Collaborating On Composition The Role o PDF

Live-Electronic Music
During the twentieth century, electronic technology enabled the explosive

development of new tools for the production, performance, dissemination
and conservation of music. The era of the mechanical reproduction of music
has, rather ironically, opened up new perspectives, which have contributed
to the revitalisation of the performer’s role and the concept of music as per-
formance. This book examines questions related to music that cannot be set
in conventional notation, reporting and reflecting on current research and
creative practice primarily in live electronic music. It studies compositions
for which the musical text is problematic, that is, nonexistent, incomplete,
insufficiently precise or transmitted in a nontraditional format. Thus, at the
core of this project is an absence. The objects of study lack a reliably pre-
cise graphical representation of the work as the composer or the composer/
performer conceived or imagined it. How do we compose, perform and
study music that cannot be set in conventional notation? The authors of
this book examine this problem from the complementary perspectives of
the composer, the performer, the musical assistant, the audio engineer, the
computer scientist and the musicologist.
Friedemann Sallis is Professor and Director of Graduate Studies in the

Music Department at the University of Calgary, Canada.
Valentina Bertolani is currently pursuing a PhD in musicology at the

University of Calgary, Canada.
Jan Burle is a scientist at Jülich Centre for Neutron Science, Forschungszentrum

Jülich GmbH, Outstation at MLZ in Garching, Germany.
Laura Zattra is a Research Fellow at Institut de Recherche et Coordination

Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM) in Paris, France.
Live-Electronic Music
Composition, Performance, Study
Edited by Friedemann Sallis, Valentina

Bertolani, Jan Burle and Laura Zattra
First published 2018
by Routledge
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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2018 selection and editorial matter, Friedemann Sallis, Valentina
Bertolani, Jan Burle, and Laura Zattra; individual chapters, the
contributors
The right of Friedemann Sallis, Valentina Bertolani, Jan Burle, and
Laura Zattra to be identified as the authors of the editorial material,
and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in
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Contents
List of figures viii

List of contributors xiii
Acknowledgements xvii
Introduction 1
F riedemann Sallis , Valentina Bertolani ,
Jan Burle and L aura Z attra
Part I
Composition 15
1 Dwelling in a field of sonic relationships: ‘Instrument’ and

‘listening’ in an ecosystemic view of live electronics performance 17
Agostino Di S cipio
2 (The) speaking of characters, musically speaking 46

C hris C hafe
3 Collaborating on composition: the role of the musical assistant

at IRCAM, CCRMA and CSC 59
L aura Z attra
Part II
Performance 81
4 Alvise Vidolin interviewed by Laura Zattra: the role of the

computer music designers in composition and performance 83
L aura Z attra
vi Contents
5 Instrumentalists on solo works with live electronics: towards a
contemporary form of chamber music? 101
F ranç ois -X avier F é ron and Guillaume B outard
6 Approaches to notation in music for piano and live electronics:

the performer’s perspective 131
X enia Pestova
7 Encounterpoint: the ungainly instrument as co-performer 160

John G ranzow
8 Robotic musicianship in live improvisation involving

humans and machines 172
George T zaneta k is
Part III
Study 193
9 Authorship and performance tradition in the age of technology

(with examples from the performance history of works by Luigi
Nono, Luciano Berio and Karlheinz Stockhausen) 195
A ngela I da De Benedictis
10 (Absent) authors, texts and technologies: ethnographic

pathways and compositional practices 217
N icola S caldaferri
11 Computer-supported analysis of religious chant 230

Dá niel Biró and George T zaneta k is
12 Fixing the fugitive: a case study in spectral transcription of

Luigi Nono’s A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum. À più
cori for contrabass flute in G, contrabass clarinet in B flat and
live electronics (1985) 253
Jan Burle
Contents vii
13 A spectral examination of Luigi Nono’s A Pierre.
Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum (1985) 275
F riedemann Sallis
14 Experiencing music as strong works or as games: the

examination of learning processes in the production and
reception of live electronic music 290
V incent T iffon
Bibliography 305
Index 000
Figures
1.1 Agostino Di Scipio, Two Pieces of Listening

and Surveillance. Diagram of the complete
performance infrastructure 21
1.2 Agostino Di Scipio, Two Pieces of Listening and
Surveillance, sketch of the complete process 24
Surveillance, graphic score for flute action (excerpt) 27
Surveillance (score excerpt), signal flow chart describing
some of the digital signal processing 32
2.1 The Animal algorithm is comprised of two parallel
resonators with the logistic map in their feedback path 49
2.2 Amplitude and spectrogram display of two seconds of
sound from ramping up ratios of resonator delay lengths
from 1.04 to 8.0 53
sound from ramping up feedback gain to both resonators
from 0.0 to 1.0 53
sound from changing the balance between resonators 54
sound from ramping up the low band pass frequency from
550 to 9000 Hz 54
sound from ramping up ratios of resonator low band pass
frequencies from 1.003 to 4.0 54
sound from ramping up the parameter r of the logistic map 55
3.1 Pierre Boulez at a desk working on Répons at IRCAM,
1984 (IRCAM, Paris, Espace de projection) 65
3.2 1975: Pierre Boulez brought an IRCAM team to CCRMA
for a two-week course in computer music 69
Figures ix
3.3 Richard Teitelbaum (standing) and from left to right Joel
Chadabe, and musical assistants Mauro Graziani and
Alvise Vidolin in 1983, Venice Biennale, Festival ‘La scelta
trasgressiva’ 73
5.1 Population distribution in terms of their first experience in
musique mixte 103
5.2 Schematic depiction of the social interaction in
musique mixte 104
6.1 Jonty Harrison, Some of its Parts, page 3 (excerpt) 135
6.2 Heather Frasch, Frozen Transitions, page 2 (excerpt) 137
6.3 Lou Bunk, Being and Becoming, bars 58–60 of full score 139
6.4 Lou Bunk, Being and Becoming, bars 58–60 of
performance score 140
6.5 Denis Smalley, Piano Nets, page 11 (excerpt) 140
6.6 Elainie Lillios, Nostalgic Visions, page 2 (excerpt) 141
6.7 Juraj Kojs, Three Movements, page 2 (excerpt) 143
6.8 Juraj Kojs, All Forgotten, page 14 (excerpt) 144
6.9 Per Bloland, Of Dust and Sand, bars 73–75 (piano part) 145
6.10 Larry Austin, Accidents Two, Event 36 1/2 146
6.11 Dominic Thibault, Igaluk: To Scare the Moon with its Own
Shadow, bars 213–15 147
6.12 Hans Tutschku, Zellen-Linien, page 1 (excerpt) 148
6.13 Bryan Jacobs, Song from the Moment, bars 84–92 149
6.14 Scott Wilson, On the Impossibility of Reflection, bars 1–4 150
6.15 Alistair Zaldua, Contrejours, page 3 (excerpt) 152
6.16 Karlheinz Essl and Gerhard Eckel, Con una Certa
Espressione Parlante, page 6 (excerpt) 154
6.17 Karlheinz Essl and Gerhard Eckel, Con una Certa
Espressione Parlante, page 9 (excerpt) 155
6.18 (a) The author with The Rulers, image by Vanessa
Yaremchuk. (b) Detail from Figure 6.18a 156
6.19 D. Andrew Stewart, ‘Sounds between Our Minds, page 4,
full score (excerpt). The Rulers notation is shown on the
two bottom staves 156
7.1 A partially 3D printed version of Hans Reichel’s
daxophone constructed by author, with the ‘dax’ resting on
tongue 162
8.1 Mahadevibot robotic percussion instruments designed by
Ajay Kapur 174
8.2 Early robotic idiophones by Trimpin 176
8.3 Percussion robots with microphone for self-listening 179
8.4 Velocity calibration based on loudness and timbre:
(a) MFCC-values, (b) MFCC-inverse-mapping,
(c) PCA-values, (d) calibrated PCA 182
x Figures
8.5 Pattern recognition – average precision for different
gestures on the radiodrum and vibraphone. The mean
average precisions (MAP) are 0.931 and 0.799 185
8.6 Kinect-sensing of free space mallet gestures above a vibraphone 187
8.7 Virtual vibraphone bar faders 188
8.8 Trimpin next to one of the robotically actuated piano
boards developed for Canon X + 4:33 = 100 189
9.1 Charles Rodrigues, ‘And now, electronic music of
Stockhausen...’, Stereo Review (November 1980) 195
9.2 (a) Luciano Berio, Sequenza I (Milan: Edizioni Suvini
Zerboni, n.d.), p. [1] (© 1958), S. 5531 Z. (b) Luciano
Berio, Sequenza I (Milan: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, n.d.),
performance notes, p. [1] (© 1958), S. 5531 Z 199
9.3 Luciano Berio, Sequenza I (Vienna: Universal Edition,
n.d.), p. [1] (© 1998), UE 19 957. 201
9.4 Karlheinz Stockhausen, Kreuzspiel, Kontra-Punkte,
Zeitmaße, Adieu, The London Sinfonietta, Dirigent:
Karlheinz Stockhausen, LP Hamburg: Polydor 1974,
dustjacket LP Deutsche Grammophon (2530 443) 203
9.5 (a) Karlheinz Stockhausen, Kreuzspiel (Vienna: Universal
Edition, n.d.), performers notes, n. p (© 1960); UE 13
117. (b) Karlheinz Stockhausen, Kreuzspiel, rev. 4th edn.
(Vienna: Universal, 1990), performance notes,
n. p. (UE 13 117) 204
9.6 Luciano Berio, Sequenza III (London: Universal, n.d.),
p. [1] (© 1968), UE 13 723. 206
9.7 Luciano Berio, handwritten page from the electronic score
of Ofaním, cue clarinet (Luciano Berio Collection, Paul
Sacher Foundation) 208
10.1 Simha Arom, analysis of the music of Banda Linda
as found among Luciano Berio’s sketches for Coro
(Scherzinger 2012, 412) 221
10.2 Steven Feld, wearing DSM microphones, records canti
a zampogna (voice: Giuseppe Rocco, zampogna: Nicola
Scaldaferri). Accettura (Matera, Italy) 14 May 2005;
(Scaldaferri and Feld 2012, 84) 226
11.1 Qur’an sura, Al-Qadr recited by Sheikh Mahmûd Khalîl
al-Husarî, pitch (top, MIDI units) and energy (bottom,
decibels) contours 232
11.2 Qur’an sura, Al-Qadr recited by Sheikh Mahmûd Khalîl
al-Husarî, recording-specific scale derivation 233
11.3 Screen-shot of interface: paradigmatic analysis of neume
types in Graduale Triplex 398 as they relate to
melodic gesture 234
Figures xi
11.4 Béla Bartók, transcription of Mrs. János Péntek
(#17b) from 1937 238
11.5 Density plot of the recording of Mrs. János Péntek 239
11.6 Density plot transcription of the recording of Mrs. János Péntek 240
11.7 Pitches, based on the density plot, ordered in terms of their
density 240
11.8 Pitches, based on the density plot, ordered in terms of
scale degree 240
11.9 Bartók’s original transcription, juxtaposed with the
version with scales derived from density plot 241
11.10 Bartók’s Original Transcription, juxtaposed with the
version with scales derived from the density plot; primary
pitches have note heads marked by an ‘x’, secondary
pitches by a triangle and tertiary pitches by a diagonal line
through the note head 241
11.11 Sirató, paradigmatic analysis of text/melody relationship
as displayed in the cantillion interface 242
11.12 Pitch-histograms of Genesis chapters 1–4 (a) and Genesis
chapter 5 (b) as read in The Hague by Amir Na’amani in
November 2011 244
11.13 (a) Distribution of distances between unrelated segments.
(b) Distributions of distances between sof pasuq renditions
in Italian (a) and Moroccan (b) renditions 246
11.14 (a) Density plots of frequencies occurring in
Indonesian (a) and Dutch (b) recitation of sura al
Qadr. (b) Scale degrees derived from Indonesian (solid)
and Dutch (dashed) pitch density plots for sura al Quadr.
(c) Contours of the same cadence as sung by Dutch (a) and
Indonesian (b) reciters quantised according to the derived
scale degrees 247
12.1 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum,
diagrams of the position of the loudspeakers (left) and the
live electronic configuration with line recordings identified
(right) (Nono 1996, xv) 259
unprocessed spectrogram of a performance recorded on 28
February 2009 262
spectrogram of the contrabass clarinet sound recorded on
28 February 2009 262
spectrogram of the contrabass flute part, bars 4–7,
recorded on 28 February 2009 263
manual transcription of sound of the flute and clarinet, bars 1–9 264
xii Figures
bars 15–31 268
contrabass clarinet part, bars 24–25, (a–c) present stages of
the transcription process 270
contrabass flute part, bars 24–25, (a–c) present stages of
the transcription process 271
contrabass flute and contrabass clarinet parts, bars 17–29,
(a) Loris analysis, (b) final transcription 272
transcription of the entire performance, recorded in Banff
on 28 February 2009 281
transcription of sounds produced by the contrabass flute
and the contrabass clarinet directly, bars 17–29 282
13.3 Luigi Nono, A Pierre, transcription of sounds produced by
the harmonisers and filter 3, bars 17–29 283
13.4 Luigi Nono, A Pierre, amalgamation of Figures 13.2 and
13.3, bars 17–29 284
13.5 Luigi Nono, Notes for a lecture ‘Altre possibilità di
ascolto’ presented during August 1985 at the Fondazioni Cini 288
14.1 Marco Stroppa, …of Silence…, photo of the ‘acoustic totem’ 293
14.2 Marco Stroppa, …of Silence…, diagram of the audio setup 294
14.3 XY installation, diagram of the audio device and capture 295
14.4 XY installation, technical schemata 295
Contributors
Valentina Bertolani is a PhD candidate at the University of Calgary. Her dis-

sertation focuses on the relationships among American, Canadian and
Italian avant-garde collectives of composers/performers in the 1960s and
1970s, focusing on their aesthetic principles and improvising procedures.
She holds a Masters in Musicology from the University of Pavia. She
presented her work at society meetings and International conferences in
Canada, the UK, France, Italy and Japan. Valentina has been the recip-
ient of several awards, and in 2016 she received an Izaak Walton Killam
Pre-doctoral scholarship.
Dániel Péter Biró is Associate Professor of Composition and Music Theory

at the University of Victoria, BC, Canada. After studying in Hungary,
Germany and Austria, he completed his PhD in composition at Prince-
ton University in 2004. He was Visiting Professor, Utrecht University in
2011 and Fellow at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard
University in 2014–2015. In 2015, he was elected to the College of New
Scholars, Scientists and Artists of the Royal Society of Canada.
Guillaume Boutard is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Library

and Information Studies at the State University of New York at Buffalo
(SUNY Buffalo). His research interests include digital curation and pres-
ervation, creative process documentation methodologies, especially in
relation to music and digital technology. He holds a PhD in Informa-
tion Studies (McGill University), an MSc in Computer Science (Pierre
et Marie Curie University-Paris VI), a MSc in Geophysics (Pierre et
Marie Curie University-Paris VI), and conducted a two-year postdoc-
toral research in the music department of the Université de Montréal.
He previously worked at IRCAM (Institut de Recherche et Coordination
Acoustique/Musique) as an engineer from 2001 to 2009.
Jan Burle currently develops scientific software at Jülich Centre for Neutron
Science in Garching bei München, Germany. Before that, he was Assis-
tant Professor in the Music Department at the University of Lethbridge,
Canada. His main research interest is general application of computing
xiv Contributors
related to musical sound and music: analysis, transcription, microtonal
aspects, performance and reception.
Chris Chafe is a composer, improviser and cellist, developing much of his
music alongside computer-based research. He is Director of Stanford
University’s Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics
(CCRMA). Computer synthesis of novel sounds and music remains an in-
terest ever since his first exposure to the work of John Chowning, William
Gardner Schottstaedt and David Wessel as a student at the Center in the
1970s and 1980s.
Angela Ida De Benedictis is a scholarly staff member and curator at the
Paul Sacher Foundation. Previously she was Assistant Professor at the
University of Pavia (Cremona), and she taught at the Universities of
Padova, Salerno, Parma and Berne. Among her scholarly interests are
the Italian postwar avant-garde, radiophonic music, music theatre,
study of creative process, and electronic music. Publications includes
the writings of Luigi Nono (Ricordi 2000 and il Saggiatore 2007) and
Luciano Berio (Einaudi 2013); Imagination at Play. The Prix Italia and the
Radiophonic Experimentation (RAI/Die Schachtel 2012); Radiodramma e
arte radiofonica (EDT 2004); New Music on the Radio (ERI-RAI 2000),
critical editions of Maderna’s, Nono’s and Togni’s work (by Suvini
Zerboni and Schott) and other books and essays of theory and analysis
mainly featuring twentieth-century music.
Agostino Di Scipio composer, sound artist, scholar. As a scholar, he is in-
terested in the cognitive and political implications of music technologies
and in systemic notions of sound and auditory experience. As a com-
poser, he is well known for performance and installation works based on
man-machine-environment networks. A thematic issue of Contemporary
Music Review documents his efforts in such direction. He is a DAAD
artist (Berlin 2004–2005) and Edgar-Varèse-Professor at Technische
Universität (Berlin 2007–2008). He is a Full Professor of Electroacoustic
Composition at Conservatory of Naples (2001–2013) and L’Aquila (since
2013).
François-Xavier Féron holds a Master’s Degree in musical acoustics (University
of Paris VI) and a PhD in musicology (University of Paris IV). After teaching
at the University of Nantes (2006–2007), he was a postdoctoral researcher at
the Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Music Media and Technology
(CIRMMT, Montreal, 2008–2009), then at the Institut de Recherche et
Coordination Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM, Paris, 2009–2013). Since 2013,
he has been a tenured researcher at the French National Centre for Scientific
Research (CNRS) and works at the LaBRI (Laboratoire Bordelais de
Recherche en Informatique). His research focuses on contemporary musical
practices, perception of auditory trajectories and, more broadly, on interac-
tions between art, science and technology.
Contributors xv
John Granzow is Assistant Professor of Performing Arts Technology at the
University of Michigan. He teaches musical acoustics, sound synthesis,
performance systems and digital fabrication. He initiated the 3d Printing
for Acoustics workshop at the Centre for Computer Research in Music
and Acoustics at Stanford. His instruments and installations leverage
found objects, iterative CAD design, additive manufacturing and embed-
ded sound synthesis.
Xenia Pestova’s performances and recordings have earned her a reputa-
tion as a leading interpreter of uncompromising piano repertoire of her
generation. Her commitment and dedication to the promotion of mu-
sic by living composers led her to commission dozens of new works and
collaborate with major innovators in contemporary music. Her widely
acclaimed recordings of core piano duo works of the twentieth century
by John Cage and Karlheinz Stockhausen are available on four CDs
for Naxos Records. Her evocative solo debut of premiere recordings for
piano and toy piano with electronics on the Innova label titled Shadow
Piano was described as a ‘terrific album of dark, probing music’ by the
Chicago Reader. She is the Director of Performance at the University of
Nottingham. www.xeniapestova.com.
Friedemann Sallis is Professor at the School of Creative and Performing
Arts of the University of Calgary. He is an established scholar with an in-
ternational reputation in the field of sketch studies and archival research
in music. His research interests include the study of music that escapes
conventional notation (such as live electronic music) and of how music
relates to place. Recent publications include Music Sketches (Cambridge
University Press, 2015), Centre and Periphery, Roots and Exile: Interpreting
the Music of István Anhalt, György Kurtág and Sándor Veress (Wilfrid
Laurier University Press, 2011), as well as numerous articles on twentieth-
century music. Over the past twenty years, he has received six standard re-
search grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council
of Canada.
Nicola Scaldaferri is Associate Professor of Ethnomusicology at the University
of Milan, where is the director of the LEAV (Laboratory of Ethnomusicol-
ogy and Visual Anthropology). He received his PhD in Musicology at the
University of Bologna and the degree in Composition at the Conservatory of
Parma; he was Fulbright scholar at Harvard University and visiting professor
at St. Peterburg State University. His interests include twentieth-century
music and technology, Balkan epics, Italian folk music, instruments from
Western Africa. Among his recent publications: When the Trees Resound.
Collaborative Media Research on an Italian Festival (2017, edited with Steven
Feld).
Vincent Tiffon is a Professor of musicology at the University of Lille, re-
searcher in the CEAC research centre, and co-director of the EDESAC
xvi Contributors
research team. He is also an associated researcher at IRCAM in Paris.
Tiffon’s research addresses the history, analysis and aesthetics of elec-
troacoustic and mixed musics and takes special interest in analysing the
creative process in music and musical mediology. His work has been
published in journals including Acoustic Arts & Artifacts/Technology,
Aesthetics, Communication, Analyse musicale, Les Cahiers du Cirem, Les
Cahiers de Médiologie, Contemporary Music Review, DEMéter, Filigrane,
LIEN, Medium, Médiation et communication, Musurgia, NUNC, Revue
de musicologie, and Circuit.
George Tzanetakis is Professor at the Department of Computer Science at the
University of Victoria, BC, Canada. He holds cross-listed appointments
at the School of Music and the Electrical and Computer Engineering
Department. He received his PhD at Princeton University in 2002. In
2011, he was a visiting scientist at Google Research in Mountainview,
California. Since 2010, he has been a Canada Research Chair (Tier II) in
the computer analysis of music and audio.
Laura Zattra obtained her PhD at Sorbonne/Paris IV and Trento Univer-
sity. She collaborates with research centres, archives and universities
(Padova, De Monfort, Calgary, Sorbonne). Research Associate at the
Analysis of Musical Practices Research Group, IRCAM-CNRS (Paris)
and IreMus (Paris-Sorbonne). Her research interests cover twentieth-
and twenty-first-century music, especially the interaction of music and
technology, collaborative artistic creativity, the analysis of composi-
tional process, women’s studies and music. She is currently lecturing at
University of Padova, as well as at the Parma and Rovigo conservatoires
(Italy).
Acknowledgements
The editors would like to heartily thank Heidi Bishop and Annie Vaughan for
patiently shepherding us through the publication process. Their kind advice
was much appreciated. We would also like to thank Elizabeth Levine for her
help in getting this project up and running. We are grateful to the following
people and institutions for allowing us to publish material for which they
hold copyright: John Chowning and the Center for Computer Research in
Music and Acoustics (CCRMA) of Stanford University, Marion Kalter,
Marco Mazzolini (Casa Ricordi), Nuria Schoenberg Nono and the Archivio
Luigi Nono, Alvise Vidolin and the Centro di Sonologia Computazionale
(CSC) of the Università di Padova, as well as Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, the
Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM),
the Paul Sacher Foundation and Universal Edition.
3 Collaborating on composition
The role of the musical assistant
at IRCAM, CCRMA and CSC
Laura Zattra
A ping-pong match: this metaphor neatly sums up the very close coopera-
tion between a composer and a musical assistant on a computer-based artis-
tic project.1 It served as the headline of an article by Pierre Gervasoni: ‘Le
ping-pong de Pierre Boulez’, discussing the collaboration between Boulez
and Andrew Gerzso. Boulez declared that
as I do not make daily visits to the studio [IRCAM – Institut de Re-

cherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique in Paris], we discuss the
project at length. Not in the abstract, but starting from my previous
works. I come up with some musical proposals, which Andrew Gerzso,
musician, comes to understand. He seeks for and provides solutions,
which I evaluate in order to check whether this corresponds to my ob-
jectives or still needs to be expanded. And so on [...]. Foresight should
always alternate with the control of real possibilities.2
The last sentence highlights the kind of situations and dynamics that come
to play in this collaboration: a path of endless adjustment in the dialogue
between the artistic vision and the scientific visionaries. And yet, the idea of
role-play and game contained in Gervasoni’s provocative title assumes there
is a winner and a loser in this collaboration.
Speaking at a conference held at IRCAM in 2007 on the role of the com-
puter music designer, Gerzso, who had been collaborating with Boulez since
the creation of Répons (1980), described the role and the profession of the
musical assistant in these words.3
The emergence of the profession of Computer Music Designer (pre-

viously called musical assistant) at IRCAM at the beginning of the
1980s came about in response to a specific need: freeing researchers
from an excessively exclusive relation with the composer coupled with
the need to translate from the world of music to the world of science
and vice versa. With the increase in the number of production projects
in the 1990s, the musical assistant’s responsibilities increased. He had
to take charge of the composer, manage the production projects, and
60 Laura Zattra
carry out musical work in collaboration with the sound engineer and
the composer.
Gerzso then asked:
Are these needs still pertinent today [in 2007]? Is the Computer Music
Designer specific to IRCAM? Probably not, since today everyplace
where artists work with new technology in the fields of sound or music –
dance, theater, computer graphics, video, fine arts, music – one finds
professionals who master similar concepts, techniques, and practices al-
though they may be called by a different title (e.g. sound designer, Foley
artist, etc.). However, today there is no shared professional identity, no
public recognition of the profession, and no related training program
guaranteeing the acquisition of the technical and musical competences
necessary to practice this relatively recent profession.4
Gerzso’s words still apply today. Ten years after that conference, the debate
is still open.
Back in 1988, a four-handed article by Boulez and Gerzso stressed that

exploring possible musical relations between computers and traditional
instruments requires much communication [emphasis added] between
composers and those who design computer hardware and software.
Through such collaboration, electronic devices can be constructed that
serve the composer’s immediate purpose while preserving enough gen-
erality and flexibility for future musical exploration – a task compli-
cated by the fact that the composition’s musical complexity is usually
not commensurate with the technical complexity needed for its realiza-
tion. What appears to be a simple musical problem often defies an easy
technological solution. Perhaps for the first time in history a composer
has to explain and formalize the way he or she develops and manipu-
lates concepts, themes and relations in a musical context in order for
technicians (who may have little musical training) to bring them into
existence.
(Boulez and Gerzso 1988)
These introductory quotations are intended to acquaint the reader with the
themes of this chapter: the art-science collaboration, the emergence of a
profession and the traces remaining from the habitually wordless commu-
nication between a composer and an assistant in the early era of computer
music. The chapter covers the period that runs from the early computer pro-
grams until the first real-time experiments (ca. 1960–80). The end of this pe-
riod is marked by: (1) the 4X digital work station programmed by Giuseppe
Di Giugno at IRCAM (a project developed since 1976 and culminated in
the creation of this powerful real-time audio hardware, which was used in
Collaborating on composition 61
Répons by Pierre Boulez), and (2) the era of the microprocessors. Computer
music means here both music produced and performed in differed time
(computer generated ‘acousmatic’ music or music at combines live musi-
cians and fixed computer-generated sounds) or in real time.
In this context, terminology will also have to be taken into consideration.
The emerging profession presented in this chapter has been described and
defined in different ways over the years: musical assistant, technician, tutor,
computer music designer, music mediator (Zattra 2013), klangregisseur,
live electronics musician, digital audio processing performer (Plessas and
Boutard 2015).
Who is the musical assistant?

The term musical assistant has been loosely applied over the course of mu-
sic history, to a musician, a translator or an interpreter of musical ideas
(copyist, amanuensis, transcriber, etc.), who work alongside the composer.
Collaboration can occur in a number of different work phases: the tran-
scription of working documents (e.g. a manuscript score can be cleaned and
transformed into a fair copy), the arrangement of a musical piece, the de-
velopment of rough ideas or sketches provided by the composer, assistance
in the direction of a performance. (Consider. for example, the working rela-
tionships of Joseph Joachim Raff and Franz Liszt, Imogen Holtz and Ben-
jamin Britten, Alex Weston and Philip Glass.)
The same term can be applied conveniently for other less defined and
more complex relationships: Ernst Krenek at the Staatstheater Kassel where
he assisted Paul Bekker during the 1920s; Robert Craft, musical assistant
of Igor Stravinsky, defined by Richard Taruskin (1995, 362) as an ‘inter-
locutor, ghost-writer, musical assistant and executor’; Joseph Joachim who
collaborated with Johannes Brahms as an assistant and a performer as the
latter wrote his Violin Concerto (Schwarz 1983). The history of music shows
that the word ‘musical assistant’ has taken on different meanings, based on
several applications of its original etymology: help (someone), typically by
doing a share of the work … from Latin assistere: ‘take one’s stand by’ (ad:
‘to, at’ + sistere: ‘take one’s stand’) (The New Oxford Dictionary).
The revolution of sound recording, synthesis and transformation (mu-
sique concrète 1948, electronic music 1950), followed by the birth of com-
puter music (1957), caused the natural emergence of a new professional
profile – someone who can work in research, writing, the creation of new
instruments and recording and performance on electronic devices during
concerts. The composition of music had gone from a paradigm based on
‘writing, score, performance, listening’ to one based on ‘writing, notation,
projection, listening’ (Tiffon 2002) or more often ‘technological research,
writing, control-evaluation-implementation, new writing, control and so on.
From the early days, laboratories and electronic music studios have
normally involved the presence of different individuals with diverse but
62 Laura Zattra
intertwined competencies. This is true for the centres in Milan, Cologne,
Paris and San Francisco during the first analogue generation and has con-
tinued with the digital revolution (at CCRMA in Stanford and other centres
in the United States, in France, Italy, Great Britain, Germany, East Asia, to
name a few). Yet the existence of the musical assistant has been often unrea-
sonably neglected, both in the literature and by audiences. As one frustrated
French musical assistant acknowledged: ‘the fact is, by and large the public
ignores the implications of a musical assistant for the creation of contempo-
rary music’ (Poletti et al. 2002, 243).
The musical assistant is responsible for the technical setup from the early
experimentation phases until the concert production. S/he explains the pos-
sibilities of the various instruments and applications, as well as the poten-
tial sound effects to the composer.5 The musical assistant also explains the
most recent results in musical research and translates artistic ideas into pro-
gramming languages. Finally, s/he transforms those ideas into a score or a
computer program and often is involved in performing the musical piece in
concerts.
Unfortunately, in the musical score, the program notes and other pub-
lished sources, the presence of the musical assistant remains hidden most of
the time. I shall therefore focus on primary and secondary archival sources
and administrative documents, conserved at three computer music cen-
tres: the IRCAM in Paris, the Centre for Computer Research in Music and
Acoustics (CCRMA) at Stanford University and the Centro di Sonologia
Computazionale (CSC) at the Università degli Studi di Padova. My analysis
will examine two points:
1 Institutionalisation and recognition: I will investigate the presence, ab-

sence or understatement (as the case may be) of an expressed concern
for collaboration and the role of the musical assistant.
2 Source information: I will describe the ways in which this collaboration
was undertaken between musical assistant and composer.
As well as research grounded on material sources, further investigation has

been conducted based on oral communication. As Bennett (1995, n.p.) once
stressed: ‘Electroacoustic music […] is an almost exclusively oral culture.
There is very little written documentation of compositional practice (as op-
posed to technical practice)’.
The choice of these three centres is motivated by the close historical, mu-
sical, organisational, scientific and technological connections and numerous
technical, cultural and scientific exchanges among them. IRCAM may also
be considered the first facility to officially recognise the musical assistant
as a professional. However, in an unpublished source written in 1977, John
Chowning indicated that CCRMA provided software and human resources
to IRCAM.6 According to Laurent Bayle (director of IRCAM from 1992 to
2001), ‘the musical assistant was historically born with a composer profile;
rather young and freshly initiated to new technologies, normally within the
framework of a residence in the USA’ (cited in Gervasoni 2000e, 20). For
example, James (Andy) Moorer (co-founder of CCRMA) was the Scientific
and Technical Advisor at IRCAM and came highly recommended by John
Chowning.7 The CSC was funded using the same structure as CCRMA (a
musical centre located within a university structure) and quickly recognised
the presence of the musical assistant. French and American composers and
researchers from IRCAM and CCRMA worked at the CSC.
IRCAM, Centre Pompidou, Paris

IRCAM was created under the leadership of Pierre Boulez in 1974 and 1975,
as the Centre Georges Pompidou was being conceived. The presence of the
assistant was acknowledged at the official opening of the institution, which
occurred in the last months of 1976.8 In fact, IRCAM seems to be the first
institution to professionalise this activity and define the assistant’s specific
function within its organisational charter. Archival documents show that
the assistant’s identity was based on a model of collaboration.9 Jean-Claude
Risset (head of the Computer Department for four years) recalls that in
1970 Boulez explained to him his desire to create an institution based on the
idea that a ‘collaborative research project was necessary in order to solve
some problems composers came to face […]. [His] ambitious project – calling
into question the [traditional] context of musical creation in a collective
approach – was obviously exciting’.10
The naming of the assistant’s occupation followed a tangled path, reflect-
ing the emergence of this career (Zattra 2013). During the 1970s, names such
as scientist, researcher, engineer and technician were used equally.11 The
designations of tutor and musical assistant emerged during the 1980s.12 Fi-
nally in 2007, to achieve a more effective and stable appellation, the title
Réalisateur en Informatique Musicale (RIM) was chosen, which is usually
translated as computer music designer (Zattra 2013, 118).
Initially, researchers and engineers could choose to voluntarily share
their experience and help composers, but in an ‘unofficial’ capacity (Born
1995, 332–63).13 Therefore, they remained scientists, researchers, engineers
and technicians. Under Boulez’s leadership, the heads of departments were
all composers. This was done to ensure that aesthetic issues would take
precedence over technical issues. According to Risset (2014, 14), this was
important but inevitably established a hierarchy, if not a subordination, of
researchers to composers.
An IRCAM activity report identified the interlocking of musical collabo-
ration in 1978 and declared that the programming for Wellenspiele by Balz
Truempy (commissioned by IRCAM) was done by Giuseppe di Giugno
and Jean Kott. Instrument design was done by Neil B. Rolnick together
with Truempy. Rolnick also participated in the performance.14 Moreover,
reports of the activity carried out at IRCAM in 1979 mention several works
64 Laura Zattra
realised by researchers, engineers and technicians.15 The state of technology
and its limitations led to increased cooperation. In an interview with An-
drew J. Nelson, researcher Xavier Rodet observed:
All the main things were done on the PDP-10 (computer). What was very
interesting was the sharing of the digital to analogue converter. That
was a very complicated and costly and difficult piece of hardware at the
time. So there was one, essentially, attached to the PDP-10. Everyone
would work on the PDP-10 and send the sounds to the converter. Then,
the sounds were distributed in all the rooms by analogue lines, which
was very interesting because it means that we were hearing the sounds
done by all the others. That was fascinating because, you would hear
something [and think], ‘Wow, this sound has something.’ So, you would
go to the computer and ask the guy [who made the sound], ‘What are
you doing? What is this you have been doing?’ It became an excellent
exchange of knowledge. I found several of my collaborators by hearing
them doing that.
(cited in Nelson 2015, 64)
At IRCAM, the necessity of defining a role for the musical assistant grew
over the years; it is exemplified in a number of internal documents. On 15
October 1982, Pierre Boulez states that ‘tutors will be regularly summoned
in the artistic committee, in order to report on the state of the projects where
they are responsible and to make any suggestions they might think advan-
tageous for the performance of their work’.16 The earliest documentary ev-
idence of the term ‘tutor’, as a professional designation, is dated 3 March
1983. The tutor was to ensure teaching and guidance and on the other hand
is himself active in musical research and related documentation.17 He em-
bodied the connection between the research and its application to pedagogy
and musical production.18
During this period, the activity of assisting the composer started to sep-
arate from the others within the Institution, hence the idea of a veritable
profession (‘poste de tuteur’). When a member of the steering committee
asks the musical direction of IRCAM to equip each national conservatory
of music with the 4X System (20 May 1983), another member outlines the
problem of pedagogy. Boulez then states that this problem occurs every year
at IRCAM and that IRCAM calls for the establishment of positions for rec-
ognised tutors.19 Other documentary sources similarly refer to ‘contracts for
supplementary tutors’.20 In a meeting of the board of directors in 1988, the
first item of the agenda reads:
The problem of tutors: the question has been with for many years, and
we have certainly not come up with a solution, not even in terms of stat-
ute, the time management, the distinction between their job as a tutor
and their will to compose.21
For the first time, the importance of a sideline compositional activity was ac-
knowledged, which was necessary ‘in order to understand composers’.22 During
this meeting, Gerzso defined tutors as ‘instrument players, instrument virtuosos
(Synthesiser, computer…), with deep technical know-how’. The tutor’s mission
was now clear: to realise a composer’s idea – teaching composers how to use
technology, to organise the schedule of the studio, to follow the musical work
process, to prepare musical documentation, to teach a wider audience (i.e. pre-
senting workshops on computer music), to undertake administrative tasks.23
Within the context of this discussion, the term ‘musical assistant’ began
to appear in 1989, parallel to tutor.24 A report, edited by Marc Battier in
1989, envisioned the assistant’s activity in three distinct phases (Figure 3.1).
1 The composer explains the ideas and vision to the assistant. They work
together to formalise these ideas (experiments, testing, software adapta-
tion or writing). The project and the technical environment are adapted
into a quasi-definitive form.
2 The composer begins to work independently. During this phase, the as-
sistant’s intervention is moderate, while the composer writes the score.
3 The project is completed at the institute, where the tutor’s role is crucial.25
Figure 3.1 Pierre Boulez at a desk working on Répons at IRCAM, 1984 (IRCAM,
Paris, Espace de projection). Seated left to right, Denis Lorrain, Andrew
Gerzso, Pierre Boulez; standing, left to right, Emmanuel Favreau and
Giuseppe Di Giugno; sitting in the back of the room, unknown.
Source: Courtesy ©Marion Kalter.
66 Laura Zattra
The designation musical assistant lasted for about fifteen years, until the
2000s.26 However, unpublished documents show that IRCAM members still
felt somewhat uneasy with the term and its functions. During an adminis-
trative meeting in 2001, Boulez asked ‘…where are we? Are composers ad-
vanced enough to act on their own without the help of musical assistants?’
Bernard Stiegler (who, in a few weeks, became the new director following
Laurent Bayle) responded that composers would always need a musical as-
sistant to realise a musical research project that involved technology and
would need to come to IRCAM to finalise this.27 However, the problem re-
garding copyright, recognition and authorship remained. During the 2000s,
IRCAM officially adopted the designation RIM, computer music designer
in English.28
CCRMA, Stanford University

Originally located at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratories
(SAIL) during the 1960s, CCRMA (pronounced ‘karma’) was officially
founded in June 1975 by John Chowning, a professor, researcher and musi-
cian. Chowning spent his career synthesising sound fields; he is the father of
FM synthesis technology. Until then, research in the analysis, synthesis and
psychology of sound perception was undertaken through the largely unsup-
ported work of professors, graduate students and staff members. In two
famous publications, Chowning presented his research on the control and
movement of synthesised sounds in an illusory acoustical space (1971) and
on frequency modulation synthesis (1973), a technique widely used in com-
puter music installations around the world.29 Early compositions from those
pre-CCRMA days include Sabelithe (1971) and Turenas (1972) by Chown-
ing, Rondino by Leland Smith (1968), a realisation of John Erikson’s Loops
by John Grey (1974) and Leland Smith’s SCORE, ‘a computer programme
written in FORTRAN which enable composers to synthesize and compose
pieces using the DEC PDP-6 and later the PDP-10’ and other important con-
tributions to the field of computer music made by James (Andy) Moorer,
Loren Rush, John Grey and F. Richard Moore (Serra-Wood 1988).
CCRMA quickly established a reputation as a major research centre for
computer music, a multidisciplinary facility where researchers and compos-
ers worked together to create computer-based technology and digital au-
dio as artistic media and research tools. Numerous authors (Chadabe 1997;
Collins 2007; Dean 2009; Manning 2013; Nelson 2015) and essays dedicated
to the history of CCRMA agree on the interdisciplinary nature of the fa-
cility. ‘Collaboration’, ‘working together’, ‘cooperation’ are common terms
used to describe this approach, and yet, to the best of my knowledge, all the
sources – published and unpublished – clearly show that there was no inten-
tional division of labour within the centre.30
The question of interdisciplinarity is mentioned in several texts, such as
the one dated 13 June 1977, in which Chowning wrote:
the extraordinary results already obtained have occurred in those few

instances where scientists and musicians have taken the opportunity to
bring their respective skills to bear on problems of common interest in a
rich interdisciplinary environment. It is an example of cooperation, but
more, an expression of the freedom of intellect and invention, where cre-
ative minds from diverse disciplines have joined in a common goal to
produce fundamental knowledge which must be the source for new mu-
sic, and to produce works of art which reflect the scientific-technological
riches of the present.31
Since the beginning, synergy is the keyword in CCRMA policy. The

whole is greater than the sum of its parts and the essence is to value
differences (‘rich interdisciplinary environment’, ‘diverse disciplines’)
and to work together (‘cooperation’) through the creative process for a
common benefit (‘common interest’, ‘common goal’). ‘At Stanford Uni-
versity’, – the text continues – ‘such cooperation has been commonplace
over the past ten years’.32
CCRMA did not formally acknowledge the institutional role of assis-
tants, because strictly speaking there were no musical assistants. Anyone
could be either composer or assistant, and all participants were scien-
tists, engineers or researchers, who could also become artists or compos-
ers. Aspects of Chowning’s thinking are very helpful in this regard. He
stressed that
as far as I remember there was no idea of Musical Assistant in the

sense that existed at IRCAM, e.g. Jonathan Harvey/Stanley Haynes.
However, there were collaborations that were extremely effective and
came about informally – mutual interests or a question that resulted
in a longer interchange and eventual collaboration, e.g. David Jaffe/
Julius Smith. At CCRMA, collaborations involved people who had
at least programming skills as a common language and, of course,
music.33
During the 1980s, the collaboration between Jaffe and Smith enabled the
two computer musicians to discover a mutual interest in physical modelling
and the Systems Concept Digital Syntheziser at CCRMA (Jaffe and Smith
1983).34 One result of this collaboration was Silicon Valley Breakdown by
David Jaffe, premiered at the Venice Biennale in 1983.35 Jaffe and Smith
went on to work on the seminal NeXT computer, on which future Apple
products are based.36
68 Laura Zattra
Starting in 1977, Moorer introduced Chowning to the Stanford Arti-
ficial Intelligence Language (SAIL) as Chowning composed his influen-
tial piece Stria (Zattra 2007). Moorer – also a scientist/composer – was
working at IRCAM when Chowning came to give his first performance
of the piece.37 Moorer helped him mix the sections of Stria into the com-
plete piece at IRCAM. As Chowning recalls ‘no IRCAM technician was
involved in the production, except for Andy Moorer, who had worked
at Stanford and was temporarily there at IRCAM, and simply helped in
the starting and stopping of tape recorders to make the final tape’.38 As
the reader will note, the term ‘technician’ is used, which was also used at
IRCAM at that time.
As was the case at IRCAM, shared equipment was crucial in shaping
the collaborative environment at CCRMA. SAIL Laboratory partici-
pants shared the same computer. Bill Schottstaedt, composer and com-
puter scientist who worked at CCRMA for 36 years, recalled that during
the 1970s,
[w]e had people, parties and things were going on all the time. You could
come in at any time day or night and there was always the same number
of people doing things, they never slowed down... In those days there
was one [computer for music]. If you wanted to do it [work with the
computer], you had to be at that place.
(Schottstaedt, cited in Nelson 2015, 32)
This was the era of the mainframe computer, big, high-performance ma-
chines, which were used for large-scale computing purposes. They operated
in ‘time sharing’, and all users (through terminals) could operate simultane-
ously with batch processing. According to Moorer
you all came together round the computer [...] and everybody was to-
gether in these rooms with the consoles or with the terminals, so sharing
of what you were doing was pretty common. You’re walking around
seeing what was on the screen of the person next to you: a very, very
intense, collaborative, open atmosphere.
(Moorer, cited in Nelson 2015, 32)
The examples of collaboration I mention in these paragraphs are some of

the highlights of the sources I have sifted through over the years (files are
stocked within the CCRMA Saildart Archive). By themselves, however,
they do not reveal the full extent of the paths articulating the process
of collaboration and the relationships linking the persons involved in
this creative cooperation. It is more difficult to find passages describing
how the actual collaboration took place within the research and musical
projects. Information on this can be deduced from programme notes on
works produced at CCRMA. For example, Fred Malouf (Chromatonal,
1985) writes that ‘the creation of this piece would not have been possible
without the cooperation of the staff at CCRMA [...] My sincere gratitude
goes out to those people’.39 Michael McNabb (Invisible cities, 1987) is
similarly grateful to ‘CCRMA, its staff, and others there whose help in
this effort was invaluable’.40 In another document compiled by Richard
Karpen, we read that ‘CCRMA has a long tradition of accommodating
composers with diverse views about what music is and how to go about
making it’.41 The terms ‘accommodate’ and ‘diverse views about...’ denote
once again the strongly collaborative character of the centre: research-
ers and musicians stepped forward with different views, but they let the
composer develop his or her own technological project. Even the open-
ness of the SAIL/CCRMA space, rooms and technological environment
helped this cooperation. As composer Michael McNabb stresses: ‘people
listened to everybody else. You never know when you might hear some
interesting sound that peaks your interest and you think “That would fit
in the piece that I’m working on”’ (McNabb, cited in Nelson 2015, 33).
Thus, CCRMA policy did not seek to establish a clear division of labour.
Chowning has recently confirmed to me that
there was never a policy regarding visiting researchers and composers

being assigned someone to help them, number of hours/day, etc. It was
assumed that the visitor would audit classes, read documents and ask
questions of anyone – faculty, staff, or students – to acquire the means
to pursue their project. That is still the way that it works as far as I
know.42
Exchanges, cooperation and transfer of expertise also occurred between

CCRMA and IRCAM, well before the official opening of IRCAM. John
Chowning described the future French laboratory in a message sent on
20 June 1977: ‘the general conception of IRCAM as a structured research
environment where scientists and musicians will interact in pursuit of
problems of common interest belongs to Pierre Boulez who will serve as
director of the institute’.43 The identity of the future French institution
is seen through the eyes of the CCRMA director as a place – mirroring
CCRMA policy – where interaction is pursued for the benefit of all. From
the same text, we know that two years earlier, in August 1975, a team
from the future IRCAM had attended a ten-day intensive seminar. The
team included Pierre Boulez, Luciano Berio and Jean-Claude Risset, who
would each become the head of one of IRCAM departments in 1976.44
‘Each visiting member (including Pierre Boulez) made extensive use of the
computer in a “hands-on” environment. Each attendant was instructed in
the usage of the computer and encouraged to experiment with synthesis
techniques’ (Figure 3.2).45
70 Laura Zattra
Figure 3.2 1975: Pierre Boulez brought an IRCAM team to CCRMA for a two-week
course in computer music. Seated by the computer (left to right) Pierre
Boulez and Steve Martin (graduate student); standing (left to right) James
(Andy) Moorer, John Chowning, Max Mathews. Photo by José Mercato.
Source: Courtesy Stanford University.
CSC (Centro di Sonologia Computazionale

dell’Università di Padova)
As with CCRMA, activity in the field of computer music in Padova started
within the research activities of the University and within the same techno-
logical environment. The Institute of Electrical Engineering (today School
of Engineering) provided computer facilities and space.46 Early activities
started well before the official opening of the CSC in 1979. Giovanni Battista
Debiasi, professor at the Faculty of Engineering, had worked on vocal syn-
thesis since the late 1950s. He attracted the interest of his sound engineering
students – Giovanni De Poli, Alvise Vidolin and Graziano Tisato, as well as
the American composer James Dashow. Together they founded the Computer
Music Group in 1974, which was the first name of the CSC.47 Dashow installed
the Music 4BF program in the IBM System 370 and composed Effetti Collat-
erali, for clarinet and synthesised sounds on tape (1976), the first computer
music piece in Padova. De Poli had worked at IRCAM from December 1975
to May 1976 in the Department directed by Risset, before returning to Italy
(De Poli, cited in Zattra 2000, 129). During his stay at IRCAM, De Poli pre-
sented MUSICA, one of the first software programs for music notation that he
and Debiasi had developed in Italy (Debiasi and Depoli 1974; 1986).
When I came back from France, I brought with me the software
MUSIC 5, I was given by IRCAM friends; at the CSC [then still called
Computer Music Group] we already had the MUSIC 4BF thanks to
James Dashow. From then on, we could work with composers.
(De Poli, cited in Zattra 2000, 129)
Composers and students, both Italian and foreign, began to collaborate.

For example, Richard Karpen, later associated with CCRMA, worked at
CSC in 1984–85. Reminiscing on his pre-Italian studies and how he got to
Padova, he remarked:
I met James Dashow in New York in 1983. I was studying composition

and computer music with Charles Dodge at Brooklyn College at that
time. James came to present his work there. He told me about CSC and
suggested that I could perhaps visit. So I applied for a fellowship to
Padova University. My application was successful and I arrived at CSC
in September 1984.48
From the beginning, the purpose of the work undertaken at the Università
di Padova was to
create an interdisciplinary space where scientific and musical exper-

tise could meet so as to achieve a constant application of theoretical
research to the production of music with computer equipment [and] to
encourage scientists to investigate and formalise together with the crea-
tive utopias of the composers.
(Marinelli 1995, 95)
The statement certainly recalls passages from CCRMA documentation.

However, unlike the members of CCRMA – who could be composers and
researchers at the same time – the CSC founders and associates were either
composers or researchers. The engineers presented the latest results of their
research to the composers and the composers submitted their requests to the
engineers (Tisato [1999], Vidolin [1999], both cited in Zattra 2000, 133–34 and
138–42, respectively). These roles, established by training, remained clearly
identified, and the role of the engineer had the characteristics of a musical as-
sistant. However, this differentiation did not impede collaboration, and it did
not stop some individuals from acquiring skills in both domains. Colleagues
who were both composers and researchers were not common: James Dashow,
Mauro Graziani, Daniele Torresan and Marco Stroppa.49
The CSC’s visionary programme attached great importance to invest-
ment in both high-level scientific research and high-quality musical produc-
tion: a musical composition project and a scientific publication were equally
significant (Vidolin [1999], cited in Zattra 2000, 45–111). In both cases, se-
rious investigation, professionalism and progress in terms of results had to
72 Laura Zattra
be guaranteed. ‘This is a result of the presence, in the organising commit-
tee, of pure engineers, who are interested in the advances of technological
and musical research, rather than the affirmation or the continuation of
the work of one single Maestro’ (Vidolin 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; 1989b; 1990).
Edgar Varèse had always believed that collaboration would lead to the ‘lib-
eration of sound’ (Chadabe 1997, 3). According to Wladimiro Dorigo, ‘what
[Varèse] wished for in 1922: “the composer and the technician will have to
work together” finally came true [at the CSC]’ (Dorigo 1977).
Unlike IRCAM, CSC members never intended to create a specific
‘school’ or aesthetics; for this reason a much diversified production fol-
lowed. According to CSC protocols, engineers (who could be compared to
the musical assistants at IRCAM), were fully at the disposal of composers
whenever and for as long as the composers wished. This collaboration was
nonetheless precisely scheduled to allow researchers enough time to under-
take their own research activities. However, as Vidolin recalls,
it did happen that some composers asked us to find and make artistic
choices, but we have never accepted this. Whenever this delegation act
took place, we insisted in pushing composers to give voice to their own
personal artistic approach so that they could contribute valuable ideas
to research projects. They would have to be research composers, not
composers requesting provision of services.
(Vidolin [1999], cited in Zattra 2000, 50)
Vidolin’s statement testifies to the richness of musical and artistic ideas

and to the research capability at the CSC, to which both the composers
and the engineers contributed. Each musical project illustrated a different
way in which computer software or results on sound research could be
used. In this way, engineers and composers were able to work together
to produce works with sound synthesis or computer-assisted composition,
acoustic sound processing, acousmatic pieces, live electronics or open
works using IBM, Next, Atari, DOS, Windows 9x, Macintosh, PowerMac
(Zattra et al. 2001).50
Conditions for use of CSC machines by composers were defined by the
founding board of directors. The applicant had to provide a detailed work
sheet (provided by the centre including a description of the work, schedul-
ing, etc.) at least one month before the beginning of the creative process.51
The CSC founders did not entertain any formalisation of the division of
competences. ‘There was a great deal of willingness to cooperate. We had
the entire personnel from the Centro di Calcolo [University Computer
Centre], who helped us in every way. If, for example, we had to archive our
data, we could always find someone willing to do that, even if it was not
in his job description. This resulted in a lively production of music and re-
search’ (Tisato [1999], cited in Zattra 2000, 41).
In my archival research, I was unable to find minutes from meetings con-
taining any real discussions of the practical actions of cooperation, col-
laborative creation or related problems.52 However, in musical programs,
musical working sheets and scientific articles, it is possible to find trace
evidence of this collaboration. Teresa Rampazzi completed Fluxus in 1979
in collaboration with musical assistants Mauro Graziani and Gianantonio
Patella. The work was made using the Interactive Computer Music System
(ICMS) software, realised by engineer Graziano Tisato specifically to help
less expert composers with sound synthesis, voice synthesis, processing, in-
terpolation and mixing, including in real time.53 Many other pieces were
composed using ICMS, most probably the very first ‘user-friendly’ com-
puter programme ever made, allowing composers to bypass the difficulties
inherent in the alphanumeric MUSIC series software.54
In 1983, another occasion of collaboration occurred, when three
American composers (David Behrman, Joel Chadabe and Richard Tei-
telbaum) were asked to compose a piece to be presented at the Venice Bi-
ennale. They used the system 4i, implemented on a 4i processor given by
IRCAM derived from the 4X (the ‘I’ stood for Italy!). They had only a week
to work in close collaboration with the CSC musical assistants. On that
occasion, Behrman wrote that
as anyone who has worked with computer music system may have
noticed, composition will need months to get all processes done and
working. The fact that we were given only few days to complete the com-
mission, that meant we had to make decisions quickly and make mutual
helping and concessions trusting in everyone’s competence and intui-
tions [...]. 4i system turned out to be extremely flexible and potent [...].
We found out that we could complete a piece within a matter of days, by
grace of CSC members’ skills.
(Behrman et al. 1984, 86)
Behrman realised Oracolo, for 4i real-time system (voice synthesis and

transformation, keyboard connected with the 4i system and a videogame) in
collaboration with Graziano Tisato. Richard Teitelbaum created Barcarola,
for 4i real-time system, based on sound synthesis to simulate sea waves
and wind. Joel Chadabe composed Canzona veneziana, with Frequency
Modulation synthesis to simulate drum sounds, manipulated to become an
imaginary bell (Figure 3.3).
One of the most important collaborative projects at CSC was Prometeo.
Tragedia dell’Ascolto by Luigi Nono (1984–85). Nono recalled that ‘with Alvise
Vidolin, Sylviane Sapir and Mauro Graziani, we worked as follows: first of all,
we agreed on the use of some type of sound material I have been interested
in; they provided me with a sort of sound catalogue, which became a starting
point; from here we began testing and discussing’ (cited in Tamburini 1985).
74 Laura Zattra
Figure 3.3 Richard Teitelbaum (standing) and from left to right Joel Chadabe, and
musicalassistantsMauroGrazianiandAlviseVidolinin1983,VeniceBiennale,
Festival ‘La scelta trasgressiva’.
Source: Courtesy Padova University, CSC – Sound and Music Computing Group.
Conclusions
Let us cast our minds back to the ping-pong match I discussed at the be-
ginning. Is there a winner within the process of collaboration? As Richard
Sennett pointed out:
Natural cooperation […] begins with the fact that we can’t survive alone.
The division of labour helps us multiply our insufficient powers, but this
division works best when it is supple, because the environment itself is
in a constant process of change.
(Sennett 2012, 73)
According to Sennett, the spectrum of the give and take exchange can be
defined as follows:
1 altruistic exchange, which entails self-sacrifice;

2 win–win exchange (both parties are equal and benefit from the cooperation);
3 differentiating exchange (parties are aware of their respective differences);
4 zero-sum exchange (one party prevails);
5 winner-takes-all exchange (one party completely defeats and wipes out
the other). (Sennett 2012, 72)
We may then try to evaluate the experiences of cooperation at IRCAM,
CCRMA and CSC and position each in relation to the above points. The CSC
experience – with its non-aesthetic approach – was oriented towards a kind of
altruistic exchange in which a win-win exchange allowed both parties (compos-
ers and engineers) to pursue interesting musical research and therefore maintain
the respective differences (differentiating exchange). Cooperation at CCRMA
was, according to sources, also a win–win exchange, which may be interpreted
as an environment, described once by Chowning as similar to the ‘Socratean
abode’ (Moorer, cited in Nelson 2015, 32; also cited in Roads 1982, 13; Markoff
2005). At CSC, the roles of composers and engineers (who also functioned as
musical assistants) remained differentiated; at CCRMA, all participants were
researchers who could also become artists or composers or vice-versa.
The history of collaboration at IRCAM reflects the specific character of the
institution and the position of its founder and first director. In the conclusion
to his now-famous article, ‘Technology and the Composer’ (originally pub-
lished in 1977), Boulez wrote: ‘Research/Invention, individual/collective, the
multiple resources of this double dialectic are capable of engendering infinite
possibilities. That invention is marked more particularly by the imprint of an
individual goes without saying’. (1984, 494). IRCAM, perhaps by nature of its
structure – notably the ‘art-science’ dichotomy – helped to establish a ‘musical
assistant’ culture in the 1980s. The composer was the ‘grand architect’ of the
electronic and live electronic aspects of a work; the musical assistant was re-
sponsible for the realisation of the composer’s idea. The danger is that
the “musical assistant” culture [helps] composers to work more effec-

tively by removing the requirement for expert knowledge in electronics
technology, but [has] the side-effect of distancing the technology from
the creative process. It ultimately [creates] a culture of dependence –
perhaps even subservience.
(Bullock 2008, 204–5)
Risset observed that unfortunately not all composers are worried about the
collaborative issues to the same extent. On the one hand, a composer is of-
ten in a hurry, or even not fully interested in research, and he may restrict
collaboration to a simple provision of service. On the other hand, real in-
novations always fall outside the boundaries of expectation and prediction.
Research has not the same timing of creation: research puts urgency
between brackets. Composition has to be made quickly; by its nature,
research never ends. Victor Hugo has once said “Science seeks perpet-
ual movement. It has found it; it is itself perpetual motion”.
(Risset 2014, 14)55
These quotations suggest a zero-sum or a winner-take-all exchange at IRCAM.

For this reason, Risset’s claim that ‘every creative artist is also a researcher’
76 Laura Zattra
(2014, 14), is all the more important, not only for the specific case of IRCAM.
As a researcher and composer himself, his words point to a vision of collabo-
ration from the very early computer music era, when computer music centres
such CSC or CCRMA asked every composer to be a composer/researcher
and every scientist a musician/researcher. Within his/her respective role, each
member of this dichotomy had a responsibility to ensure professional ethics:
each creation should reflect a profound artistic and personal research. By its
very nature, computer music requires comparable amounts of pure creativity
and research, characteristic of this ‘community of practice’ (Lave and Wenger,
1991; see also Wenger, 1998). Thus if, according to Risset, ‘every creative artist
is also a researcher’, then every musical assistant is also an artist.
Notes
1 This chapter provides results of an individual research project initially conducted
at IRCAM funded by the CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique;
invited researcher, CNRS INS2I, June–October 2012) and by Padova University
(Research Grant, project ‘COEM – Cooperative Electroacoustic Music’,
2011–12). This research is currently in progress and is designed to assess the
network of agents and processes involved in music making with new media, the
implications of musical mediation and music’s changing ontology.
2 ‘Comme je ne vais pas journellement en studio, nous parlons longuement du pro-
jet. Pas dans l’abstrait mais à partir de mes réalisations antérieures. Je fais des
propositions musicales qu’Andrew Gerzso, musicien, comprend. Il cherche et me
propose une solution que j’étudie pour voir si elle correspond à ce que je veux
ou s’il faut encore l’élargir. Et ainsi de suite […]. Il faut donc toujours alterner
prévision et contrôle des possibilités réelles’ (Gervasoni 2000a, 20). This special
issue of Le Monde dedicated to the Festival Agora, also included in the articles
Gervasoni (2000b, 2000c, 2000d, 2000e).
3 Gerzso spoke at the first conference devoted to the profession of the computer
music designer. The conference, which he organised, was held at IRCAM on
22–23 June 2007.
4 Gerzso concluded by saying that ‘the ambition of this meeting is to sketch the
contours of this new profession in its different forms and elicit the best type
of training programs’. Andrew Gerzso, presentation text (brochure) for con-
ference on the profession of the computer music designer, IRCAM, June 22–23
2007, p. 5.
5 Until the 1990s and the development of the first user-friendly software, such as
Max/MSP, very few composers were able to generate computer music pieces au-
tonomously, from the first conception and synthesis, to the diffusion of sound.
We can cite John Chowning, Jean-Claude Risset and James Tenney among the
rare composers who were at the same time composers, researchers and computer
programmers (Kahn 2012, 131–46).
6 ‘As a prototype for other such systems, the software produced here over the years
has been exported internationally. At least one system that of IRCAM in the
Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, was patterned entirely after the Stanford
system, even to the type of computer used. They are currently running a large
fraction of the Stanford programs and will soon be running the entire Stanford
program library.’ John Chowning, ‘A Brief History of the Stanford Computer
Music Project, 13 June 1977, unpublished, CCRMA, Saildart Archive, classified
as ‘1977-06-13 15:12 APPA .PUB [TXT, JC]’.
7 ‘I request that James A. Moorer be granted leave from June 14 1977 until
1 September 1978. During this period Moorer will act as scientific adviser for the
IRCAM in Paris. His responsibilities at IRCAM will include the development of
A.I. Lab type software on the PDP-10 system at IRCAM in addition to providing
technical and scientific advice’. John Chowning, unpublished digital letter, 25 May
1977 CCRMA, Saildart Archive, classified as ‘ANDY[TXT,JC]: 1977-05-25)’.
8 My investigation has, to a very large extent, revolved around unpublished archi-
val sources at the Centre de Ressources de l’IRCAM (CRI).
9 An archival unpublished source reads: ‘L’I.R.C.A.M. pourquoi?/Depuis une
dizaine d’années, d’importantes découvertes dans les domaines de l’élec-
troacoustique et de l’informatique ont profondément modifié la fonction des
compositeurs de musique; […] Cette révolution, dont les conséquences sont en-
core embryonnaires mais n’ont pas fini de s’étendre, doit être maîtrisée. Tel est
l’objet de l’I.R.C.A.M. [sic], qui se propose: – d’inventorier systématiquement les
possibilités nouvelles qu’offrent aux compositeurs et interprètes les techniques
scientifiques récentes de production de sons nouveaux; – de mettre les composi-
teurs, que leur formation n’a pas préparés à utiliser ces nouvelles ressources, en
mesure d’appréhender la démarche des scientifiques qui en assurent le maniement,
et par un travail en commun de l’influencer en vue d’en tirer le meilleur profit
pour la création musicale; de diffuser, dans un public de spécialistes et de non-
spécialistes….’ (emphasis added). ‘L’I.R.C.A.M. pourquoi?’, unpublished typed
document (9 pages), IRCAM Archives, 7 October 1976; the same text had been
sent to the Minister of Interior in June 1977 entitled ‘L’I.R.C.A.M. Ses objectifs –
son statut – ses activités’, IRCAM Archives, 1977.
10 ‘Boulez expliquait qu’une recherché en collaboration était nécessaire pour ré-
soudre certains problèmes se posant aux compositeurs […]. Et l’ambitieux projet
de remettre en question le context de la creation musicale dans une demarche
collective était évidemment enthousiasmant’ (Risset 2014, 13).
11 A report on research mentions ‘chercheurs, ingénieurs et techniciens de l’IR-
CAM’. ‘La recherche à l’Ircam en 1979’. Rapports IRCAM 29/80, Paris, Centre
Georges Pompidou, 1980, 1.
12 With regard to the term ‘tutor’, see, ‘Diffusion générale’, unpublished typed
document, 15 October 1982, IRCAM Archives. For ‘musical assistant’, see ‘Le
tutorat à l’IRCAM’, unpublished document, probably the late 1980s, IRCAM
Archives. Other documentary sources are quoted in (Zattra 2013).
13 Personal communications from Serge Lemouton 27 June 2012 and Andrew
Gerzso 19 October 2012.
14 Gerald Bennett, ‘Research at IRCAM in 1978’, Rapports Ircam 19/79, Paris,
Centre Georges Pompidou, 1979.
15 ‘La recherche à l’Ircam en 1979’, Rapports IRCAM 29/80, Paris, Centre Georges
Pompidou, 1980.
16 ‘Diffusion générale’, unpublished typed document, 15 October 1982, IRCAM
Archives.
17 ‘L’IRCAM – Bilan et perspectives’, unpublished document, 3 March 1983, IR-
CAM Archives.
18 IRCAM, Administrative meeting (Minutes), unpublished document, 3, sections
b/c, 25 April 1984, IRCAM Archives. In French texts of the day, pronouns would
all be in the masculine. My research has shown that were no female assistants or
tutors. Today, IRCAM employs one female computer music designer.
19 IRCAM, Administrative meeting (Minutes), unpublished document, 20 May
1983, IRCAM Archives.
20 Structures/Création bureau de Production Juillet, unpublished document
(3 pages), in ‘Diffusion générale’, unpublished document signed by Boulez,
5 July 1983, IRCAM Archives.
78 Laura Zattra
21 IRCAM, Coordination Committee (Agenda and Minutes of the Meeting), un-
published document, 13 April 1988, IRCAM Archives.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid.
24 See ‘Le tutorat à l’IRCAM’, unpublished document, probably the late 1980s,
IRCAM Archives and IRCAM, Administrative meeting (Minutes), unpublished
document, 9 January 1990 Ircam Archives.
25 Marc Battier ed., ‘Rapport d’activité 1989’, Paris, Centre Georges Pompidou, 1990.
26 In the mid-1990s, musical assistants at IRCAM were: Pierre Charvet, Eric
Daubresse, Christophe de Coudenhove, Thomas Hummel, Serge Lemouton,
Cort Lippe, Leslie Stuck. Rapport d’activité 1991, Paris, Centre Georges Pompi-
dou, 1992, and dossier Ircam Conseil d’administration du 25 juin 1992 + PV signé,
Ircam archives).
27 IRCAM, Administrative meeting (Minutes), unpublished document, 11 Decem-
ber 2001, IRCAM Archives, 8–9.
28 The term ‘Conseilleur et Réalisateur de l’Informatique Musicale’ was first men-
tioned during an informal meeting in 1997. I am grateful to Serge Lemouton,
RIM at IRCAM, for showing me the email from Leslie Stuck, musical assistant,
in which the term was used (Serge Lemouton, personal archive).
29 A brief history of CCRMA can be found in Xavier Serra and Patte Wood eds.,
‘Overview. Centre for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (Recent
Work), report number STAN-M-44, March 1988, available at https://ccrma.
stanford.edu/files/papers/stanm44.pdf and Nelson (2015).
30 I had the opportunity to access the files stocked within the CCRMA SAILDART
computer archive, a facility created by Bruce Baumgart that preserves most of
the records (fewer than a million files) of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab
from the 1970s and 1980s (part of these records are public and accessible on
www.saildart.org). SAILDART also preserves a sort of internal messenger ser-
vice, used by the members to communicate with each other. I was interested par-
ticularly in files written by John Chowning (founding director of the CCRMA
from 1975 to his retirement in 1996). I am grateful to Bruce Baumgart and John
Chowning for letting me access this incredible archive.
31 John Chowning, ‘A Brief History of the Stanford Computer Music Project’, un-
published, 13 June 1977, CCRMA, Saildart Archive, classified as ‘1977-06-13
15:12 APPA .PUB [TXT, JC]’.
32 Ibid.
33 Email from John Chowning to the author 22 March 2015.
34 They prototyped a method of digital sound processing in which physical prop-
erties of acoustical instruments (or voice or natural sounds) are represented as
computer algorithms that can be manipulated.
35 YouTube can be an important source for oral history testimonies. In the
documentary from the late 1980s ‘High Tech Heroes #6: Julius O. Smith & David
A. Jaffe’ (probably 1988) (www.youtube.com/watch?v=15jG1zfx-IM), we can lis-
ten to the explanation of the two computer musicians (these are rough takes from
the broadcast documentary). The video shows excerpts of Smith’s music.
36 Other examples of synergy at CCRMA include the collaboration of Chowning,
Gareth Loy and Moorer. On 14 February 1978, Chowning thanked Loy and
Moorer for the recursive entry feature, as well as Leland for the SCORE feature.
He then went on to explain, in a very informal style, the syntax used in the Stan-
ford Artificial Intelligence Language (SAIL): ‘this file will run as is... (remember
a blank column 1 is not read by SCORE)[...]. To use SCORE for the sambox, first
type yup… you guessed it... 999 and then the file name as per usual. SCORE will
then use the same instrument name for conditions of overlap’. John Chowning,
digital message from CCRMA, 14 February 1978, Saildart Archive, classified as
‘1978-02-14 13:49 PTS. [SAM, JC]’.
37 Among Moorer’s works: We Stopped at Perfect Days, Stanford, 1977; Lions
Are Growing, Stanford/IRCAM, 1978, THX Logo Theme, Lucasfilm Ltd., 1985
(www.jamminpower.com/jam.html).
38 Personal communications from Chowning in 2004 and 2007, cited in Zattra
(2007).
39 Fred Malouf, cited in Xavier Serra and Patte Wood eds., ‘Overview. Centre for Com-
puter Research in Music and Acoustics (Recent Work), report number STAN-M-44,
March 1988, available at https://ccrma.stanford.edu/files/papers/stanm44.pdf.
40 Ibid., 58.
41 Ibid., 39.
42 Email from John Chowning to the author, 22 March 2015.
43 John Chowning, unpublished digital letter, 20 June 1977, CCRMA, Saildart
Archive, classified as ‘1977-06-20 23:55 BLURB, [TXT, JC]’.
44 Four departments formed the original IRCAM charter: instruments and voice
(head: Vingo Globokar), electroacoustics (Luciano Berio), computer (Jean-
Claude Risset) and a coordinating department known as the départment
diagonal (Gerald Bennet); these were followed by a fifth department devoted to
teaching (pédagogie: Michel Decoust).
45 John Chowning, unpublished digital letter, 20 June 1977, CCRMA, Saildart
Archive, classified as ‘1977-06-20 23:55 BLURB, [TXT, JC]’. Because of their
growing reputation, members of the pre-CCRMA computer music group were
asked to participate in the planning of the future IRCAM as early as 1973. Xavier
Serra and and Patte Wood, Overview. Center for Computer Research in Music
and Acoustics. Recent work, report n. STAN-M-44, March 1988, available
online: https://ccrma.stanford.edu/files/papers/stanm44.pdf.
46 The history of CSC can be found in Zattra (2000; 2002) and Canazza et al. (2012; 2013).
47 A reference to the year 1974 appears in the founding CSC Statute (6 July 1979).
The group members presented for the first time their activity to an international
audience and defined themselves as members of the ‘Computer Music Group’ at
the third International Computer Music Conference (ICMC), held at the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology in Boston-Cambridge.
48 Email from Richard Karpin to the author, 10 July 2000.
49 While working at CSC, Marco Stroppa attended IRCAM summer courses for
young composers in 1982. It was decided that he would continue working and
collaborating in the Paris centre and proposed that he would stay after he fin-
ished this course and work as an assistant. After having discussed the matter
with Pierre Boulez, he became an assistant to Tod Machover (then the head of
the Research Department at IRCAM), who had been commissioned by Venice
Biennale to compose the piece Fusione Fugace. Stroppa, together with Ema-
nuel Favraeu, assisted Machover: ‘This piece was one of the first pieces entirely
performed live by three performers, [Machover, Stroppa and Favreau]. Tod
played the keyboard’ (Stroppa [1998], cited in Zattra 2000, 81). During that time,
Stroppa regularly travelled to Padova and worked on his own piece Dialoghi, the
second movement of the cycle Traiettoria, for piano and electronics (1982–1984).
In 1985, Luigi Nono wrote that Marco Stroppa was an ‘unusual example of a
person who has mastered the capabilities of the composer and the technician’
(Nono, cited in Tamburini 1985, 11). According to Stroppa, the technician/com-
poser is comparable to the fusion of a composer and an orchestral conductor,
who knows a work to the last detail and can therefore decide very thoroughly on
the performance ([1998], cited in Zattra 2000, 82).
50 Since the 1976 piece by James Dashow Effetti Collaterali, a hundred works have
been realised; among them are works by Claudio Ambrosini, Guido Baggiani,
Giorgio Battistelli, David Behrman, Anselmo Cananzi, Joel Chadabe, Aldo
Clementi, Wolfango Dalla Vecchia, James Dashow, Agostino Di Scipio, Roberto
Doati, Franco Donatoni, Mauro Graziani, Hubert Howe jr., Richard Karpen,
80 Laura Zattra
Jonathan Impett, Albert Mayr, John Melby, Wolfgang Motz, Luigi Nono,
Corrado Pasquotti, Teresa Rampazzi, Fausto Razzi, Salvatore Sciarrino, Marco
Stroppa, Richard Teitelbaum, Adriano Guarnieri (Zattra 2000). A complete list
of composers may be consulted at: smc.dei.unipd.it/production.html.
51 ‘Regolamento per l’utilizzazione delle risorse del C.S.C.’, Centro di sonologia com-
putazionale. Informazioni su scopi e attività, Bollettino notiziario dell’Università
degli studi di Padova, n. 19, giugno 1981, anno XXX, a.a. 1980–81, pp. 7–8.
52 I was able to analyse several minutes of the board of founders from the 1970s
to the 1980s. My first archival research dates back to 1999–2000 (Zattra 2000,
166–170; 2002). CSC was located in the same building from the 1970s up to the
early 2000s, but its archive was not organised in a formal, structured manner.
The centre has relocated three times since then. The repository contains records
of invoices, minutes of committee meetings of the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, drafts and
records of composers’ works, scientific papers.
53 Instructions in ICMS were tapped by means of a light pen; the software showed
a list of functions and parameter, instead of tapping single instruction as in
MUSIC 5 or similar computer programmes. Graziano Tisato, ‘ICMS: manuale
d’impiego’, Rapporto interno Centro di Calcolo, Università di Padova, 1978. See
also Tisato (1976, 1977a, 1977b).
54 The first version was presented with success at the ICMC – International
Computer Music Conference in Cambridge-Boston (Massachusetts Institute of
Technology) in 1976 (Tisato 1976).
55 Victor Hugo’s quote is taken from his essay Shakespeare (1864).
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Live-Electronic Music

During the twentieth century, electronic technology enabled the explosive

Friedemann Sallis is Professor and Director of Graduate Studies in the

Valentina Bertolani is currently pursuing a PhD in musicology at the

Jan Burle is a scientist at Jülich Centre for Neutron Science, Forschungszentrum

Laura Zattra is a Research Fellow at Institut de Recherche et Coordination

Edited by Friedemann Sallis, Valentina

ISBN: 978-1-138-02260-7 (hbk)

List of figures viii

1 Dwelling in a field of sonic relationships: ‘Instrument’ and

2 (The) speaking of characters, musically speaking 46

3 Collaborating on composition: the role of the musical assistant

4 Alvise Vidolin interviewed by Laura Zattra: the role of the

6 Approaches to notation in music for piano and live electronics:

7 Encounterpoint: the ungainly instrument as co-performer 160

8 Robotic musicianship in live improvisation involving

9 Authorship and performance tradition in the age of technology

10 (Absent) authors, texts and technologies: ethnographic

11 Computer-supported analysis of religious chant 230

12 Fixing the fugitive: a case study in spectral transcription of

14 Experiencing music as strong works or as games: the

1.1 Agostino Di Scipio, Two Pieces of Listening

Valentina Bertolani is a PhD candidate at the University of Calgary. Her dis-

Dániel Péter Biró is Associate Professor of Composition and Music Theory

Guillaume Boutard is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Library

as I do not make daily visits to the studio [IRCAM – Institut de Re-

The emergence of the profession of Computer Music Designer (pre-

Gerzso then asked:

Back in 1988, a four-handed article by Boulez and Gerzso stressed that

Who is the musical assistant?

1 Institutionalisation and recognition: I will investigate the presence, ab-

As well as research grounded on material sources, further investigation has

IRCAM, Centre Pompidou, Paris

CCRMA, Stanford University

the extraordinary results already obtained have occurred in those few

Since the beginning, synergy is the keyword in CCRMA policy. The

as far as I remember there was no idea of Musical Assistant in the

The examples of collaboration I mention in these paragraphs are some of

there was never a policy regarding visiting researchers and composers

Exchanges, cooperation and transfer of expertise also occurred between

CSC (Centro di Sonologia Computazionale

Composers and students, both Italian and foreign, began to collaborate.

I met James Dashow in New York in 1983. I was studying composition

create an interdisciplinary space where scientific and musical exper-

The statement certainly recalls passages from CCRMA documentation.

Vidolin’s statement testifies to the richness of musical and artistic ideas

Behrman realised Oracolo, for 4i real-time system (voice synthesis and

1 altruistic exchange, which entails self-sacrifice;

the “musical assistant” culture [helps] composers to work more effec-

These quotations suggest a zero-sum or a winner-take-all exchange at IRCAM.

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