HISTOLOGY  Components

 Nucleus
Specimens  Cytoplasm
1. Unfixed (living) tissues  The protoplasm surrounding the nucleus
2. Fixed tissues  Composed of: Cytosol (fluid portion); sarcoplasm (in the muscle);
neuroplasm (in the neurons); axoplasm (in the axon)
Staining methods  Formed elements
1. Living tissues: 1. Organelles
a. Vital staining – IV injection of dye to living intact animal
▪ Organized structures in the cytoplasm with specific functions
b. Supra-vital staining – staining of surviving tissues
necessary for cell metabolism
2. Fixed tissues:
 Cells are killed by coagulation of cytoplasm with 10% formaling ▪ The cell cannot do without the organelles.
(commonly used fixative; formalin) ▪ Most are membrane-bound, but some are not enclosed by a
 H&E – commonly used stain membrane.
Hematoxylin (blue; basophilic) & Eosin (pink; acidophilic) 2. Inclusions
▪ Non-living accumulations of metabolites or other products
Special staining
▪ The cell can do away with the inclusions.
1. Per-iodic Acid Schiff (PAS) – specific for polysaccharides
2. Fuelgen Test – specific for DNA
ORGANELLES
1. Plasma membrane
CYTOLOGY
 Or cell membrane or plasmalemma
 Protoplasm – basic component of cell
 The membrane that separates the cell from the other cells in the body. . .
1. Motility
a. Protoplasmic streaming – apparent “current flow” in the protoplasm  L/M – not seen
b. Amoeboid movement  E/M – trilaminar (3 laminae)
c. Ciliary/flagellate  Bilipid layers
d. Contractility – ability to shorten (e.g. muscle cells)  Globular proteins – does not occur in a continuous shape in the
2. Metabolism lamina, but rather it will be intercalated in the bilipid layers
3. Irritability & conductivity (nerve cells) 1. Peripheral
4. Growth 2. Integral – traverse through the entire bilipid layers
a. Auxetic growth due to  in cell size  Cholesterol & glycoproteins
b. Multiplicative growth –  in number of cells ➢ Cholesterol: responsible for the fluidity of the membrane
c. Accretionary growth –  of non-living materials between cells ➢ Glycoproteins: responsible for the selectivity or the immune
5. Reproduction responses of the cell membrane
▪ Proteins attached to sugars
CELL
*Glycolipids – sugars attached to the lipid layer
 The smallest unit of protoplasm capable of independent system
**The glycoprotein & glycolipid would form a coat over the surface of
the cell called glycocalyx.
 Generalities:
 Functions
 Shape: isolated cells are round; varies in different tissues
 Barrier for cell contents
 Size: variable (largest cell in the female is the ovum)
 Possess device for attachment
 Regulates passage of substances (passive/active transport)
*Bulk transport
 1. Phagocytosis  Functions:
➢ Engulfment of large particulate 1. Synthesis of lipids & steroids (glucocorticoids)
2. Detoxification of drugs (liver)
➢ Taking in of substance in particle
3. Storage & release of calcium during muscular contraction
2. Pinocytosis
➢ Taking in of substance in solution 4. Golgi Complex
3. Exocytosis  L/M
➢ Extrusion  Unstained area near the nucleus
➢ Exact opposite of phagocytosis & pinocytosis  With silver stain, the area is blackened.
 Glycocalyx/surface coat  E/M
 Composed of glycoproteins and glycolipids  Parallel array of flattened saccules or cisternae associated
 Acts as protective mechanical barrier  Functions:
 Confers some degree of specificity or selectivity of cell surface  Modifies and packages secretions (producing secretory vesicles)
 Important role in cell membrane renewal
2. Mitochondria  Synthesis of CHO in limited amount
 L/M
 Special stain: acid fuchsin or supravital stain Janus green 5. Centrosome / Cell Center
 Appear as slender rods or filaments  Composed of centrioles
 E/M  L/M
 Enclosed by two membranes (outer & inner)  Pale area of cytoplasm
 Each is trilaminar  Pair of short rods – Centrioles (2)
 Inner membrane projects inward forming shelves: CRISTAE (oxidative
phosphorylation enzymes) for ATP production  E/M
 Hollow cylinder made up of micro-tubules
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum  9 sets of triplets (pinwheel manner)
A. Rough surfaced ER or Granular type  Functions
 Old term: Ergastoplasm 1. Organizing center for mitotic spindle (astral fibers in cell division)
 L/M formation
2. As basal bodies or kinetosome (serve as organizing structure for the
➢ Cresyl violet stain
formation of cilia & flagella) where cilia & flagella originate
➢ Appear as irregular basophilic masses or clumps/flakes
 E/M 6. LYSOSOMES
➢ Network of tubules with flattened saccular spaces (cisternae)  Vesicles containing hydrolytic enzyme; developed from the Golgi complex
➢ Dark staining granules on surface-palade granules or ribosomes  L/M – not seen
(made up of RNA)  E/M – membrane bound dense bodies with hydrolytic enzymes
 Function: for protein synthesis  Function: digest non-usable intracellular materials (phagocytosize substances)
*Neurons produce proteins. Secretory product: Neurotransmitter (e.g.
Acetylcholine) 7. Peroxisomes
B. Agranular or Smooth surfaced ER  Membrane bound bodies
 No ribosomes; tubular  Electron dense central core-nucleioid
 L/M – not seen  Contains oxidases & catalases
 E/M – network of tubules without cisternae & ribosomes
  Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals) – e.g. hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2)  Hydrogen & O2 10. Annulate lamella
 L/M – not seen
 E/M
8. Cytoskeleton  Composed of parallel lamellae or cisternae containing pores
 L/M – not seen  Seen in rapidly dividing cells (e.g. germ cells)
 E/M – network of structural proteins (forms lattice; for support) that extend  Function: still obscure
throughout the cytoplasm
 Types: CYTOPLASMIC INCLUSIONS
A. Microtubules 1. Nutritive substances
➢ 25 nm  E.g. CHO, CHON, fats
2. Secretory granules
➢ Tubulin (basic building block)
 Precursors of secretion (e.g. mucous)
➢ Responsible for cell motility (flagellate or ciliary movements) 3. Pigments
➢ For distribution of organelles a. Exogenous
B. Intermediate filaments  Generated outside the body & subsequently taken in
➢ 8-10 nm  E.g. carotene, dusts, minerals
b. Endogenous
➢ Types:
 Generated inside the body from the non-pigmented ingredient
1. Keratin/tonofibrils – in epithelial cells
2. Vinentin – mesenchymal cells  Cellular activity (e.g. melanin – synthesis blocked by glutathione)
3. Desmin – muscle cells  Cellular breakdown (e.g. hemosiderin, bilirubin, lipofuscin)
4. Neurofilaments – nerve cells  Lipofuscin granules
5. Glial filaments – neuroglial cells ➢ Indigestible residues of lysosomal processes
6. Lamins – beneath nuclear envelope ➢ Increase in number as a person grows older
➢ Functions ➢ Cells, especially neurons, will have endogenous pigments.
1. Internal support
➢ Wear & tear pigments
2. Maintain cell shape
4. Vacuoles
3. Attachment
 Storage cavity
C. Microfilaments
5. Foreign bodies from environment bacteria & other debris
➢ 5 nm 6. Bodies of unknown significance
➢ Made up of Actin (found in cells capable of shortening)  Crystalloid of Reinke (in Leydig cells)
➢ Contractility of cytoplasm  Crystalloid of Charchol-Butcher (in Serotoli cells)
➢ Protoplasmic streaming (type of movement of the protoplasm)
NUCLEUS
➢ Visco-elasticity of cytoplasm  Large, spherical body near the center of the cell
 Single, multiple (skeletal muscles) or absent (e.g. RBCs)
9. Proteasomes  Functions:
 Made up of protein complexes  Controls constructive metabolism of the cell
 No membrane
 Essential for reproduction & transmission of heredity
 Degrade individual denatured or non-functional polypeptides (>16 amino
acids)  Parts of the Nucleus
*Lyssosome degrades protein.
1. Nuclear envelope ➢ When there are two X chromosomes in the individual, one of the X
 Double membrane chromosome will be condensed to form a drumstick appendage to
 L/M – thin dark line surrounding the nucleus some of the cells in the body. (e.g. neurons, epithelial cells,
 E/M – double-layered membrane with perinuclear space between neutrophils)
 Contain nuclear pores which are covered by nucleoporin ➢ Will be seen only in individuals with two X chromosomes (females)
2. Nucleolus ➢ Also found in males with XXY genotype (Klinefelter’s syndrome)
 L/M – round refractile body usually acidophilic, eccentric ➢ Significance: aid in determining the sex of a person
**acidophilic – bcoz it is made up of RNA (responsible for the acidophilia
of the nucleolus)
 E/M – tightly coiled filaments of RNA ribosome production
 Site for ribosome production FUNDAMENTAL TISSUES
 Tissue: aggregate of similarly specialized cells united in the performance of a
➢ Ribosome will migrate to the cytoplasm passing through the pores.
particular function
➢ Cytoplasmic ribosomes will originate from the nucleolus.  Histogenesis: process of development of tissues from the undifferentiated cells of
the embryonic germ layers
3. Chromatin
 L/M – deeply stained clumps scattered throughout the nucleoplasm
➢ can be identified with H&E when the chromatin is condensed  3 Germ Layer Origin
➢ if uncoiled or extended, it cannot be seen. 1. Ectoderm
 The segment of the chromosome that will remain condensed & stainable 2. Mesoderm
with ordinary stains, it is identified as chromatin. 3. Endoderm
 Chromosomes: discrete rod-like structures seen only during cell division  All the fundamental tissues will develop from the 3 primary germ layers.
 Karyosome/chromatin knot: individual clumps or masses of chromatin
 E/M – made up of filaments or strands of DNA  4 Basic Tissues
 Types of chromatin: 1. Epithelium – may develop from the 3 germ layers
1. Heterochromatin 2. Connective tissue – will develop only from the mesoderm
3. Muscular tissue – will develop only from the ectoderm
▪ Refers to the chromatin which remains coiled or condensed & 4. Nervous tissue – will develop only from the ectoderm
readily stainable
2. Euchromatin
 Basic components
▪ Chromatin that is uncoiled or extended, unstainable & believed  Cells
to be the portion that is translated or expressed  Intercellular/ground substance
➢ Pyknotic  Tissue fluid
▪ Compact & dark nucleus (compact/condensed chromatin;
nucleus – dark in staining) EPITHELIAL TISSUES
 A tissue composed of one or more layers of contiguous cells lining external or
➢ Vesicular
internal surfaces of the body including small cavities & vessels (arteries, veins,
▪ Pale (nucleus – pale in staining) lymphatics)
 BARR Body (sex chromatin)  All the surfaces of the body will be covered by epithelium.
➢ A small oval mass of chromatin attached to the inner surface of
nuclear membrane of certain cells (e.g. neurons, epithelial cells)  Functions:
1. Protection
  All the external surface of the body is covered with the epithelium for 2. Manifest polarity
protection especially areas that are always subjected to mechanical  Apical/distal end – near the surface
irritations.  Proximal/basal end – near the basement membrane
 E.g. lining epithelium of the skin  The arrangement of the organelles in the distal end and basal end of the
2. Absorption cell will indicate cell polarity.
 After digestion, all substances or the food eaten will pass through Distal end Basal end
epithelium. a. Secretory granules nucleus
3. Secretion b. Golgi complex mitochondria
 Exemplified by the glands (sweat & salivary glands) c. Centrosome ER
 All the secretions will pass through an epithelium.
4. Excretion  Classification of Epithelium
 All the waste products of cellular processes will pass through an  Number of cell layers
epithelium. (CO2 will pass through lung alveoli.)  Simple (one layer)
5. Sensory reception  Stratified (more than one layer)
 Sensory organs are made up of epithelium.  Shape of cells
6. Reproduction  Squamous (flattened)
 The sex cells will develop from epithelium.  Cuboidal (cube-shaped)
 Columnar (column-like)
 General characteristics
 Scanty intercellular substance  Types of Epithelium
 Scanty: few/minimal/small I. Simple
 Rest on Lamina Propia with basement membrane in between II. Stratified
 Lamina propia: connective tissue bed of the epithelium III. Pseudostratified
➢ The cells are not directly in contact with the Lamina Propia; there is a IV. Specialized
structure between it called basement membrane. 1. Glandular (specialized for secretion)
2. Ciliated (those with motile processes on the surfaces)
 Avascular but well supplied with nerves 3. Neuroepithelium (concerned for sensory reception)
 Avascular: no intrinsic blood supply
I. Simple Epithelia
 Blood supply is found in the Lamina Propia (where the blood vessels are
 Made up of one layer of cells
located).
 The cells are supplied with nutrients through the process of diffusion.
A. Simple squamous
 May undergo metaplasia
 Single layer of thin plate-like cells
 Metaplasia: the change of one type of epithelium or tissue into another
type
 Top view:
 Tissue layer always has one free surface exposed to the environment
➢ Irregular hexagons
 Epithelial Cells ➢ Serrated (corrugated) interlocking borders
1. Nucleus conforms cell shape.  Perpendicular view:
 If the cell is round, the nucleus is round. ➢ Thin/flattened, spindle-shaped
 Exception:  Examples: organs/structures lined by simple squamous
➢ If the cell is square, the nucleus is round. 1. Parietal layer of Bowman’s capsule (kidney)
➢ If the cell is rectangular, the nucleus is oval. 2. Thin segment of Henle’s loop (kidney)
 3. Rete testis (Testes) 4. Gall bladder
4. Lung alveoli  Best suited for absorption
**Memorize the examples (organs)
 This is the type that is best suited for filtration & diffusion. II. Stratified
 Specific types:  Made up of many layers of cells
**e.g. cavities lined by serous membrane (covered by simple squamous)  Basal layers
What is the specific name? Mesothelium ➢ Near the basement membrane
➢ Mesothelium ➢ 1-2 layers of columnar/cuboidal cells
▪ Serous membrane (in serous cavity  pleural cavity  on the  Middle layer
lung) (pericardial cavity  lined by pericardium  on the heart) ➢ 3-4 layers of polyhedral cells
(peritoneal cavity  peritoneum  stomach)  Superficial layer
➢ Endothelium ➢ Basis of classifying stratified epithelia into different types
▪ Lining internal surface of heart & vessels ➢ 1-2 layers of cells, the shape determines the type
*heart: covered outside by serous membrane, inside is covered
endothelium A. Stratified squamous epithelium
➢ Mesenchymal  Thick epithelial sheet; best suited for protection
▪ Lines spaces in the body derived from the cleft of the embryo  Flattened cells on surface
▪ Lining perilymphatic spaces of internal ear, sub-dural &  Prominent connective tissue papillae (finger-like projections of the lamina
subarachnoid spaces propia into the epithelium carrying with it blood vessels)
 Examples:
B. Simple cuboidal 1. Skin
 Height & width of the cells are almost equal 2. Tongue
3. Esophagus
 Top view:
4. Vagina
➢ Small regular hexagons
 Vertical view: B. Stratified columnar epithelium
➢ Single row of square cells with a round central nucleus  Rectangular cells on the superficial layer
 Examples:  Rare in human body
1. Thyroid follicles  Examples:
2. Collecting tubules of the kidney 1. Fornix of conjunctiva *conjunctivitis – red eye

2. Cavernous part of male urethra

C. Simple columnar
 Height exceeds width of cells C. Transitional Epithelium
 Top view:  Large dome-shaped/umbrella-shaped cells on surface
➢ Small regular hexagons  Lines excretory passages of the kidney
 Vertical view: ➢ Ureter
➢ Single row of rectangular cells with basally located oval nucleus ➢ Renal pelvis & calyces
 Examples: ➢ Urinary bladder
1. Stomach
2. Small intestine III. Pseudostratified Columnar
3. Large intestine
  Single layer of cells; all cells are attached to basement membrane, but not all  Involve simple columnar (1&2) & pseudostratified (3&4)
reach free surface  Examples:
 Nuclei lie at different levels, thus appearing stratified. 1. Uterus
 Three component cells: columnar, fusiform & basal pyramidal 2. Oviduct
 Example: 3. Trachea
1. Ductus epididymis 4. Bronchi
2. Vas deferens
3. Trachea C. Neuroepithelium
4. Bronchi  Concerned for sensory reception
 Basically pseudostratified
IV. Specialized epithelia  Posses sensory hairs on surface
A. Glandular epithelia  Examples:
 Basically simple cuboidal 1. Vestibular apparatus
 Cells become pyramidal when cells form acini/acinus (secretory part of 2. Organ of Corti (internal ear – cochlea)
the gland; ball-like) 3. Crista ampularis (found in semi-circular canals)
 Best suited for secretion 4. Maculae
 Types:
➢ Serous glandular epithelium  Functional surfaces
 Free surface – exposed to the environment
▪ Grandular, acidophilic cytoplasm
 Lateral surface – exposed to the adjacent cells
▪ Round nucleus (near base of cell)  Basal surface – exposed to the basement membrane
▪ Presence of intercellular canaliculi (extra channels that help in *simple epithelia – 3 functional surfaces
the expulsion of glandular secretions) *stratified epithelia – 1 or 2, but never 3
▪ Cells surround a small lumen
 Free Surface specialization:
▪ Secretion is clear and watery.
A. Non-Motile processes
▪ Examples:
▪ General term: microvilli
1. Parotid gland
2. Pancreas ▪ Types of microvilli: (function – absorption)
a. Striate border
➢ Mucous glandular epithelium
b. Brush border
▪ Reticulated, basophilic cytoplasm a & b: uniform length & diameter
▪ Flattened nucleus pushed to cell base ✴ Standing stiffly in close parallel array
▪ Absence of intercellular canaliculi ✴ Central core is supported by filaments anchored
▪ Cells surround a large lumen to terminal web
▪ Secretion is slimy ✴ Examples:
▪ Examples: 1. Small intestines (striate)
1. Sublingual gland 2. Proximal tubules of the kidney (brush)
2. Submaxillary glands c. Stereocilia
✴ Long, flexible, branching
B. Ciliated epithelia ✴ Central core lacks filaments
 Posses motile processes on surface (cilia)
✴ Examples:
 1. Ductus epididymis *(lined by pseudostratified columnar with c. Macula adherens or desmosomes (weld spot-like)
sterocilia) 2. Gap junction (Nexus)
2. Vas deferens * ▪ Permit the rapid spread of excitation from one cell to the next
▪ Connexons (tubular structures that traverse the junction)
B. Motile processes
1. Cilia
 Basal surface specialization
✴ Longer than microvilli 1. Basement membrane
✴ Attached to basal bodies ▪ Between lamina propia & epithelial cells
✴ Central core is the axoneme with 2 longitudinal tubules ▪ Made up of 3 structures:
surrounded by 9 doublet microtubules (9 + 2 microtubules) a. Basal lamina (laminin – protein molecule)
✴ Function: moves the environment instead of the cell b. Reticular fiber network
✴ Ciliated cells in the body are not motile. c. Ground substance – composed of perlecan (proteoglaycan)
2. Flagellum & heparin sulfate (glycosaminoglycans)
2. Plasma membrane infoldings
✴ Very long
▪ Plication of the cell membrane
✴ One per cell
▪ Concerned for water metabolism (concerned with water
✴ Structure, same as cilium
absorption; will have infoldings in the basal surface)
✴ Anchored to basal bodies 3. Hemidesmosome (integrins) *full desmosomes: found in lateral
surface
✴ Differs only in movement
▪ Half of desmosome
C. Secreted plate
▪ Adherent to the lamina propia because of protein integrins
▪ Membranous plaques deposited on free surface of cells
*Substances produced of membranous plaques on the free
surface of the epithelial cells CONNECTIVE TISSUE
▪ Example: fectorial membrane (above the organ of Corti)  A tissue composed of cells & extracellular fibers embedded in gel-like ground
substance, the matrix
D. Condensed border
▪ Membranous plaques deposited on free surface of cells  General characteristics:
*deposition of membranous plaques on the free surface of the  Cells are far apart (because the matrix is abundant)
epithelial cells  Presence of non-living fibers in the intercellular substance
▪ Serve as barrier between fluid content and cell  Abundant intercellular substance forming its bulk
 Vascular & has nerve supply except cartilage & mucous CT
▪ Found in the lining epithelium of the excretory passages of the
kidney (e.g. urinary bladder)
 Types of CT
1. Connective tissue proper – soft tissue (semi-fluid intercellular substance)
 Lateral surface specialization 2. Cartilage – solid but pliable (for support and flexible)
1. Junctional complex 3. Bone – solid & rigid
▪ Located immediately beneath the free surface 4. Blood – intracellular substance is fluid (atypical)
a. Zonula occludens (tight junction – fusion of 2 cell membranes)
b. Zonula adherens (belt-like around; no fusion of the adjacent  Connective Tissue Proper
membranes, but they are adhering to each other)  Composed of:
  Cells C. Lungs – dust cells (engulf dust) & heart failure cells (engulf
 Fibers hemosiderin pigments)
 Adhesions glycoproteins D. Liver – von Kupffer cells
 Ground substance E. CNS – microglia
 CT Cells F. Skin – Langerhans cells (process antigens & will present it to the
1. Fibroblast competent immunoglobulin cells of the immune system)
G. Bone – osteoclasts
➢ A mature cell
H. Blood – monocytes
➢ Most common in areolar I. Lymph nodes – dendretic cells (process antigens
➢ Only cell type in tendon *Stem cell of the macrophage? Monocytes
➢ Shape: fusiform/spindle-shaped
3. Mesenchymal cells
➢ Nucleus: large, oval & pale with 2 nucleoli *pyknotic
➢ Embryonic type
➢ Cytoplasm
➢ Responsible for metaplasia of CT
▪ Fine branching processes
➢ In adults – distributed along blood vessels
▪ Acidophilic (the cell is resting) or basophilic (actively producing
something) ➢ Shape: resemble fibroblast
➢ Function: production of CT fibers & ground substance ➢ Function: gives rise to other cell types in CT

2. Macrophage 4. Plasma cells

➢ Identifiable only with special stain ➢ Abundant in lamina propia of GIT
➢ Shape: irregular (because of pseudopods) with short blunt processes ➢ Few in areolar tissue
➢ Nucleus: oval & dark staining ➢ Shape: oval to spherical
➢ Cytoplasm ➢ Nucleus: eccentric, chromatin arranged radially (spokes of a wheel
appearance; clock face – sometimes, the heterochromatin will be
▪ Contain vacuoles attached to the inner surface of the nuclear envelope)
▪ Segregation apparatus: engulfed material in the cell enclosed by ➢ Cytoplasm: intensely basophilic, except near the nucleus – “peri-
a membrane
nuclear halo” (corresponding to the cell center & Golgi apparatus)
➢ Functions ➢ Russell bodies: defective antibodies in the cytoplasm of plasma cells
▪ Phagocytosis (all the macrophages will form a system of
➢ Function: antibody production
phagocytic cells known as the Mononuclear Phagocyte System)
▪ Antigen processing & presentation 5. Mast cells
▪ Production of cytokines (attract other cell of the immune ➢ Shape: oval to spherical
system) ➢ Nucleus: small & pale
➢ Cytoplasm: contains metachromatic granules (large granules; from
➢ Mononuclear Phagocyte System “metachromasia” – ability to take up the color different from the
▪ A system of phagocytic cells scattered in different organs or stain used)
tissues of the body
➢ In the granules of the mast cells are basoactive (stimulate/dilate the
A. CT – histiocyte blood vessels) substances. (e.g. histamine)
B. Bone marrow – Littorial cells
➢ Functions:
 ▪ Production of heparin, histamine, chemotactic factors ➢ Fibrils are cross striated
▪ Important in the inflammatory response of tissues  Chemical properties:
➢ Tropocollagen (fundamental unit)
6. Adipose or Fat cells ➢ Boiling converts it to gelatin
➢ Shape: spherical (isolated) or polygonal *Collagen – most abundant protein in the body
➢ Nucleus: flattened, pushed to one side resulting to a signet ring ➢ Dissolves in strong acid & alkali
appearance ➢ Digested by gastric juice
➢ Cytoplasm: thin due to fat vacuole ➢ Takes ordinary stain – acidophilic
➢ Function: synthesis & storage of neutral fat ➢ Treated with tannic acid – yields tough & insoluble material
 Types of collagen fibers
7. Leukocytes
➢ Type 1 – skin, bone, tendin, fascia
➢ Not permanent cells in CTs (transient)
➢ Type 2 – cartilage, vitreous body, nucleus pulposus (central part of
➢ Neutrophils – migrate through diapedesis (migration of leukocytes intervertebral discs)
thru an intact cell wall)
*Chemotaxis – migration to areas with injury; in response to ➢ Type 3 – blood vessels, stroma of solid organs (argyrophilic fibers –
cytokines produced by macrophage formerly known as reticular fibers; takes up silver stain)
➢ Type 4 – basal lamina (component of the basement membrane of
8. Reticular cells epithelial cells
➢ Stellate cells or fusiform cells associated with reticular fibers (type III ➢ Type 5 – smooth & skeletal muscles
collagen fibers)
➢ Modified fibroblast B. Reticular Fiber
9. Pigment cells  Very thin
 Type III collagen
➢ In the CT – melanocyte (production of melanin)
 Argyrophilic
➢ Irregular cytoplasmic processes  PAS (Per-iodic Acid Schiff test) positive – because of abundant sugar in the
➢ Contains small granules of pigment (melanosomes) which contains fiber
melanin  Produced by specialized fibroblast called reticular cell

 Connetive Tissue Fibers C. Elastic Fiber

A. Collagen Fiber  Physical properties:
 Physical properties: ➢ Yellowish
➢ Colorless (but when the fibers are grouped together, it becomes ➢ Highly refractile
white)
➢ Highly stretchable
➢ Pearly because of low refractive index
➢ When it breaks, end is clean cut & has a tendency to retract.
➢ Inelastic but flexible
➢ Fine fibers may branch & ansatomose forming a network
➢ Irregular broken ends (because one fiber is made up of several fibrils
➢ Sheets or lamellae in blood vessels
looking like a rope)
*innermost lamella of the aorta? Internal elastic lamina/membrane
➢ Occurs as individual strands or bundles of Henle
➢ Each fibers is composed of fibrils  Chemical properties:
 ➢ Composed of elastin 1. Mesenchymal CT (mesenchyme)
 PC – undifferentiated mesenchymal cell
▪ Fibrillin: forms lattice for elastin assembly
 PF – collagen
➢ Resistan to boiling, acid or alkali  Occurrence – between germ layers & developing organs of embryo
➢ Not affected by gastric juice  Function – packing substance of embryo
➢ Digested by elastase (pancreatic juice)
2. Mucous CT
➢ Stains poorly with H&E
 Also known as Wharton’s jelly
 No blood & nerve supply
 Adhesion glycoproteins
 PC – fibroblast
 Fibronectin – normal cell adhesion & migration
 PF – collagen
 Laminin – adhesion of epithelial cells to basement membrane
 Occ – dental pulp (in the developing tooth) & umbilical cord
 Thrombospondin – blood clot formation; found in blood platelets
 Function: gelatinous support of the umbilical blood vessels
 Ground substance or matrix  1st half of pregnancy – very cellular, scanty fine collagen fibers
 Made up of CHO & CHON  2nd half of pregnancy – less cellular, numerous coarse collagen fibers
 Homogeneous, transparent, gel-like  Function: provides fibro-gelatinous supporting
 Usually extracted during fixation
B. Adult types
 Mainly composed of proteoglycans
1. Areolar CT
 Proteoglycans – complexes of CHON & CHO to which glycosaminoglycans
 Most common
are attached
 PC – fibroblast
 Responsible for metachromasia & PAS reaction
 PF – collagen
 Occ – all over the body
 Types of glycosaminoglycans
1. Hyaluronic acid – synovial fluid (joint), vitreous humor (eye), Wharton’s
jelly (umbilical cord)
 Functions:
➢ Most abundant
➢ Packing material in adults
➢ Very high viscosity thus serve as mechanical barrier to spread of
bacterial infection in the tissues ➢ Mechanical support

➢ Hyaluronidase – an enzyme that depolymerizes hyaluronic acid ➢ Transport of metabolites

2. Chondroitin sulfate – cartilage & bone ➢ Repair after injury
3. Heparin sulfate – liver, lungs & aorta ➢ Body defense
4. Keratin sulfate – cornea & cartilage
5. Dermatan sulfate – skin, tendon 2. Reticular CT
 Does not exist alone; cannot stand alone
 Types of CT Proper  PC – reticular cell
 Based on preponderant cell  PF – type III collage
 Based on preponderant fibers present  Occ – bone marrow, lymphoid organs, liver
A. Embryonal types  Function: framework
B. Post-natal or adult types
3. Adipose CT
A. Embryonal types  PC – adipose/fat cell
  PF – type III & IV collagen
 Occ – subcutaneous layer (panniculus adiposus), mesentery, axilla but 2. Dense irregular
absent in CNS, lungs, eyelids, penis ▪ No definite fiber orientation
 Functions:
▪ E.g. capsules, septa, trabeculae
➢ Reservoir of energy
➢ Shock absorber  Preponderant fiber
➢ Insulator 1. Dense collagenous

➢ Cosmetic purposes ▪ PC – fibroblast

 Types of Adipose Tissue ▪ PF – collagen fibers
▪ Occ – tendon, ligament, aponeurosis, fascia capsule, septa,
Bases White fat Brown fat trabecula
▪ Function – provide tough inelastic sheath for protection
1. Color Colorless – yellowish (when Brownish/reddish (pigment 2. Dense elastic CT
grouped together) responsible for brown color: cytochrome
▪ PC – fibroblast
pigment present in the mitochondira)
▪ PF – elastic fiber
▪ Occ – ligamentum nuchae & flava, true vocal chords, large
2. Distribution Widespread Localized (few areas only)
arteries
3. Vascularity Less vascular Highly vascular ▪ Function – mechanical support where flexibility is necessary

4. Fat droplet Coalesce (unilocular) Don’t coalesce  Tendon as an organ

(multilocilar)  Dense regular collagenous CT
 Only cell present is fibroblast
5. Effect of starvation Easily lost leading to Not easily lost  Primary tendon bundle
serous atrophy  Unit of structure & function of tendon
 Composed of one collagen fiber

 A fiber is made up of several fibrils
*serous atrophy: condition wherein fat cells contain watery vacuoles instead of
 Secondary tendon bundle
fat droplets as in starvation
 Tendon fascicle
 A group of several primary bundle
 Dense fibrous CT
 Sheath covering the tendons
 There is great preponderance of fibrous elements over the cells & ground
substances.  Endotendineum – CT that surrounds a primary tendon bundle
 Classification  Peritendineum – CT that surrounds a secondary tendon bundle
1. Based on arrangement of fibers  Epitendineum – CT that surrounds the tendon as an organ
2. Based on preponderant fiber

 Arrangement of fibers
1. Dense regular CT
▪ Definite pattern of fiber arrangement
▪ E.g. tendon, ligament (CT connecting bones), aponeurosis