Computer Network

Computer networking
Computer networking
A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing resources. The most common
resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other shared resources can include a printer or a file server. The
Internet itself can be considered a computer network.
∗A computer network is a set of connected computers.

∗ . Computers on a network are called nodes.
∗ The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most commonly the Ethernet cable, or wirelessly
through radio waves. Connected computers can share resources, like access to the Internet, printers, file servers, and
others.
Types of casting :
1. Unicast
• Transmitting data from one source host to one destination host is called as unicast.
• It is a one to one transmission.
Eg. Host A having IP Address 11.1.2.3 sends data to the host B having IP Address 20.12.4.2.
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Computer networking
2. Broadcast
• Transmitting data from one source host to all the other hosts residing in the same or other network is called as
broadcast.
• It is a one to all transmission.
Based on recipient’s network, it is classified as-
1. Limited Broadcast
2. Direct Broadcast
A. Limited Broadcast
• Transmitting data from one source host to all the other hosts residing in the same network is called as limited
broadcast.
Eg . Host A having IP Address 11.1.2.3 sends data to all the other hosts residing in the same network.
B. Direct Broadcast
• Transmitting data from one source host to all the other hosts residing in some other network is called as direct
broadcast.
Eg. Host A having IP Address 11.1.2.3 sends data to all the other hosts residing in the network having IP Address
20.0.0.0

Computer networking
3. Multicast
• Transmitting data from one source host to a particular group of hosts having interest in receiving the data is called
as multicast.
• It is a one to many transmission.
Eg.
• Sending a group message to a particular group of people through whatsapp
• Sending an email to a particular group of people
• Video conference or teleconference
Types of Network Topology :

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various nodes(sender and
receiver) through lines of connection.
1. BUS Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single cable. When it has
exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology :
1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Computer networking
Advantages of Bus Topology:
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology :
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
RING Topology/ STAR Topology:

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer, with
the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Computer networking
Features of Ring Topology:
1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send
some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to
reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each
Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them. Also, if one
ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through each node of the
network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology:
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can
transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology:
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

Computer networking
EXETENDED-STAR Topology :
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology :
1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology:
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology :
1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.

Computer networking
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to each other. Mesh
has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding
MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data to
reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links, and it
avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.
MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The network is
robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology :
1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as mesh
topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Computer networking
Features of Mesh Topology:
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology:
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology/ HIERARCHY Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical
topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Computer networking
Features of Tree Topology:
1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology :
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology:
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

Computer networking
HYBRID Topology :
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in an office in one
department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in
Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology :
1. It is a combination of two or topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology :
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology :
1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

Computer networking
Transmission Modes in Computer Networks:

Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices connected over a network. It
is also called Communication Mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of information. There are three types
of transmission modes. They are:
1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode
SIMPLEX Mode :
In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e. communication is unidirectional. We
cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex Systems where we just
need to send a command/signal, and do not expect any response back.
Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard and monitor
etc.
HALF DUPLEX Mode :

Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal carrier, but not at the
same time.
For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-duplex transmission, one workstation can send
data on the line and then immediately receive data on the line from the same direction in which data was just
transmitted. Hence half-duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line (one that can carry data in both directions) but
data can be sent in only one direction at a time.
Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time but messages are sent in both the
directions.

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FULL DUPLEX Mode :

In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is bidirectional at the same time in other words, data
can be sent in both directions simultaneously.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at the same time.
In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving data.
Types of Communication Networks

Communication Networks can be of following 5 types:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Campus Area Network(CAN)
5. Personal Area Network(PAN)

Computer networking
Local Area Network (LAN):

It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of buildings or a factory. LANs
are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot. Personal computers and workstations are connected to each
other through LANs. We can use different types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network among each other while it
can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.
LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.
Characteristics of LAN :
• LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls.
• LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN.
• There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent ones are Ethernet, Token
ring.
• It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a restricted geographical area.
Applications of LAN :
• One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining computers called clients.
Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the remaining clients.
• Connecting Locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with each other locally without
any internet access.
• Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.

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Advantages of LAN :
• Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives and hard disks can be shared
with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost and hardware purchases.
• Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software over network instead of purchasing separate
licensed software for each client a network.
• Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be transferred over networked computers.
• Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the server computer. This will help
users to use any workstation in a network to access their data. Because data is not stored on workstations locally.
• Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to manage data at only one place
and the data will be more secure too.
• Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet connection among all the
LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing system keeps the internet expenses cheaper.
Disadvantages of LAN :
• High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared computer resources, but the initial
setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high.
• Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data files of each and every LAN
user. Moreover he can check the internet history and computer use history of the LAN user.
• Data Security Threat: Unauthorised users can access important data of an organization if centralized data
repository is not secured properly by the LAN administrator.
• LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because, there are problems of
software installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in Local Area Network. A LAN Administrator is
needed at this full time job.
• Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one building or a group of nearby
buildings.

Computer networking
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and uses the similar
technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be means to connecting a number of LANs into
a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is mainly hold and operated by single private company or a public
company.
Characteristics of MAN :
• It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
• Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Advantages of MAN :
• Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as fibre optic cables.
• It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs.
• The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in both directions simultaneously.
• A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN :
• More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
• It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage(spying) graphical regions.

Computer networking
Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for the network that covers
large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design and maintain. Communication medium used by
WAN are PSTN or Satellite links. WAN operates on low data rates.
Characteristics of WAN:
• It generally covers large distances(states, countries, continents).
• Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are connected by routers .
Advantages of WAN :
• Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one network.
• Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
• Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages can have picture, sounds or
data included with them(called attachments).
• Expensive things(such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all the computers on the network
without having to buy a different peripheral for each computer.
• Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems where some users may have older
information than others.
Disadvantages of WAN :
• Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.

Computer networking
• Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the network the more expensive it is.
• Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network supervisors and technicians to be
employed.
• Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information from other computers.
Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.
Campus Area Network(CAN) :

A campus area network (CAN) is a network of multiple interconnected local area networks (LAN) in a limited
geographical area. A CAN is smaller than a wide area network (WAN) or metropolitan area network (MAN).
Advantages of CAN :
• Cost-effective
• Wireless, versus cable
• Multidepartmental network access
• Single shared data transfer rate (DTR)
Disadvantages of CAN:
1) Though maximum number of nodes are not specified for the network. It supports upto 64 nodes due to electrical
loading.
2) It supports maximum length of 40 meters.
3) It is likely to have undesirable interactions between nodes.
4) It incurs more expenditure for software development and maintenance.

Computer networking
Personal area network (PAN):

Personal area network (PAN) is an interconnection between different devices like smartphone, tablet, computer and
other digital devices. PAN is used for a personal purpose like data sharing among devices and it has a range of 10
meters. Some type of personal area networks is wired like USB while others are wireless like Bluetooth. Wireless
personal area network is also known as WPAN.
Advantages of personal area network

No extra space requires:
Personal area network does not require extra wire or space. For connecting two devices you only need to enable
Bluetooth in both devices to start sharing data among them. For example, connecting wireless keyboard and mouse
with the tablet through Bluetooth.
Connect to many devices at a time:

Many devices can be connected to one device at the same time in a personal area network. You can connect one
mobile to many other mobiles or tablets to share files.
Cost effective:
No extra wires are needed in this type of network. Also, no extra data charges are involved so PAN is an inexpensive
way of communication.
Easy to use:
It is easy to use. No advanced setup is required.
Reliable:
If you use this type of data connection within 10 meters then your network is stable and reliable.
Secure:
This network is secured because all the devices are authorized before data sharing. Third party injection and data
hacking are not possible in PAN.
Used in office, conference, and meetings:

Infrared is the technology used in TV remotes, AC remotes, and other devices. Bluetooth, infrared and other types of
PAN is used to interconnect digital devices in offices, meetings, and conferences.
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Synchronize data between different devices:

One person can synchronize several devices i.e. download, upload and exchanging data among devices.
Portable:
A person can move devices as it is a wireless network and data exchange is not affected. That mean PAN is portable
as well.
Disadvantages of personal area network :

Less distance range:
Signal range is maximum 10 meters which makes limitation for long distance sharing.
Interfere with radio signals:

As personal area network also use infrared so it can interfere with radio signals and data can be dropped.
Slow data transfer:

Bluetooth and infrared have a slow data transfer rate as compared to another type of networks like LAN (local area
network).
Health problem:
In some cases, PAN uses microwave signals in some digital devices which have a bad effect on the human body like
brain and heart problems may occur.
Costly in terms of communication devices:

Personal area network is used in digital devices which are costly so it is another disadvantage of PAN. Examples are
smartphones, PDA, laptops, and digital cameras.
Infrared signals travel in a straight line:

TV remote use infrared signals which have a problem that they travel in straight line. So this counts another
disadvantage of PAN.
Examples of personal area network:

• Wireless keyboards
• Wireless Mice
• Smartphones
• TV remotes
• Wireless printers
• Gaming consoles
• Smartphone technologies include Infrared, Bluetooth, FireWire, ZigBee, Ultrawideband, Wibree, wireless USB

Computer networking
Network Devices:
1. Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches,
for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets
are sent to all connected devices. In other words, collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one.
Also, they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub
• Active Hub :- These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can clean , boost and relay the
signal along the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as wiring center. These are used to extend
maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub :- These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power supply from active hub.
These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend
distance between nodes.
2. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. Router is
mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast
domains of hosts connected through it.
3. Switch – A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency (large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. Switch is data link layer device. Switch can
perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as it does not forward
packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to correct port only. In other words,
switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains same.

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IP ADDRESS :
Internet Protocol hierarchy contains several classes of IP Addresses to be used efficiently in various situations as per
the requirement of hosts per network. Broadly, the IPv4 Addressing system is divided into five classes of IP
Addresses. All the five classes are identified by the first octet of IP Address.
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers is responsible for assigning IP addresses.
The first octet referred here is the left most of all. The octets numbered as follows depicting dotted decimal notation
of IP Address:
The number of networks and the number of hosts per class can be derived by this formula:
When calculating hosts' IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased because they cannot be assigned to hosts, i.e. the
first IP of a network is network number and the last IP is reserved for Broadcast IP.
Class A Address :
The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero). Thus the first octet ranges from 1 – 127, i.e.
Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x only. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved for
loopback IP addresses.
The default subnet mask for Class A IP address is 255.0.0.0 which implies that Class A addressing can have 126
networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2).
Class A IP address format is thus: 0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
Class B Address :
An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first octet set to 10, i.e.

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Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x.
Class B has 16384 (214) Network addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host addresses.
Class B IP address format is: 10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
Class C Address :
The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110, that is:
Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The default subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x.
Class C gives 2097152 (221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host addresses.
Class C IP address format is: 110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH
Class D Address :
Very first four bits of the first octet in Class D IP addresses are set to 1110, giving a range of:
Class D has IP address range from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class D is reserved for Multicasting. In
multicasting data is not destined for a particular host, that is why there is no need to extract host address from the IP
address, and Class D does not have any subnet mask.
Class E Address :
This IP Class is reserved for experimental purposes only for R&D or Study. IP addresses in this class ranges from
240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. Like Class D, this class too is not equipped with any subnet mask.

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OSI LAYERS :
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘International Organization of
Standardization‘, in the year 1974. It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to
perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe.
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it
into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
The functions of the physical layer are :
1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This
clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus, star or mesh topolgy.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layersor Hardware Layers.

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2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to
make sure data transfer is error free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a
network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of NIC(Network
Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire
asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
The functions of the data Link layer are :

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that
are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and
end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC address) of sender
and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus , flow control
coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC sub-layer of data
link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks. It also takes
care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by network layer. Such an
address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.
** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

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4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer. The data in the transport
layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End delivery of the complete message. Transport layer
also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
• At sender’s side:
Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation and also implements Flow
& Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and
forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender need to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when a web
application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned
to web applications. Many applications have default port assigned.
• At receiver’s side:
Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective
application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
The functions of the transport layer are :
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer , breaks the message
into smaller units . Each of the segment produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer header includes a
type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, transport layer
makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
The services provided by transport layer :
1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet or
group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission, the
receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection oriented Service is more reliable than connection less Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with the Application
Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

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5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :
1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered
as synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller : The session layer determines which device will communicate first
and the amount of data that will be sent.
**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in TCP/IP
model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also
known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
SCENARIO:
Let’s consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which
provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, encrypted (if any secure data) and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can
be transmitted.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
1. Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is
known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Computer networking
7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer which is implemented by the
network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network. This layer
also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received information
to the user.
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.
**Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.
The functions of the Application layer are :

1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented in Internet because of its late invention. Current model
being used is the TCP/IP model.
Subnet Mask
A subnet mask is a number that defines a range of IP addresses that can be used in a network. (It is not something you
wear on your head to keep subnets out.) Subnet masks are used to designate subnetworks, or subnets, which are
typically local networks LANs that are connected to the Internet. Systems within the same subnet can communicate
directly with each other, while systems on different subnets must communicate through a router. Therefore,
subnetworks can be used to partition multiple networks and limit the traffic between them.
A subnet mask hides, or "masks," the network part of a system's IP address and leaves only the host part as the
machine identifier. A common subnet mask for a Class C IP address is 255.255.255.0. Each section of the subnet
mask can contain a number from 0 to 256, just like an IP address. Therefore, in the example above, the first three
sections are full, meaning the IP addresses of computers within the subnet mask must be identical in the first three
sections. The last section of each computer's IP address can be anything from 0 to 255. For example, the IP addresses
10.0.1.201 and 10.0.1.202 would be in the same subnet, while 10.0.2.201 would not. Therefore, a subnet mask of
255.255.255.0 allows for close to 256 unique hosts within the network (since not all 256 IP addresses can be used).
If your system is connected to a network, you can typically view the network's subnet mask number in the
Network control panel (Windows) or System Preference (Mac OS X). Most home networks use the default subnet
mask of 255.255.255.0. However, some office networks may use a different subnet mask such as 255.255.255.128,
which can be used to split a network into two subnets. Large networks with several thousand machines may use a
subnet mask of 255.255.0.0. This is the default subnet mask used by Class B networks. The largest Class A networks
use a default subnet mask of 255.0.0.0.
MAC Address
Stands for "Media Access Control Address," and no, it is not related Apple Macintosh computers. A MAC address is a
hardware identification number that uniquely identifies each device on a network. The MAC address is manufactured
into every network card, such as an Ethernet card or Wi-Fi card, and therefore cannot be changed.
Because there are millions of networkable devices in existence, and each device needs to have a unique MAC address,
there must be a very wide range of possible addresses. For this reason, MAC addresses are made up of six two-
digit hexadecimal numbers, separated by colons. For example, an Ethernet card may have a MAC address of
00:0d:83:b1:c0:8e. Fortunately, you do not need to know this address, since it is automatically recognized by most
networks.

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Computer networking

∗A computer network is a set of connected computers.

SURYAPRAKASH.S ,NIE,MYSORE-23 Page 1

SURYAPRAKASH.S ,NIE,MYSORE-23 Page 2

Types of Network Topology :

Features of Bus Topology :

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

SURYAPRAKASH.S ,NIE,MYSORE-23 Page 3

Advantages of Bus Topology:

2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.

3. Used in small networks.

5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology :

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

3. Cable has a limited length.

4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology/ STAR Topology:

SURYAPRAKASH.S ,NIE,MYSORE-23 Page 4

Features of Ring Topology:

Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology:

2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology:

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.

3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

SURYAPRAKASH.S ,NIE,MYSORE-23 Page 5

Features of Star Topology :

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology:

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.

4. Easy to setup and modify.

Disadvantages of Star Topology :

1. Cost of installation is high.

SURYAPRAKASH.S ,NIE,MYSORE-23 Page 6

MESH Topology: Routing

MESH Topology: Flooding

Types of Mesh Topology :

SURYAPRAKASH.S ,NIE,MYSORE-23 Page 7

Features of Mesh Topology:

Advantages of Mesh Topology:

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

3. Fault is diagnosed easily.

4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.

3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology/ HIERARCHY Topology

SURYAPRAKASH.S ,NIE,MYSORE-23 Page 8

Features of Tree Topology:

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

Advantages of Tree Topology :

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

3. Easily managed and maintained.

4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology:

3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.

4. Central hub fails, network fails.