Urban Water Journal

ISSN: 1573-062X (Print) 1744-9006 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/nurw20

Impact of inland pollution sources on the

bacteriological water quality of the Southern
Ganghwado Bay Area, South Korea

Chang-Ho Kang, Soo Ji Oh, YuJin Shin, YongGyeong Kim, Eun-Gyoung Oh &
Jae-Seong So

To cite this article: Chang-Ho Kang, Soo Ji Oh, YuJin Shin, YongGyeong Kim, Eun-Gyoung
Oh & Jae-Seong So (2015): Impact of inland pollution sources on the bacteriological water
quality of the Southern Ganghwado Bay Area, South Korea, Urban Water Journal, DOI:
10.1080/1573062X.2015.1057178

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2015.1057178

Published online: 25 Jul 2015.

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 Urban Water Journal, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2015.1057178

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Impact of inland pollution sources on the bacteriological water quality of the

Southern Ganghwado Bay Area, South Korea
Chang-Ho Kanga, Soo Ji Oha, YuJin Shina, YongGyeong Kima, Eun-Gyoung Ohb and Jae-Seong Soa
Department of Biological Engineering, Inha University, Incheon, Korea; bAquaculture Industry Division, SSFRI, National Fisheries Research &
a

Development Institute (NFRDI), Yeosu, Jeonnam, Korea

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The bacteriological pollution of water is a serious global environmental issue. The pollution of water by Received 25 June 2014
human and animal wastes can be a source of hazardous pathogens, which may pose serious health risks. Accepted 21 May 2015
In this study, we evaluated the microbiological water quality in the southern Ganghwado Bay area, South
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 02:42 07 December 2015

KEYWORDS
Korea. A total of 30 samples (14 discharge water samples from the drainage area and 16 sea water samples
coliform; fecal coliform;
from the adjacent area) were analyzed for the concentrations of total coliforms (TC) and fecal coliforms (FC) Ganghwado; pollution; water
in November 2013. The highest concentration of FC (28,000 MPN/100 mL) was found at site L1 (inland). quality
The highest mean concentrations of coliforms were found at sites W9 (sea water) and W11 (sea water),
with TC and FC concentrations of 33 MPN/100 mL. In conclusion, site L1 located near W9 and W11 is clearly
identified as the main source of pollution at Dongmak Beach.

1. Introduction
Human and animal fecal pollution of inland and coastal waters
may have a negative impact on recreational uses, public safety,
and shellfish sanitary status (Dorfman & Sinclair Rosselot, 2008;
Feldhusen, 2000) resulting in economic losses due to shellfish
bed closures or bathing prohibitions (Rabinovici et al., 2004).
Fecal pollution can also deteriorate the aquatic environment for
shell-fishing or shell culturing. In order to improve the bacteri-
ological water quality, proper management and remediation
plans demand suitable and reliable methods for identifying the
levels and sources of fecal pollution. Fecal coliforms are used
as indicators of the bacteriological quality of water for shellfish
production and to classify the waters from which shellfish are
harvested (Hunt, 1977).
Surface water impairment due to point source (PS) and nonpoint
source (NPS) pollution threatens aquatic ecosystems and water
supply security. PS pollution mainly includes municipal sewage
discharges (from urban or densely populated areas) and industrial
wastewater. NPS pollution occurs when rainfall, snowmelt water, or
irrigation water flows over land, carrying and depositing pollutants
into rivers, lakes, and coastal waters (Wu & Chen, 2013).
The West Sea, which is located between the Korean Peninsula
and China, is a shallow (<70 m water depth) and semi-enclosed
continental shelf. The industry and economy of both South
Korea and China have developed rapidly over the past few
decades causing marine pollution. The study area (Gyeonggi
Bay) is a coastal zone surrounded by industrial and housing
complexes, both of which are substantial contributors to local
pollution. This area has a semidiurnal macro tidal regime with a
tidal range between 8.6 m at spring tide and 6.4 m at neap tide.
In the main tidal channel, during spring tide, flood current veloc-
ities range from 1.4 to 2.4 m/s, and ebb current velocities range
between 1.2 and 1.7 m/s.
The southern part of Gyeonggi Bay is important economically
and the tidal flats are being increasingly degraded. Although the
physicochemical quality of the water is satisfactory, available infor-
mation on the effects of environmental factors show that the bacte-
riological water quality is unsatisfactory (Lim et al., 2007). Therefore,
in this study, we attempt to evaluate the effects of inland pollution
sources on the bacteriological water quality in the southern Gang-
hwado Bay area, South Korea.
2.  Materials and methods
2.1.  Sample collection
The sampling locations for inland water and sea water from
the southern Ganghwado Bay, South Korea, are presented in
Figure 1. Samples were collected from 30 sites in November
2013. Samples were collected in areas potentially used for fish-
ing activities or for water sports requiring partial or full body
contact either for swimming or commercial fishing. Sites L1 to
L14 are inland waters located in the southern Ganghwado Bay;
sites W1 to W16 are sea waters located in the southern Gangh-
wado Bay area. Samples were collected in 250 mL sterile media
bottles, shielded from light exposure, cooled with ice packs,
and transported within 6 h to the laboratory where they were
refrigerated or analyzed immediately (Figure 2). The parame-
ters dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, salinity, and temperature were
measured on site using an Orion Star Plus (Thermo-Electron,
Germany) multi-parameter display system.

CONTACT  Jae-Seong So  sjaeseon@inha.ac.kr

© 2015 Taylor & Francis
 2    C.-H. KANG ET AL.
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Figure 1. Sampling locations of inland water (L1–L14) and seawater samples (W1–W16) from the Ganghwado south bay area, Korea.
Figure 2. Sampling methods of (A, B) sea water sample in boat and (C) shoreline survey.
2.2.  Determination of coliform concentration
The total coliform (TC) and fecal coliform (FC) populations were
enumerated and expressed as Most Probable Number (MPN/100
mL). The samples were processed following the manufacturer’s
protocol in accordance with the procedures described in the
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater
(Rand et al., 1976). TC and FC numbers were determined by the
multiple-tube, most-probable-number (MPN) technique except
where otherwise indicated. Five tubes were used for each dilu-
tion. Lauryl tryptose broth was used for the presumptive test.
Positive presumptive total coliform cultures in which gas formed
within 48 h after inoculation were confirmed in brilliant green
lactose bile broth at 35.0 °C. Positive presumptive fecal coliform
cultures were confirmed in EC medium (231430, BD Difco, USA)
at 44.5 °C.
2.3.  Evaluation of impacts of inland pollution sources
The samples of inland pollution sources were analyzed for
flow velocity using a hydrometer (AEM1-D, Alec Ltd., Japan).
After flow velocity was measured, the rate of discharge was
calculated using the velocity–area method. Evaluation of the
influence range is suggested in accordance with the following
equations (Park et al., 2012). The daily pollution (fecal coliform)
load rate (DL, MPN/day) was calculated as the concentration of
FC (MPN/100 mL) × conversion (1000 mL/L) × conversion (1440
min/day) × flow (L/min). The dilution water required (DWR, m3/
day) was calculated as the pollution load rate (MPN/day) / (14
MPN/100 mL × m3/1,000,000 mL). Area required (AR, m2/day)
was calculated as dilution water required (m3/day) / average
depth (m).
3.  Results and discussion
3.1.  Pollution source investigation
The main sources of pollution of the southern Ganghwado Bay area
are domestic wastewater, hotel wastewater, and NPS pollutants from
agricultural wastewater. No industrial wastewater or livestock waste-
water was found to be involved. Approximately 1083 people live in this
 Urban Water Journal   3

Table 1. Sampling locations in the southern Ganghwado Bay area. Table 2. Environmental parameters of the sea water in the southern Ganghwado
Bay area.
Area Sampling site Latitude (N) Longitude (W)
Drainage area L1 37°59ʹ33.51 126°45ʹ61.02 Sampling Temperature Salinity (‰) pH DO (mg/L)
(Inland water) L2 37°35ʹ35.94 126°27ʹ23.21 site (°C)
L3 37°35ʹ30.79 126°27ʹ35.85 W1 18.0 25.10 7.91 6.15
L4 37°35ʹ36.78 126°27ʹ18.18 W2 18.4 25.00 7.89 6.43
L5 37°35ʹ38.91 126°26ʹ42.41 W3 18.2 25.10 7.94 6.29
L6 37°35ʹ42.40 126°26ʹ32.23 W4 17.8 24.90 7.91 6.63
L7 37°35ʹ36.10 126°26ʹ27.10 W5 17.9 24.90 7.99 6.43
L8 37°35ʹ39.28 126°24ʹ44.01 W6 18.1 25.10 7.89 6.82
L9 37°35ʹ40.33 126°24ʹ24.98 W7 18.0 24.90 7.95 6.48
L10 37°35ʹ42.66” 126°24ʹ5.51 W8 18.2 25.00 7.96 6.38
L11 37°35ʹ47.61 126°23ʹ55.58 W9 18.1 25.10 7.99 6.24
L12 37°36ʹ01.03 126°23ʹ38.69 W10 18.4 25.40 7.94 6.24
L13 37°60ʹ26.41 126°38ʹ86.31 W11 18.0 24.90 7.95 6.48
L14 37°36ʹ30.12 126°23ʹ74.00 W12 18.2 25.00 7.96 6.38
Adjacent area W1 37°36ʹ31.00 126°22ʹ30.00 W13 18.1 25.30 7.96 6.45
(Sea water) W2 37°36ʹ16.00 126°23ʹ02.00 W14 18.4 25.40 7.94 6.24
W3 37°35ʹ54.00 126°23ʹ08.00 W15 18.2 25.10 7.99 6.60
W4 37°33ʹ34.00 126°24ʹ13.00 W16 18.1 25.10 7.99 6.24
W5 37°35ʹ35.00 126°24ʹ13.00
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W6 37°35ʹ14.00 126°25ʹ25.00
W7 37°35ʹ28.00 126°26ʹ30.00 area, and 210 hotels are located near the southern Ganghwado Bay
W8 37°35ʹ11.00 126°26ʹ57.00
W9 37°34ʹ52.00 126°27ʹ30.00 area. Because no sewer treatment facility has been constructed in this
W10 37°34ʹ43.00 126°26ʹ25.00 area, most of the domestic and hotel wastewaters are discharged into
W11 37°34ʹ43.00 126°25ʹ25.00 the bay without proper treatment. The positions at which the samples
W12 37°34ʹ07.00 126°25ʹ25.00
W13 37°34ʹ07.00 126°26ʹ25.00 were collected are listed in Figure 1 and Table 1. In the inland area,
W14 37°34ʹ07.00 126°26ʹ57.00 the concentrations of TC and FC were measured at sites L1, L6, and
W15 37°33ʹ38.00 126°26ʹ25.00 L11–L14 (Figure 3A). The other inland pollution sources (L2–5 and
W16 37°33ʹ38.00 126°25ʹ25.00
L7–10) were not discharging during the sampling period. The highest

Figure 3. Total coliform and fecal coliform concentrations of (A) inland water and (B) seawater from Ganghwado south bay area, Korea.
 4    C.-H. KANG ET AL.
Table 3. The estimated diffusion range of the discharged water from the contamination sources.
Station Discharge Lowest
volume (L/min) FC (MPN/100 mL) depth (m)
L1 1924 28,000 3.5
L6 138 40 3.5
L11 1050 11 3.5
L12 1650 79 3.0
L13 152 23 3.0
L14 12 95 2.6
concentration of FC was found at site L1, with an FC concentration of
28,000 MPN/100 mL. Also, site L1 has the highest concentration of TC
among the six sampling sites.
3.2.  Bacteriological water quality
The environmental conditions at the sea water sampling sites
and the TC and FC counts throughout the monitoring period
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are summarized in Table 2 and Figure 3, respectively. The phys-
icochemical analyses showed that the temperature, pH, and
DO did not vary among the 16 sea water sampling locations
(Table 2). The quality of the water in terms of DO content is
always of primary importance at the waste discharge points in
rivers because DO is required for aerobic oxidation of the wastes
(Mukherjee et al., 1993). Additionally, DO levels are important for
the natural self-purification of the river.
The TC ranged from <1.8 to 230,000 MPN/100 mL, whereas
the FC ranged from <1.8 to 28,000 MPN/100 mL (Figure 3B). The
highest mean concentrations of coliforms were found at sites
W9 and W11, with values of 33 MPN/100 mL. Orozco-Bordón
et al. (2006) demonstrated close relationships between TC and
FC during summer and winter periods. This might explain the
relationship between TC and FC during both sampling periods
since FC is a sub-group of TC (Noble et al., 2000). In our study,
FC standards (14 MPN/100 mL) for the National Shellfish Sani-
tation Program were exceeded in three of the 16 analyzed sea
water samples (18.8%). The mean levels of FC were highest
for W9 (33 MPN/100 mL), W11 (33 MPN/100 mL), and W16 (17
MPN/100 mL). The high bacterial concentration at site W9 is
directly related to the effluent from Dongmak Beach (site L1).
Morales-Chávez (1984) pointed out that the effluent from the
main source of organic pollutants proceeds along the shoreline,
adjacent to popular beaches. These are winter microbial levels
in the sea waters, which are expected to increase when the
temperature becomes warmer.
These results confirm that the inland pollution sources cause
high levels of contamination in the southern Ganghwado Bay
area, and additional contamination is taking place from as yet
unidentified sources.
3.3.  Estimated diffusion range of the discharged water
The diffusion range of the discharged water from the inland
pollution sources was estimated according to the formula in
Section 2, and the results are summarized in Table 3. In the six
inland water samples (L1, L6, and L11–14), the concentrations
of FC ranged from 11 to 28,000 MPN/100 mL. FC concentra-
tions, as determined by DL, ranged between 1.6 × 109 and 7.7
× 1011 MPN/day. According to the formula, the affected radii in
the southern Ganghwado Bay area ranged from 5 m to 1004 m.
Based on these results, along with the FC concentrations of W9
Daily load Dilution water Radius of
(MPN/day) required (m3) Area required (m2) half-circle (m)
7.7 × 1011 5,541,120 1,583,177 1004
7.9 × 107 568 162 10
1.6 × 109 1188 339 15
1.8 × 1010 13,407 4469 53
5.0 × 108 360 120 9
1.6 × 108 117 45 5
(0.9 km) and W11 (3.9 km), Dongmak Beach is clearly identified
as a significant source of pollution. Similar results have been
reported by Park et al. (2012). Although the origin of FC was
different in their study, the concentration profiles are in line
with our results. This implies that the inland waters are highly
polluted by various industrial and domestic pollutants from
neighboring industrial complexes.
4. Conclusions
In this study, a full survey of pollutant sources and bacteriologi-
cal water quality was conducted to provide preliminary informa-
tion for bacteriological water quality management. The results of
this study can help distinguish the impact of PS pollution, NPS
pollution, and their main contributors. The fecal contamination of
numerous water bodies was investigated in the southern Gangh-
wado Bay area, and the poor quality of the inland water sources of
the Ganghwado Bay was found to be strongly related to the qual-
ity of the southern Ganghwado sea water. The highest concen-
tration of FC (28,000 MPN/100 mL) was found at site L1. Site L1
is located close to the Dongmak Beach. Coliforms are a potential
threat to human health, and actions should be taken to remediate
and improve the manner in which discharges are made into local
rivers and coastal waters that are accessible to the public. Our
study suggests that quality control, or the monitoring of water
to be discharged, is essential in order to prevent the pollution of
rivers and ground waters. Further studies are needed to assess the
contributions of PS and NPS pollution during dry weather flow
(pre-rainfall) and wet weather flow (post-rainfall) events.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Fisheries Research and Develop-
ment Institute of Korea under Grant (RP-2014-FS-004).
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Urban Water Journal   5
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