21

SEQUENCES

In everyday language, the term “sequence” means a succession of things in a definite order. The
order may be chronological order, size order, logical order etc. In mathematics, the term “sequence”
is commonly used to denote a succession of numbers whose order is determined by a rule or a
function.

We encounter sequences at the very beginning of our mathematical experience. The list
of even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, …. and the list of odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, … are examples. We can
predict what is the 20th term of each sequence by observing the pattern. Another sequence of
great historical interest is the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, … in which each term is
the sum of the two preceding terms, except the first two terms. For instance, 8 = 3+5, 13 = 5 + 8
etc. In this case it is somewhat more difficult to predict the 20 th term, without listing all the previous
ones. We discuss more about Fibonacci sequence shortly.

A sequence can be thought of as a list of elements with a particular order. Sequence is an

enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed. Like a set, it contains members
(also called elements, or terms). In contrast to sets, the same element can appear multiple times at
different positions in a sequence, but order matters. Sequences are useful in a number of
mathematical disciplines for studying functions, spaces, and other mathematical structures using the
convergence properties of sequences.
Apart from the crucial role in mathematics, sequences have many useful applications, in areas
such as finance, physics and statistics. For example, we can invest Rs.1000/- at an interest rate of 5%
per annum, compounded annually, and list the sequence consisting of the value of the investment each
year; Rs.1000/-, Rs.1050/-, Rs.1102.50/-, Rs.1157.63/-, Rs.1215.51/-, … (these amounts are rounded
to the nearest paise.
For a given sequence, we can ask the questions:

 Can we find a formula for the general term of the sequence?

 Does the sequence have a limit, that is, do the numbers in the sequence get as close as
we like to some number?
In this session we try to answer these questions.
We begin with a formal definition of a sequence.
Sequences
If to each positive integer n there is assigned a (real or complex) number un , then these numbers
u1 , u2 , , un , are said to form an infinite sequence or, briefly, a sequence, and the numbers un are
called the terms of the sequence.
More precisely a sequence of real numbers (or a sequence in  ) is a function from the set
  {1, 2, } of natural numbers to the set  of real numbers. A sequence whose terms are real
numbers is called real sequence. In our course, we consider only real sequences.
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Being a function from the set of natural numbers to the set of real numbers, a sequence in 
assigns to each natural number n  1, 2,  a uniquely determined real number. The real numbers so
obtained are called the terms of the sequence. It is customary to denote the element of  assigned to
n   by a symbol such as un (or an , or xn ) and is called the nth term of the sequence. Thus, if

If u :    is a sequence, we shall ordinarily denote the value of u at n by un , rather than by

u ( n) . We will denote this sequence by the notation (un ), or by (un : n   ).

For example, the sequence of positive integer multiples of 5, namely 5, 10, 15, 20, … can be
expressed by the function u :    defined by
u ( n)  5n.
i.e., the sequence is (un ), where

un  u ( n)  5n .
In a sequence, the order of elements is important in contrast to the set, where the elements
have no specific ordering. For example,
The sequence
((1) n : n  ) is (1, 1,  1, 1, )
and alternates between 1 and 1, whereas the set
{(1) n : n  } is equal to the set {1, 1}
consisting of only two elements. Remember that, in sets, being a collection of distinct
objects, elements are not repeated.
n 1
Consider a sequence defined by u(n)  Here the first term is u (1)  2 ; second term is
n
u (2)  3 ; third term is u (3)  4 ; and so on. The n th term is u (n)  n  1 . When we use the
2 3 n
subscript notation un for u ( n) , the sequence is written

u1  2, u2  3 u3  4 ,  un  n  1
2 3 n

or simply by the notation (un )  n  1 .

n  
Some other examples of sequences are

(un )   n , 
(un )  ( 1) n 1 1 ,
n  (u n )   n n 1 .
The n th term of the sequence 2, 3, 4,  is un  n  1 and the sequence is denoted by
(u n )   n.

The n th term of the sequence 0,  1 , 2 ,  3 , 

2 3 4
is  
un  (1) n 1 n  1 ; and the sequence is
n

  
denoted by (un )   (1) n 1 n  1  .
n 
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Finally, the n th term of the sequence 5, 5, 5,  is un  5 , and the sequence is denoted by

(un )  (5) . This is an example of a constant sequence. In general, if b is real number, then the
sequence B  (b, b, b, ) , all of whose terms equal b , is called the constant sequence b . Thus the
constant sequence 1 is the sequence (1, 1, 1, ) , all of whose terms equal 1, and the constant sequence
0 is the sequence (0, 0, 0, ) .
Graphs of Sequences
Since sequences are functions, it makes sense to talk about the graph of a sequence. For example, the
graph of the sequence (un )  (n) is the graph of the equation
y  n, n  1, 2, 3, 
Because the right side of this equation is defined only for positive integer values of n, the
graph consists of a succession of isolated points. This is difference from the graph of

y  x, x  1
which is a continuous curve (indicated by RED color).

Fig. The sequence (un )  (n)

Fig. The sequence (un )  (n) in blue color and

the graph of the function y  x, x  1 in red color
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Graph of the sequence (un )   n n 1 in blue color and the graph of the function y  x x 1 , x  1
in red color are given together in Fig.

Fig. The sequence (un )   n n 1 in blue

color and the graph of the function
y  x , x  1 in red color
x 1

Limit of a Sequence
Since sequences are functions, we can inquire about their limits. However, because a sequence (un )
is only defined for integer values of n, the only limit that makes sense is the limit of un as
n   . By observing the graph of the sequence (n) it can be seen that the terms of the
sequence increase without bound.

Fig. The sequence (n)

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From the graph of the sequence ((1) n ) , we observe that the terms oscillate between 1 and
1.

Fig. The sequence ((1)n )

By looking at the graph of the sequence  n n 1 , we see that the terms approach a “limiting
value” of 1.

Fig. The sequence  n n 1

Informally speaking, the limit of a sequence (un ) is intended to describe how un behaves as
n   . To be more specific, we will say that a sequence (un ) approach a limit L if the
terms in the sequence eventually become arbitrarily close to L. Geometrically this means
that for any positive number  there is a point in the sequence after which all terms lie
between the lines y  L   and y  L   . This is illustrated in Figure.
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Fig.

The precise definition of limit of a sequence of real numbers follows:

A sequence (un ) is said to converge or to be convergent if there is a number L with the
following property : For every   0 there is a positive integer N such that
| un  L |  for n  N .
In this case we say that L is the limit of the sequence. Then we write
lim un  L
n 

or simply un  L as n
and say that the sequence converges to L or has the limit L . If no such number L exists, we say
that (un ) diverges. Note that for a sequence (un ) to converge to some L, it is needed that
after some stage or index, all the terms of the sequence should be very close to L.

As an example, we show that lim 1  0 .

n  n

Here the nth term of the sequence is un  1 and to show that the limit L  0 . For this, let   0
n
be given. We must show that there exists an integer N such that
n N  | un  l | 
i.e., to show that there exists a positive integer N such that
| un  L |  for n  N .

i.e., such that 1 0  for n  N .

n

i.e., such that 1  for n  N . …(1)

n
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Now we cannot proceed further without stating the Archimedean

property, named after the ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes
(287 BC – 212 BC) of Syracuse. The Archimedean property is that “ if
x is a real number, then there exists a natural number N such that x  N .
This N depends on the choice of x.
Now let us continue the work of finding an N satisfying condition (1).
{{Show the condition (1) above as a plate once again}} The
Archimedean property assures us the existence of a natural number N Archimedes

associated with the real number 1 such that N  1 . Then

 
1 
N
and hence it follows that
1  1  for n  N .
n N
Hence
1  for n  N …(1)
n

as desired. This proves that lim n 1  0.

n

As another example, if k is a real number, we show that lim k  k

n 

Let   0 be given. We must show that there exists a positive integer N such that
|k k|   for n  N .
Since k  k  0 , we can use any positive integer for N and the above statement will hold. This proves
that lim k  k for any constant k.
n 

Now we show that the sequence

3, 2, 53 , 64 , 57 ,  , 1  n2 , 
is convergent and has limit L  1 .

The n th term of the sequence is un  1  2 and L  1. Let   0 be given. We must show that there
n
exists a positive integer N such that
| un  L |  for n  N .

i.e., such that 1 2 1   for n  N .

n

i.e., such that 2  for n  N . …(2)

n

i.e., depending on   0 , if we choose a positive integer N such that N  2 , then the statement (2)

holds. So (un ) converges to 1.
The N ( ) Game
The way of finding a natural number N corresponding to a given   0 can be regarded as a
game called the N ( ) Game. In this game, Player A asserts that lim un  L . In making this
n 
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assertion Player A is issuing a challenge to Player B to give a specific value for   0 , after
which Player A will provide a natural number N  N ( ) , i.e., a natural number N depending
on  , such that if n is a natural number and n  N it will be true that | un  L |   . If Player
A can always come up with a value of N  N ( ) , and show that this value will work, he
wins. Then lim un  L is true. However, if Player B can give a value of   0 for which
n 

Player A fails to give an adequate response, then Player B wins. Then lim un  L is false.
n 

 For example, as observed in an earlier example, in proving lim 1  0 , Player A

n  n
1
can always come up with a natural number N greater than corresponding to a value

of   0 given by Player B .
 As another example, we use the game to show the sequence
(0, 2, 0, 2, , 0, 2, ) does not converge to 0. If player A asserts that 0 is the limit of
this sequence, he will lose the N ( ) game when Player B picks a value of   2 . To
be definite, let Player B choose   1 . Then, no matter what value Player A picks for
N  N (1) , his response will not be adequate, for Player B can always select an even
number n  N , for which the corresponding value un  2 and for which
| un  0 |  | 2  0 |  2  1 . Thus, the number 0 is not the limit of the sequence (un ) .
We also observe that the sequence (0, 2, 0, 2, , 0, 2, ) does not converge to any real
number, because the terms of the sequence are alternately 0 and 2, and hence they never
accumulate near any unique value. Therefore, the sequence diverges.

We now show that

(1) n 1

n  1 diverges.
n
Take a positive  smaller
than 1 so that the bands shown
in Fig. about the lines y  1
and y  1 do not overlap.
Any  1 will do.
Convergence to 1 would
require every point of the
graph beyond a certain index N
to lie inside the upper band, but
this will never happen. As soon
as a point (n, an ) lies in the
upper band, the next point
(n  1, an 1 ) will lie in the
lower band. Hence the
sequence cannot converge to 1.
Likewise, it cannot converge to
1 . On the other hand, because
the terms of the sequence get
alternately closer to 1 and 1 , they never accumulate near any other value. Therefore, the sequence
diverges.
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 The sequence  n diverges because it outgrows every real number L. To describe the
behavior of  n we write
lim  n   .
n 

 In speaking of infinity as a limit of a sequence {un } , we mean that un becomes numerically

large without any bound as n increases.

We now discuss an important sequence in mathematics literature, namely

the Fibonacci sequence. In 1202, Italian mathematician Leonardo Pisano
(also known as Fibonacci) pondered the question: Given optimal
conditions, how many pairs of rabbits can be produced from a single pair
of rabbits in one year? This thought experiment dictates that Suppose that
our rabbits never die, the female rabbits always give birth to pairs, and
each pair consists of one male and one female.
Leonardo Pisano

Think about it -- two newborn rabbits are placed in a fenced-in yard and left to, well, breed
like rabbits. Rabbits can’t reproduce until they are at least one month old, so for the first
month, only one pair remains. At the end of the second month, the female gives birth, leaving
two pairs of rabbits. When month three rolls around, the original pair of rabbits produce yet
another pair of newborns while their earlier offspring grow to adulthood. This leaves three
pairs of rabbit, two of which will give birth to two more pairs the following month. The
order goes as follows: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, … . Each number from third
position is the sum of the previous two. This series of numbers is known as the Fibonacci
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numbers or the Fibonacci sequence. The ratio between the numbers (1.618034) is
frequently called the golden ratio or golden number.
At first glance, Fibonacci's experiment might seem to offer little beyond the world of
speculative rabbit breeding. But the sequence frequently appears in the natural world- a fact
that has intrigued scientists for centuries. For instance, on many plants, the number of petals
is a Fibonacci number: buttercups have 5 petals; lilies and iris have 3 petals; some
delphiniums have 8; corn marigolds have 13 petals; some asters have 21 whereas daisies can
be found with 34, 55 or even 89 petals.

While describing the Fibonacci sequence we have observed that first two
elements are the number 1. Each number from third position is the sum of the
previous two. So mathematically, we can describe this as follows: The
Fibonacci sequence F  { f n } is given by the statements
f1  1, f 2  1 and f n 1  f n 1  f n (n  2) .

This way of defining a sequence, calculating the next term of a sequence

from previous terms, via some formula, is known as the recursive definition of
the sequence. Using the recursive definition, we can list the first few terms of
the Fibonacci sequence as:
F  {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, } .

The Fibonacci sequence diverges because it outgrows every real number L. To describe the
behavior of F  { f n } we write
lim  f n   .
n 

SUBSEQUENCES
A subsequence is a sequence that can be derived from another sequence by deleting some or
no elements without changing the order of the remaining elements.
The following are subsequences of the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,  , n,  of integers.
(i) The subsequence of odd integers: 1, 3, 5,  , 2n  1, 
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(ii) The subsequence of even integers: 2, 4,6, , 2n, 

(iii) The subsequence of primes: 2, 3, 5,7, 11, 
But 3, 7, 5,1,  is not a subsequence of the given sequence because the terms do not appear
in the given order as in the original sequence.

Some subsequences of X   , , ,   are

1 1 1
1 2 3 

 1 , 1 , 1 ,  , 1 ,   , and 1 1 1 
1 3 5 2n  1   2! , 4! ,  , (2n)! ,   .
   

Y   , , ,   is not a subsequence of X, because the terms of Y do not appear in X in the

1 1 1
But
2 1 3 
given order. The concept of subsequence have some role in determining whether a sequence
converges or not. We have the following observations:
(i) If a sequence {un } converges to L , then all of its subsequences converge to L. We use
this to show that the sequence {(1) n } is divergent: If the sequence {(1)n } were convergent to a
number x , then every subsequence of it must converge to x . But the subsequence 1,  1,  1,  of
odd numbered terms converges to 1 while the subsequence 1, 1, 1,  of even numbered terms
converges to 1, a different limit.
(ii) If any subsequence of a sequence {un } diverges, then {un } diverges. For example, the sequence
1, 0, 2, 0, 3, 0,  has a divergent subsequence, namely 1, 2, 3,  . So the sequence
1, 0, 2, 0, 3, 0,  diverges.
(iii) If two subsequences a sequence {un } have different limits, then {un } diverges. For example,
for the sequence (0, 2, 0, 2, , 0, 2, ) , the subsequence (0, 0, 0,  , ) converges to 0 while the
subsequence (2, 2, 2,  , ) converges to 2. Also, the sequence (0, 2, 0, 2, , 0, 2, ) diverges.
Definition A tail of a sequence is a subsequence that consists of all terms of the sequence
from some index N onwards. In other words, a tail is one of the sequences (un | n  N ) for
N  1, 2, 3,  .
Definition If X  (u1 , u2 ,  , un , ) is a sequence of real numbers and if m is a given natural
number, then the m -tail of X is the sequence
X m  (um 1 , um  2 , ) and its nth term is um  n .
For example, the 3-tail of the sequence
X  (2,4, 6, 8, 10, , 2n, ) ,
is the sequence
X 3  (8, 10, 12,  , 2n  6, ).

Sequences that are Bounded from Above

Definition A sequence {un } is bounded from above if there exists a number M such that un  M
for all n . The number M is an upper bound for {un } . If M is an upper bound for {un } and no
number less than M is an upper bound for {un } , then M is the least upper bound or supremum for
{un } , and is denoted by M  sup{un : n  }
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 The sequence 1, 12 , 13 ,  , n1 ,  is bounded from above by 1. Also 1 is the least upper bound.

 As another example, the sequence 1,  1, 1,  1, ,(1)n 1 , is bounded from above with an

upper bound 1. 1 is the least upper bound as no number less than 1 is an upper bound. Also
note that any real number greater than or equal to 1 is also an upper bound.

Bounded Nondecreasing Sequences

Definition A sequence {un } with the property that un  un 1 for all n is called a nondecreasing
sequence or an increasing sequence. Some examples of nondecreasing sequences are
i) The sequence 1, 2, 3,  , n,  of natural numbers

ii) The sequence 1 , 2 , 3 ,  , n , 

2 3 4 n 1
iii) The constant sequence {5}
There are two kinds of nondecreasing sequences – those whose terms increase beyond any finite
bound and those whose terms do not.

A non-decreasing sequence that is bounded from above always has a least upper bound. This fact is a
consequence of the completeness property of real numbers but we will not prove it here.
Completeness property of real numbers states that “every nonempty set of real numbers that has an
upper bound has a least upper bound in the set of real numbers.”

As an example, the non-decreasing sequence 1 , 2 , 3 , , n ,  is bounded from above by 1. No

2 3 4 n 1
number less than 1 is an upper bound for the sequence, so 1 is the least upper bound.
The non-decreasing sequence 1, 2, 3,  , n,  has no upper bound, and hence no least upper bound
also.
The following result, whose proof is omitted, ensures us that if L is the least upper bound of a
nondecreasing sequence of real numbers, then the sequence converges to L.
Theorem (The Nondecreasing Sequence Theorem)
A nondecreasing sequence of real numbers converges if and only if it is bounded from above. If a
nondecreasing sequence converges, it converges to its least upper bound.

For example, 1 is the least upper bound of the non-decreasing sequence 1 , 2 , 3 , , n ,  .

2 3 4 n 1
Also the sequence converges to the least upper bound 1.

Sequences that are Bounded from Below

Definition A sequence {un } is bounded from below if there exists a number m such that m  un
for all n . The number m is a lower bound for {un } . If m is a lower bound for {un } and no number
greater than m is a lower bound for {un } , then m is the greatest lower bound or infimum for {un }
and is denoted by m  inf{un : n  } .
 The sequence 1, 12 , 13 ,  , n1 ,  is bounded from below by 0. Also 0 is the greatest lower bound.

 As another example, the sequence 1,  1, 1,  1, , (1)n 1 , is bounded from below with a

lower bound 1 . 1 is the greatest lower bound as no number greater than 1 is a lower
bound. Also note that any real number less than or equal to 1 is also a lower bound.
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A sequence is said to be bounded if it is both bounded from above and below. For example,
1,  1, 1,  1, ,(1)n 1 , is bounded, neither 1, 2, 3,  , n,  nor 1,  2,  3, ,  n,  is
bounded.

Bounded Nonincreasing Sequences

Definition A sequence {un } with the property that un  un 1 for all n is called a nonincreasing
sequence or an decreasing sequence. Some examples of nondecreasing sequences are
i) The sequence 1,  2,  3, ,  n,  of natural numbers
ii) The constant sequence {5}
There are two kinds of nonincreasing sequences – those whose terms decrease beyond any finite
bound and those whose terms do not.
A non-increasing sequence that is bounded from below always has a greatest lower bound. This
fact is also a consequence of the completeness property of real numbers.

As an example, the non-increasing sequence  1 ,  2 ,  3 , ,  n ,  is bounded from above by

2 3 4 n 1
1 . No number larger than 1 is a lower bound for the sequence, so 1 is the greatest lower bound.
The non-decreasing sequence 1,  2,  3, ,  n,  has no lower bound, and hence no greatest
lower bound also.
The following result ensures us that if l is the least upper bound of a nondecreasing sequence of
real numbers, then the sequence converges to l.
Theorem (The Nonincreasing Sequence Theorem)
A nonincreasing sequence of real numbers converges if and only if it is bounded from below. If a
nonincreasing sequence converges, it converges to its greatest lower bound.
For example, 1 is the least upper bound of the non-decreasing sequence
 ,  2 ,  3 , ,  n ,  . Also the sequence converges to the greatest lower bound 1 .
1
2 3 4 n 1

A sequence is said to be monotone if it is either an increasing sequence or a decreasing

sequence. With this new definition we have the following important theorem.
Theorem (Monotone Convergence Theorem) A monotone sequence of real numbers is
convergent if and only if it is bounded. Further:
(a) If ( xn ) is a bounded increasing sequence, then
lim( xn )  sup{xn : n  }
(b) If ( yn ) is a bounded decreasing sequence, then lim( yn )  inf{ yn : n  } .

 1 
 As an example consider the sequence   , that is bounded below by 0 and above by 1.
 n
Hence it is bounded. Also it is decreasing. Hence by part (b) of the Monotone Convergence
Theorem,
 1   1 
lim    inf  : n   .
 n  n 
 1   1 
As 0 is the infimum for the set  : n    , it follows that lim    0.
 n   n
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Conclusion

In this session a particular function – sequence - with the set of natural numbers as domain
have been described. Being a function, we could discuss the graph and limit of sequences.
The idea of subsequence is introduced and examined how the behavior of these subsequences
can be used to conclude the convergence or divergence of the original sequence. We
observed that some sequences are increasing or decreasing, and if such sequences are
bounded then they are convergent. In that cases limits can be found easily by determining
supremum or infimum of the sequences.