Accepted Manuscript

A review on machinability of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) and glass fiber
reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite materials

Meltem Altin Karataş, Hasan Gökkaya

PII: S2214-9147(17)30204-0
DOI: 10.1016/j.dt.2018.02.001
Reference: DT 290

To appear in: Defence Technology

Received Date: 4 October 2017

Revised Date: 24 January 2018
Accepted Date: 2 February 2018

Please cite this article as: Karataş MA, Gökkaya H, A review on machinability of carbon fiber reinforced
polymer (CFRP) and glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite materials, Defence Technology
(2018), doi: 10.1016/j.dt.2018.02.001.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

A Review on Machinability of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) and Glass

Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composite Materials

Meltem ALTIN KARATAŞa, Hasan GÖKKAYAb

a
Abant İzzet Baysal University, Gerede Vocational School, Bolu.
b
Karabük University, Engineering Faculty, Karabük.

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Abstract

Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite materials are heterogeneous and anisotropic

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materials that do not exhibit plastic deformation. They have been used in a wide range of
contemporary applications particularly in space and aviation, automotive, maritime and
manufacturing of sports equipment. Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) and glass fiber

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reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite materials, among other fiber reinforced materials,
have been increasingly replacing conventional materials with their excellent strength and
low specific weight properties. Their manufacturability in varying combinations with
customized strength properties, also their high fatigue, toughness and high temperature wear

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and oxidation resistance capabilities render these materials an excellent choice in
engineering applications. In the present review study, a literature survey was conducted on
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the machinability properties and related approaches for CFRP and GFRP composite
materials. As in the machining of all anisotropic and heterogeneous materials, failure
mechanisms were also reported in the machining of CFRP and GFRP materials with both
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conventional and modern manufacturing methods and the results of these studies were obtained
by use of variance analysis (ANOVA), artificial neural networks (ANN) model, fuzzy
inference system (FIS), harmony search (HS) algorithm, genetic algorithm (GA), Taguchi’s
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optimization technique, multi-criteria optimization, analytical modeling, stress analysis, finite

elements method (FEM), data analysis, and linear regression technique. Failure mechanisms
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and surface quality is discussed with the help of optical and scanning electron microscopy, and
profilometry. ANOVA, GA, FEM, etc. are used to analyze and generate predictive models.
Keywords: Composite materials, fiber reinforced polymer composite materials, CFRP,
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GFRP, machining, wear, surface damage.

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1. Introduction

More than fifty thousand material types have been used in the design and production of a wide
range of engineering applications [1, 2]. These materials range between those which were available
even centuries ago (copper, cast iron, brass, etc.) and the recently developed advanced materials
(composites, ceramics and high performance steels, etc.) [2]. Composite materials are defined as a
combination of two or more synergic micro-constituents, which differ in physical form or chemical
composition [3, 4]. The structure of composite materials consists of two components,
namely matrix and reinforcement, and the three dimensional region with specific

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characteristics between these two constituents is known as the interphase region. The
interface, on the other hand, constitutes the boundary between the constituents with its
two-dimensional structure (Figure 1) [5]. The two-phased structure of composite materials,
consisting of the reinforcement phase surrounded with the matrix phase, enables utilization of the

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superior characteristics of both materials [6, 7]. Matrices involve metallic, polymer or ceramic
materials whereas reinforcements are in the form of fibers, particles or crystal filaments
(whiskers) [2, 6]. The matrix of fiber-reinforced materials are chosen among different kinds

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of resins (epoxy, phenolic, polyester, vinyl ester, etc.) while the reinforcement is selected
among glass, carbon or aramid (kevlar). In general, reinforcements (fibers) act as the main
load bearing element, whereas the matrix encloses the fibers and protects them in the desired

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direction. Matrices act as load transfer elements between the fibers and protect the structure
against harsh environmental conditions such as high temperature and humidity [8].
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Figure 1. Schematic illustration of composite material structure [5].

Carbon fiber reinforced composite materials, in which carbon fiber is used as the reinforcement
element, can involve polymer matrix, metal matrix, ceramic matrix or carbon matrix. Carbon and
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glass fiber reinforced polymer composites have been commonly preferred in the space and
aviation industry [9, 10]. Increasing number of aircraft components involve CFRP
composite constituents due to their superior characteristics such as high strength and
stiffness, low weight and high fatigue resistance [11-18]. These applications may
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involve small components such as doors and clips as well as large ones as wing flaps and
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the main body. The components made of carbon fiber reinforced composite materials
used in Airbus 350 aircraft are shown in Figure 2 [11].

Figure 2. Large-size CFRP composite components used in Airbus 350 [11, 19, 20].
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The failures arising from the machining of CFRP composite materials were found to reduce
the strength and fatigue life of the components [3, 21]. Occurrence of varying failure
mechanisms such as fiber pull-out, fiber break, matrix smearing and delamination result in
rejection of numerous components (Figure 3) [22]. The dominant failure mechanism during
the drilling of composites is reported as delamination [23, 24].

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Figure 3. Surface failures resulting from machining of FRP composite materials with
conventional and modern cutting tools [11, 25].
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Researchers in general have sought to determine the optimum cutting parameters to avoid the
failures such as fiber rupture, resin-fiber de-bonding, stress concentration, micro-crack formation
and deformations around drilling region, that occur during the drilling or cutting of GFRP and
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CFRP materials. In the present review study, the machinability characteristics and approaches
for GFRP and CFRP materials were addressed and the outcomes of the studies conducted in
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this respect were compared.

2. Machinability of Fiber Reinforced Composites

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Fiber reinforced polymer composite materials have been applied in several fields for years due to
their high specific strength and modulus [26, 27]. Because of the strength and stiffness of a
composite buildup depends on the orientation sequence of the plies, the layer orientation of fiber
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reinforced polymer composite materials needs to be designed correspondingly. While the fibers in
a unidirectional material run in one direction and the strength and stiffness is only in the direction
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of the fiber; the fibers in a bidirectional material run in two directions and the strength and
stiffness is in two direction of the fiber. The layers should require 0° plies to respond to axial
loads, ±45° plies to react to shear loads, and 90° plies to react to side loads (Figure 4). Since the
strength design requirements are a function of the applied load direction, ply orientation and ply
sequence have to be true [28].
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Figure 4. Fiber orientation types [28, 29].

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In aircraft industry, carbon fibers are widely used to reduce the weight of the structural
components, to reduce emissions, to improve the fuel efficiency, and the load bearing capacity of
the airplanes [30]. It is a known fact that in the aircraft industry that there are more than hundred

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thousand mounting holes on a single small aircraft and more than a million holes on larger ones
[31-34]. Thus, from manufacturers’ point of view, drilling process constitutes the 40% of all
machining operations during the assembly (riveted, bolted) of components [24, 34-36]. However,
failures such as fiber rupture, resin-fiber de-bonding, surface irregularities, micro-crack formation

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and deformations around drilling regions are commonly encountered during the machining of
CFRP composite materials due to the presence of two or more phases [32, 37]. Accordingly, the
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machinability of composite materials has been addressed differently from the machinability of
conventional materials [3, 22, 38, 39]. Such surface failures may have significant adverse effects
on the product surface quality, which prompts the researchers to conduct continuous studies for
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their elimination or mitigation [32, 34-36, 40-43]. It is reported in the conducted studies that the
surface quality depends on the cutting parameters, tool geometry and cutting forces [23, 24].
Therefore, correct selection of cutting parameters is essential in the machining of polymer matrix
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composites [24, 32, 35].

The studies on CFRP composite materials revealed that the failures that arise during their
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machinability reduce the strength and fatigue life of the material [3, 21]. Moreover, the
drilling process becomes a challenging issue during assembly [44]. The most serious failure
arising from the drilling of composite materials is reported to be delamination on hole surfaces
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(Figure 5) [23, 24, 45-58]. Theoretical and experimental studies reveal that, hole entry
and exit regions are the most delamination-sensitive areas [54, 57, 59-65]. Thrust force
is regarded by some of the researchers as the underlying reason for emergence of this failure
mechanism [38, 66].
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Figure 5. Illustration of the delamination failure emerging as a result of drilling [23,

67, 68].
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2.1. Machinability of CFRP and GFRP Composite Materials with Conventional
Manufacturing Methods

Composite materials are regarded as difficult-to-machine materials due to their heterogeneous

structures. Conventional machining methods such as turning, milling, planning, drilling, etc., are
typically used in the machining of these type of materials [69]. Due to anisotropic and
heterogeneous structures of composites, machining of such materials with conventional
machining processes often results in material failures such as matrix cracking, fiber
pull-out, swelling and delamination (hole surface failure) [3, 18, 69-77]. Failure

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behaviors do not only arise from the heterogeneous and anisotropic structure, but also from
the machining methods and their interactions [78-80]. In addition; due to their
heterogeneous structure, machining of polymer composite materials with conventional
methods gives rise to structural and health-related issues such as delamination, reduced tool

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life, fiber pull out, matrix smearing and unhealthy dust formation [45, 57, 81, 82]. Despite
their high hardness and abrasiveness (at times even harder than some of the tool
materials), due to their brittle nature, crushing of fibers is implemented via

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conventional machining methods, to avert the plastic deformation of the tool [45, 83,
84]. The low machinability of CFRP composite materials generally leads to various
machining failures including delamination, burrs, and sub-surface failures [13, 85-94].

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Typical finishing and surface integrity-related problems are commonly encountered during
the machining of CFRP composite materials with conventional solid machining tools.
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Occurrence of various failure types such as fiber pull out, fiber break, matrix smearing and
delamination end up with rejection of a vast number of work pieces [22]. High rejection
rates for airplane components reaching 60% arising from delamination related failures
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have been reported in the aircraft industry [3, 15, 22, 34, 57, 59, 95-97]. Also, narrow
working spaces cannot be reached with conventional solid tools due to the spindle size of
machine tools, and tool changing times for worn out milling and drilling tools result in
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extended machining times [11].

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2.1.1. Drilling, Cutting and Milling of CFRP and GFRP

In their study on drilling-induced surface failures on CFRP and GFRP composite materials
and the effects of drill bit geometry and cutting parameters, Durão et al. reported that, low
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feed rates reduce the axial forces, which in turn reduces the delamination initiation risk, thus
proving to be suitable for drilling of composite layers. They also reported that delamination results
are affected by the tool geometry, and accordingly twist drills with 120º point angle should be
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used for minimum delamination (Figure 6) [36].

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Figure 6. Drills: (a) Twist 120°; (b) Twist 85°; (c) Brad; (d) Dagger; and (e) Step [36].
In their study on measurement of wear criteria with regard to cutting temperatures, hole surface
topography and cutting forces during drilling, Ramirez et al. reported flank wear and burr
formation as a result of the conducted drilling process [98]. Eneyew and Ramulu stated in their
study, in which they used PCD drill for the drilling process, that the compressive force
increases with increasing feed rate and decreases with increasing cutting force. Various
researches reveal that a good hole surface quality is obtained with high cutting speeds and
low feed rates [99]. Gaitonde et al. used cementite carbide (K20) twist drill in their high
speed drilling process and reported a decrease in delamination tendency as a result of
increasing cutting speed. They also suggested the use of a low feed rate-point angle
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combination [3]. Grilo et al. applied the drilling process with different drill bits (SPUR, R950,
R415) and observed no delamination on the entry-surfaces of the holes, whereas uncut fibers
were found on the hole-exits. Additionally; the lowest levels of delamination were obtained
with SPUR drill bit [100]. Kılıçkap stated that, during drilling, delamination on the hole exit
was higher than the one on the hole entry at a rate of 13-30%, and reported that the lowed
delamination factor was observed with low cutting speed and low feed rate values [32].
According to the test results obtained by Ekici and Işık, the failure factor was reduced after
the use of high cutting speed and low feed rate values. The results of their study also
indicate that increasing values of cutting tool point angle and the number of cutting edges

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also increased the failure factor. The lowest failure factor was observed with 90 m/min
cutting speed and 0.06 mm/rev feed rate with a drill having two cutting edges with 60º point
angle [101]. Abrào et al. reported that thrust force was increased with increasing feed rate,

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while cutting speed barely influenced the thrust force, and that tool wear resulted in
increasing levels of thrust force [34].
As for the milling of CFRP and GFRP composite materials, Karpat et al. attempted to mill

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CFRP composite materials with differing fiber orientations (0°, 45°, 90° ve 135°) with a
PCD milling tool, and according to the test results, the radial forces emerging in the milling
of composite materials with 0° orientation were higher than those emerging in the milling of
composites with 45° fiber orientation. In this research the highest tangential forces were

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found to be those observed in the milling of composites with 135° fiber orientation;
whereas the lowest ones were those observed during the milling process of composites with
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45° orientation (Figure 7) [102].
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Figure 7. Details of slot milling experiments: (a) Experimental test setup, (b) Zero rake
and helix angle PCD cutting tool [102].
Surface measurement results of Erkan and Işık’s work indicate that surface roughness was
improved with increasing cutting speed whereas it deteriorated with increasing feed rate
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[103]. In their another work, in which they conducted surface roughness measurement with
varying cutting directions, Erkan and Işık reported that the surface roughness values
obtained from the channels milled with 45° machining direction were higher than those
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obtained after milling with 90° machining direction. In these studies, the average surface
roughness values were reported to be increasing with increased feed rate, while it was
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reported to decrease with increasing cutting speed. The change in cutting speed was found
to have no effect on the average surface roughness [104]. After their contour milling
process Takmaz et al. reported that the most effective parameter on average surface
roughness was the number of the cutting edges, which was followed by the cutting speed
and the cutting depth. In their work, the lowest average surface roughness was obtained as
2.14 µm with 4 cutting edges at 60 m/min cutting speed, 0.08 mm/rev feed rate, 6 mm
cutting depth [105]. Wang et al. investigated that mechanisms of orthogonal cutting in
conventional edge trimming of unidirectional Gr/Ep using PCD tools with various
geometry. They stated that chip formation, cutting forces, and the surface morphology
in edge trimming of unidirectional Gr/Ep were highly dependent on fiber orientation
[106].
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2.2. Machinability of CFRP and GFRP Composite Materials with Non-traditional
Manufacturing Methods

Damage-free machining of polymer matrix fiber reinforced polymer composite materials

with conventional machining methods such as drilling, cutting, milling, grinding, etc. is a
highly challenging process even under proper conditions, due to the issues such as
heterogeneity and thermal sensitivity [107]. Regardless the type of the used manufacturing
method, CFRP composite materials, like all layered (laminated) composites, undergo
numerous failures such as matrix defects (gap, porosity), fiber cracks, interface cracks,

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delamination, impurities, etc. as a result of their machining with conventional (traditional)
(turning, milling, drilling, etc.), or non-traditional (water jet machining (WJM), abrasive
water jet machining (AWJM), ultrasonic machining (USM), electrochemical machining
(ECM), electrical discharge machining (EDM), laser machining (LJM), chemical machining

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(CHM), photochemical machining (PCM), etc.). In general, the working principle of modern
manufacturing methods is characterized with their high specific energy and low chip
formation rate. The advantages of modern manufacturing methods over traditional methods

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can be listed as high precision, high surface quality for complex geometries, no requirement
for work tools, burr-free surfaces, etc. [108].

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2.2.1. WJM, AWJM, LJM and EDM of CFRP and GFRP
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Many studies have been carried out on water jet (WJ) and abrasive water jet (AWJ)
machining of CFRP and GFRP composite materials [11, 44, 95, 107, 109-125]. The
experimental results of WJ and AWJ applications implemented by Shanmugam et al. indicate
that, an increase in the cutting speed of water jet induces an increase in the maximum crack
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length; while an increase in the jet pressure decreases the maximum crack length (Figure 8) [109].
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Figure 8. Cross-sections of beginning of cracks while cutting with waterjet [109].

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According to Hashish; kerf width on the machined material increased with increasing cutting
speed, and cutting speed did not have any effect on the upper surface (compared to lower). Also;
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jet-lag angle was reported to be increasing with increasing AWJ cutting speed [11]. Phapale et al.
stated in their study that, no delamination was observed after the use of low water pressure,
abrasive-mass flow rate and stand-off distance; and high values for these parameters resulted in
higher levels of delamination [110]. The experimental results of Mayuet et al. showed that
SEM/SOM analyses were applicable for determination of delamination formation mechanism;
that the type of used abrasive is likely to be the most effective parameter in delamination
formation; that thicker layers could be machined by use of higher pressures; and that, higher
abrasive-mass flow rate with average flow range is likely to result in less damage [111]. In
their experimental study, Alberdi et al. applied abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) to
machine two different types of CFRP composites (M1 and M2), and the experimental results
showed that M1 (6 mm) could be machined faster than M2 (12 mm), which was attributed to
the fiber/volume ratio and/or the stress module [112]. Ibraheem et al. reported that; traverse
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feed rate, stand-off distance, AWJM pressure and abrasive-mass flow rate are the effective
parameters in the drilling of CFRP composite materials; that, AWJM pressure has considerable
effect on the material strength; and that, AWJM pressure should be reduced as a means to avert
the adverse effects of the pressure on material strength [113]. The experimental results obtained
by Doreswamy et al. showed that, jet pressure, stand-off distance and feed rate have more effect
on upper (top) kerf width (TKW) as compared to lower (bottom) kerf width (BKW). It was also
concluded in their research that, kerf width increased with increasing jet pressure and stand-off
distance, whereas it decreased with increasing feed rate. They also reported that abrasive
concentration was not effective on the kerf width, and that no delamination was observed on AWJ

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machined surfaces with optimized machining parameters [114]. Lemma et al. applied vibrating
and non-vibrating cutting processes with an AWJ machine tool and investigated the effects of
these two processes on average roughness of CFRP composite materials. The results of their

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study revealed that the surface quality was improved at a significant rate of 20% by use of a
vibrating cutting head as compared to the use of a non-vibrating head; and they also reported
that the highest roughness value was obtained with 6 Hz vibrational frequency and 2º

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vibration angle [115]. Azmir and Ahsan stated that, the lowest surface roughness value was
obtained with 22.5º cutting direction, 276 MPa jet pressure, 1.5 mm stand-off distance,
7.5 g/s abrasive-mass flow rate, 1.5 mm/s traverse rate, and by use of aluminum oxide
abrasive. They also stated that, fiber/volume ratio did not have a significant effect (8%) on

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the average surface roughness value [116]. In another study of Azmir and Ahsan, increasing
jet pressure and decreasing stand-off distance were found to decrease the surface roughness
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values; the average surface roughness was increased to a certain limit with the increase in
abrasive-mass flow rate; low traverse feed rate would yield a better surface quality; and the
cutting direction comparatively affected the surface roughness. After the tests conducted to
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determine the effect of machining parameters on kerf width, researchers reported that abrasive
particles with high hardness were likely to cause lower kerf widths, and upper kerf width was in
general larger than lower kerf width. They also proposed that increasing jet pressure would induce
formation of a wider channel which would in turn result in larger upper and lower kerf widths.
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The researchers concluded that, kerf width increased with increasing stand-off distance; kerf width
converged to 1 with increasing abrasive-mass flow rate, and as in the case of average surface
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roughness, lower traverse feed rate also resulted in lower kerf width. They determined that,
differing cutting directions, as surface roughness, have negligible effect on kerf width [117].
Miller et al. carried out a research on the difficulties and failures encountered in vertical milling
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(PCD (polycrystalline diamond), DA (diamond abrasive) and carbide tools) AWJ cutting and
drilling of CFRP composite materials under dry conditions. Results of their study indicate that,
in the drilling of CFRP composite, compressive force and torque increased with increasing
feed rate and decreased with increasing cutting speed. They also reported that, AWJ cutting
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time and cutting depth were primarily dependent on feed rate; and the combined use of high
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feed rate with low abrasive-mass flow rate yielded a comparatively uneven surface finish
quality [118]. Miron et al. obtained a high dimensional accuracy of ± 0.05 and 7,243 µ m
average surface roughness in the drilling of CFRP composite with AWJ machining and
observed abrasive residuals in the material (Figure 9) [119].
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Figure 9. Illustration of CFRP composite test material [119].
CFRP composite specimens were subjected to AWJ cutting operation by Unde et al. and the

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effect of machining parameters on material removal rate (MRR), delamination factor, kerf
width and average surface roughness (Ra) were investigated. Following the tests, the
resultant delamination factor after machining with 45º fiber orientation was found to be

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higher than those obtained with 60º and 90º fiber orientations [95]. Arisawa et al carried out a
study on availability of a more practical method in terms of machining efficiency and tool
life for machining of CFRP composite materials by any machining technology (AWJM, end
mill, electroplated diamond tool) with varying machining parameters. In end milling operation

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the average surface roughness value was observed to gradually deteriorate and exceed 3 µ m after
an increase in feed rate from 200 mm/min to 1000 mm/min. Also they achieved an average
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surface roughness of 1.5 µ m with 2000 mm/min feed rate using the tool they developed in
their study. In the same study a fine surface quality with 4 µ m average surface roughness
and without delamination was reported after the performed AWJM operation. The optimized
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drill geometry developed during the research was reported to yield machined surfaces with
up to 22 times better surface quality as compared to prior operations. It was also determined
that it was possible to extend the tool life as much as the number of holes which is at least
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four times higher than other tools [44]. Kakinuma et al. performed an experimental analysis on
machinability with ultra-fast feed drilling (UFFD), ultrasonic vibration assisted drilling (UVD)
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and AWJ drilling of CFRP composites in terms of material properties; measured the cutting forces
with a 3-component dynamometer and measured the delamination damage with an optical
microscope. The results obtained after the fast drilling process indicated that it was possible to
yield a hole-exit surface with significantly reduced delamination by setting a feed rate higher than
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3000 mm/min. In the preliminary drilling tests, delamination and burr formation were
found to occur on hole exit surfaces rather than the hole entries. The researchers
applied axial ultrasonic vibration for the drilling of CFRP composite material and
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reported a reduced friction between the work piece and tool. Results of the AWJ drilling
operation on CFRP composite material indicated that the use of high water pressure was
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likely to result in severe failure [120]. As for average surface roughness and machining
time, UFFD yielded a better surface quality in a shorter machining time as compared to AWJ
machining. They concluded that UFFD method yielded better results in terms of overall
surface quality, geometric accuracy and machining time for machining of CFRP composite
materials [120]. Patel and Shaikh conducted a review study on AWJ machining of CFRP
composite materials. Due to its main characteristics, they evaluated the use of AWJM method
for machining of polymer matrix composite materials which have been used in a wide range of
industrial and domestic applications. Despite being regarded as the best alternative in machining
of FRP materials, the AWJ technology also results in formation of undesired conical and rough
kerf walls, which however can be minimized through selection of optimal AWJ parameters for
machining [107].
Several studies have been carried out on laser machining of CFRP and GFRP composite
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materials [126-140]. Leone et al. investigated that laser cutting of 0.5 mm thickness CFRP
laminates using multi-passes scanning technique with the aim to obtain the maximum cutting
speed together with a narrow kerf and a limited HAZ (Heat Affected Zone). They pointed out
that the effective cutting speed depends on scanning speed and pulse power and they
indicated that for the adopted source and the selected process parameters, cutting speed
varies in the range 5.6-11.5 mm/s [129]. Takahashi et al. had an experimental investigation
of CFRP composite processing with a high-power pulsed fiber laser was conducted.
They indicate that the cutting quality mainly depends on the hatching distance and the
processing quality was improved with an increase of the hatching distance for each

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scanning speed. Also they concluded that the hatching distance and scanning speed
have significant effects on the cutting quality and processing rate [128].
Chaudhury and Samantaray presented the review article on role of Carbon Nano Tubes

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(CNT) for enhancing surface quality through EDM. They stated that since many authors have
studied the feasibility of machining CNT composites through EDM, the performance of such
machining process is found to be higher in terms of surface finish and controlled MRR which

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will be helpful for application of CNT in engineering application [141].

3. Conclusions

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Researchers have reported that, in the machining of CFRP and GFRP composite materials with
conventional machining methods (turning, milling, drilling, etc.) , increasing feed rate resulted in
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higher compressive forces; and higher hole surface quality could be obtained as a result of
increased cutting speed and reduced feed rate. Some other researchers, on the other hand, obtained
the lowest delamination factor with low cutting force and low feed rate. In general, average surface
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roughness was found to be reduced with use of high cutting speed and low feed rate.

It is stated in various researches on the machining of CFRP and GFRP composites with non-
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traditional manufacturing methods (WJM, AWJM, LJM, EDM, etc.) that, increasing cutting
forces, in WJ and AWJ method, caused an increase in the maximum crack length; whereas
increasing jet pressure resulted in reduced maximum crack lengths; jet-lag angle was
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increased with increasing cutting speed and a better surface quality was obtained with
increased cutting speeds. Conducted researches revealed that, kerf width increased with
increasing jet pressure and stand-off distance, and decreased with increasing feed rate. It was
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determined that the use of high pressure and low feed rate values were required to
minimize the kerf angle and roughness values. It was also reported in other researches that,
the surface quality of holes drilled with AWJ method were improved by use of low water
pressure, stand-off distance and abrasive-mass flow rate. Researchers obtained better
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surface quality within shorter machining periods with UFFD method as compared to AWJ
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machining.
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[7] Smith WF. Principles of Materials Science and Engineering, 2nd ed., McGraw
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[8] Mallick PK. Fiber-Reinforced Composites : Materials, Manufacturing, and Design. 3rd
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