen
fertilizer on HYVs to avoid serious outbreaks of either blast disease or brown
planthopper.
Nitrogen increases plant vigor and rate of growth, which make plants more
susceptible to pathogens. Vigorously growing crops are generally more suscepti-
ble to obligate parasites, such as rusts and powdery mildews of wheat as well as
virus diseases, such as tobacco mosaic virus (Palti, 1981). Some important facul-
tative parasites also benefit from high crop vigor, including P. oyzae, Thanatephorus
cucumeris (Frank) Dork. and Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. on rice (Ou, 1981), and
Stenocarpella maydis (Berk) Sutton and Helminthosporium turcicum Pass. on maize
(Schurtleff, 1980; Palti, 1981), among many others. From the crop protection
perspective, nitrogen fertilization has to be based on information about the
pathogens likely to attack the crop and the frequency and severity of the expected
attack (Palti, 1981). Nevertheless, this may not be possible in developing coun-
tries where most farmers have limited access to this kind of information.
It is not necessarily true that chemical fertilizers are required to maintain high
yields. One study of farmers in the Philippines showed that using less pesticides
and chemical fertilizer led to fewer pest problems, good harvests and lower costs
(Garcia-Padilla and Padilla, 1993). Gupta and Aggarwal (1992) report some
experiments with intercropping and organic matter in which organic fertilizers
mixed with chemical N provided acceptable yields. Crews and Gliessman (1991)
show that high-yielding raised fields in Tlaxcala, Mexico have supported dense
human populations since pre-Colombian times by recycling organic matter.
In a thoughtful paper on nitrogen fertilizer, Greenwood (1990) stresses the
importance of N to sustain high yields and concludes that N runoff probably is
a very small threat to human health and the environment. N has the disadvantage
of creating more greenhouse gasses. With N fertilizer, farmers can raise more fod-
der and more cattle. Cows are poor recyclers of N. They urinate more N in one
spot than the soil can absorb, so much of the N is lost to leaching (Greenwood,
1990). Greenwood argues in favor of continued chemical N and dismisses recycl-
ing of organic manure. ' M a n simply does not know how to recycle nutrients when
he grows the crops he needs for food' (Greenwood, 1990).
Greenwood is wrong; farmers do know how to recycle soil nutrients. Tradi-
tional European farmers learned to overcome that problem by keeping cattle in
stalls. Stall bedding of gorse and other forest plants absorbs urine and manure,
which are spread onto the fields each spring (Bentley, 1992a). Greenwood's atti-
tude is typical of the agricultural establishment's antagonism to recycling organic
matter. This was not always so. In 1908, the former Chief of the Division of Soil
Management for the US Department of Agriculture, F. H. King traveled through
Asia, marveling over the highly evolved farming systems that recycled everything
from crop residues to night soil (King, 1911). Chinese farmers had successfully
used these techniques for over 40 centuries. King was struck by the sustainability
of intensive Chinese agriculture decades before the word 'sustainable' became

popular.
In his insightful book on how to manage an agricultural research center, John
Nickel complains that 'too much talk about minimum inputs will lull uninformed
policy makers into complacency by leading them to think that there is an easy way
out; that agricultural development can somehow be accomplished by a combina-
tion of peasant wisdom and organic farming' (Nickel, 1989). On p. 117 he says
bluntly that organic farming is a 'non-starter'. We sympathize with Nickel; there
is no easy way out of the challenge of feeding the world' s billions without stripping
the planet bare. 'In spite of all the positive characteristics of traditional African
agriculture, and its success in supporting the population for generations, it seems
unable to cope with greatly increased population densities and changing social
and economic conditions (Cleveland, 1990)'. However, the only farming systems
with demonstrated sustainability, the ones that have existed for centuries, are all
based on peasant wisdom and organic farming. Some recent technical advances,
like classical biocontrol, may also be sustainable, although that has not yet been
proven. We suggest either building on organic farming, carefully, or for those
already committed to chemical-intensive agriculture, work back away from heavy
chemical use. Dismissing organic agriculture out of hand is not scientific. The
value of organic inputs, and of peasant wisdom, must be tested empirically before
being discarded.
VIII. SOCIAL SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Ecological entomologists who would never dream of writing about a pest without
discussing its natural enemies are often content to ignore soil and water. Many
who write about agriculture leave out the farmers, or else include them as two-
dimensional, cardboard people with no culture, no social, political or economic
environment. People have to be seen as the most important part of agriculture.
Plucknett (1993) boasts about the achievements of agricultural research (espe-
cially the C G I A R system) in bringing about the Green Revolution and averting
mass starvation. He chides Ehrlich (1967) for predicting hundreds of millions of
famine deaths in the 1970s and 1980s. Unfortunately, Ehrlich may still have the
last word, if not the last laugh. We now worry about new problems that Ehrlich
didn't dream of in the 1960s: the extinction crisis, rainforest destruction, AIDS,
acid rain, a hole in the ozone, a run-away greenhouse effect that could drown the
most populous parts of the planet and throw the Earth's climate out of kilter
(Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1990). Famine and disease are already with us (Gore,
1992), but Homer-Dixon etal. (1993) claim that mass violence linked to land
shortage could replace starvation as a leading cause of death and disruption. They
cite several examples, including the case of 1700 Bangladesh settlers in India
who were massacred in 5 h by Lalung Tribespeople claiming settlers were taking
the best land (Homer-Dixon etal., 1993). Civil war could threaten the existence
of international agricultural research centers spread out over the developing

world.
Big agriculture is killing the Earth to make money. Chemical companies are
buying seed companies and biotechnology companies to breed seeds that max-
imize chemical use (Kloppenburg, 1988; Gore, 1992). The IARCs and private
companies have collected seed from farmers, which was used to breed new
varieties, which the private companies increasingly sell back to small farmers
(Kloppenburg, 1988, 1990). It is one of the social inequities with no easy solution.
Increasingly known as 'farmers' rights', the idea that local people should be paid
for germplasm taken from them is flawed by the difficulty of deciding exactly who
should get the money and how (governments? NGOs (non-government organiza-
tions)? hundreds of millions of isolated peasant farmers? new bureaucracies?).
Biotechnology promises to bring many of the same kinds of equity and environ-
mental problems as the Green Revolution. An important difference is that the
Green Revolution was headed by the IARCs working with a few crops. Biotech-
nology could work with hundreds of species, is led by private companies in the
industrial north and they are being bought out by the largest chemical companies
(Hobbelink, 1991). Biotechnology is now getting more funds from the USDA,
while biological control gets less, even though biotechnology has not yet solved
any pest problems (Luna and House, 1991).
Sustainable agriculture requires more knowledge about ecological processes
than high input farming (Stinner and House, 1987). There are few journals like
ILEIA Newsletter, CIKARD News, Honey Bee or Indigenous Knowledge and Develop-
ment Monitor that actively seek to document the knowledge and experiments of
traditional farmers. Peasant farmers do not know everything. They often know
nothing of causal agents of disease, of insect metamorphosis, of parasitoids or
even of arthropod predators (Yabar, 1990; Bentley, 1991, 1993; Mata, 1991;
Heong et al., 1992). A study of small farmers in Costa Rica showed that they had
little idea that pesticides were dangerous either to people or the natural environ-
ment (Meir, 1990b). But their knowledge is nothing to sneer at. Traditional
knowledge is a priceless store of information about how things were done in the
past, when people were fed successfully without eroding the very base of farming.
Not all old farming systems were sustainable; the Classic Maya, the Anasazi and
ancient Mesopotamia are just three examples of crashed agroecosystems (see also
Denevan, Chapter 2, this volume). Nor is all modern technology unsustainable;
classical biocontrol, nitrogen fertilizer, Bordeaux mix and semiochemicals may
all be.
Sustainable techniques mimic natural ecological processes. Classical biocontrol
and soil antagonists both work because they subject pests to the pressure of natural
enemies. Cultural practices are sustainable when they imitate natural patterns of
soil formation or biodiversity. Host-plant resistance that is based on many lines
of resistance is probably sustainable because it is similar to the complex protection
that plants evolve under natural selection; pest resistance based on one line will
be easily overcome by the pests. Most synthetic pesticides are at odds with nature
268 J. IN. Bentley, J. Casta~o-Zapata and K. L. Andrews
and unsustainable. However, some of the recent popular alternatives are no more
natural nor sustainable. Bombarding a field with an entomopathogen is unlike
any ecological process, and insects rapidly evolve resistance to insecticides based
on Bacillus thuringie~is, for example. Botanical pesticides are pseudonatural
placebos. A plant's native protection chemicals are meant to be used in the plant,
not concocted for spraying on other species. We expect that if any botanical pesti-
cides are effective, pests will quickly evolve resistance to them.
The fact that much of traditional information pertains to a world of lower
population density is no excuse to disregard it. So far, there has been a lack of
an ecological, traditional agricultural system perspective in formal tropical
agricultural research (Ehdich and Ehrlich, 1990).
Traditional technical knowledge is more dynamic than we usually give it credit
for. British anthropologist-geographer Paul Richards has described numerous
farmer experiments in Sierra Leone; some farmers select new rice varieties (1985,
1986, 1989, 1991). The Chilean entomologist Miguel Altieri (1984, 1986, 1987,
Chapter 10, this volume) has consistently argued that farmer practices be taken
seriously in pest control.
The term 'farmer participation' has been coined to refer to scientists and
farmers working together. So far the idea has generated few technologies and has
been too vaguely defined to be of much use in overcoming scientists' reluctance
and inability to collaborate with small farmers (Tripp, 1989; Bentley, 1991). This
is unfortunate, because farmers also experiment, and scientists could learn more
by working with them. Few people know that the most successful fungicide ever,
the Bordeaux mix, was invented by a nineteenth-century French farmer who
first devised it to keep people from eating his ripe grapes. A scientist (Millardet)
recognized its value as a fungicide (Lang and Clutterbuck, 1991). We have
encouraged Central American farmers to invent sustainable pest control tech-
nology by systematically filling in the gaps in their knowledge, while validating
and respecting much of what they already know. This helps the campesinos create
a fresh perspective on pest control. Farmer graduates of our training have moved
wasp and ant nests, lured wasps and ants onto crops with sugar and invented traps
and botanical herbicides for pests (Bentley, 1992b,c, 1993; Bentley a al., 1993,
1994). Until now, farmers have been missing from much of scientists' work in
biocontrol; farmers are especially important allies for conserving and manipu-
lating native natural enemies (Andrews a al., 1992).
Traditional knowledge is not the whole answer, but it is part of the solution
rather than part of the problem of today' s agriculture. One of the most promising
signs in recent years has been the publication of David Thurston's (1992) book
on traditional management of plant diseases by small farmers. Thurston docu-
ments practices farmers have used to control and especially to prevent plant
diseases. Cultural practices have adaptive value; existing technology is the pro-
duct of a long evolution and would not exist for long if it were grossly maladaptive.
Thurston is a plant pathologist who has gained respect for traditional farmers.
David Cleveland and Daniela Soleri are anthropologists who have taken the trou-
ble to learn agronomy. Their book on dryland gardens is an unusual blend of

respect for traditional peoples and practices with a good technical background
(Cleveland and Soleri, 1991).
As the American geographer Gene Wilken said after describing the ingenious
farm technology of traditional Mexican farmers: 'It is also condescending to view
traditional farmers as sagacious husbandmen, imbued with infallible folk wis-
dom, in mystic harmony with the environment' (Wilken, 1987). The bases of a
sustainable pest control in the developing world are the traditional practices of
small farmers, combined with creative modern technologies to come up with
pragmatic techniques to save our crops from pests and disease without destroying
the soil and the Earth. We will need everything from manure to biotechnology
to survive into the twenty-first century.
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WORLD INTEGRATED PATHOGEN AND PEST

Jeffery w. Bentley, Jairo Castafio-Zapata and Keith L. Andrews

Zamorano, Apartado Postal 93, Tegucigalpa, Honduras

sustainable. We cannot be certain of the sustainability of new practices, but

II. CHEMICAL CONTROL A N D SUSTAINABILITY

and rotations of insecticides slowed resistance by one to seven generations. Most

Unfortunately, intercropping and host-plant resistance experiments are also

C. Reducing Synthetic Pesticides with Seed Treatments

III. CULTURAL CONTROL A N D SUSTAINABILITY

IV. HOST-PLANT RESISTANCE AND SUSTAINABILITY

Speaking for the C G I A R system of international research centers in the develop-

V. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AND SUSTAINABILITY

Biocontrol is a possible alternative to intensive pesticide use. Even though syn-

VII. SOIL HEALTH A N D SUSTAINABILITY

fertilizer induces greater severity of rice blast (Castafio-Zapata, 1991a).

of intensive Chinese agriculture decades before the word 'sustainable' became

VIII. SOCIAL SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

of international agricultural research centers spread out over the developing

ble to learn agronomy. Their book on dryland gardens is an unusual blend of

K~ilnay, R. A. (1987). E1 sentido de las llamadas plagas. CIRPON .5, 69-87.

Richards, P. (1985). 'Indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production

Strobel, G. A. (1991). Biological control of weeds. Scientific American 265, 72-78.

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