Gods of the Haitian Mountains

Author(s): Harold Courlander

Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Jul., 1944), pp. 339-372
Published by: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, Inc.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2714821 .
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 GODS OF THE HAITIAN MOUNTAINS
The supernatural world of the common people of Haiti
-the peasants, plantation workers, fishermen, and urban
laborers-is a vast, rich, and unexplored world. It is peo-
pled with hundreds, even thousands, of gods who may at
any time come down a rocky mountain trail, or up from
the bottom of the sea or out of the springs where people
drink, to enter the commonhabitations of commonmen and
women. The gods, or loa, may come at strange, unexpected
moments, or unprecedented places, yet whenever they come
they are recognized for what they are. The things they say
and do bear the work of their character, and there is little
disagreement among Haitians as to their identity.
The Haitians tell you that the loa live "in Africa," in
"the island below the sea," or "below the water."1 What
goes on in the land of the loa is no man's knowledge and
every man's conjecture. They say that sometimes fortu-
nate people go down "below the water" and return. In the
hills near Aux Cayes in the south they tell a story of how
the loa called General Clermeil drove up in a fine carriage
and carried off a woman to his place below the water. But
the only thing that is definitely known is that on certain
occasions the gods come to pass time among their "chil-
dren" in Haiti.
When a loa comes to the people he enters the body of
one or another of his followers, or he enters many of them
at the same time. He "mounts his horses," as they say,
and rides them.2 What the bodies of the possessed do then
depends upon the character, personality, and whim of the
1 The term "below the water" designates primarily the abode of a special
category of the dead, those people whose loa have not been properly removed
from their heads upon death. Some Haitians feel that the loa, too, inhabit
this place.
2 Servitors of the loa are often referred to by the term ch'wal (horse);
this applies specifically to those who have loa "in their heads." Followers of
the loa are frequently referred to in ceremonial terminology as fe nans bois,
"leaves in the woods."
339
340 HISTORY
OFNEGRO
JOURNAL

loa. Generally they take on the special personal character-

istics of the loa: their voices and manners change, postures
and attitudes undergo a transfiguration. They talk about
the "island below the sea," about community ancestors, or
about how things are going back in Africa. Often they
utter words regarded as "African language."' At the mo-
ment of first impact, when the loa "enters their heads,"
they stagger, jerk, fall, and tremble. Then, shortly after,
their behavior begins to move in a groove of conventional-
ized activity.
Most commonly the loa come during religious rituals or
dances. They arrive by way of the center of the dance
floor,4 "mounting" participants and spectators. Yet pos-
sessions may occur anywhere and at any time. The sound
of a certain drum beat may be the signal for it, or a sudden
fright, or an emotional crisis, or any situation to which
possession has been conditioned.5 The houtngan,or Vodoun
priest,6 may facilitate possession, control it, and terminate
3 The term langage in connection with Vodoun ritual may refer to any
one of the tongues alleged to be spoken by possessed persons, houngans (Vo-
doun priests), or their servitors. While "African" is the commonest of these
tongues, Arabic, Greek, Hebrew, Spanish, and French are also said to be heard.
4 The center post is called, variously, po'teaut, po'teau mitan, and mitan.
5 For discussion of religious ritual and possession, see: Melville J. Hersko-
vits, Life in a Haitian Valley, New York, 1937; Elsie Clews Parsons, Spirit
Cult in Hayti, Paris, 1928; George Simpson, " The Vodoun Service in Northern
Haiti" (American Anthropologist, April-June, 1940); J. C. Dorsainvil, Vodou
et Nevrose, Port-au-Prince, 1931; Price-Mars, Ainsi Parla l 'Oncle, Port-au-
Prince, 1928; and introductory chapters to my Haiti Singing, Chapel Hill,
1939.
6 The Vodoun priest is called, according to region and inclination, hooun-
gan, 'ngan, gangan, capla, caplata, and bocor or boco. The word houngan
seems to be of Dahomean origin, from houn, meaning spirit, and gan, chief.
NumerousHaitian ritual words seem to be derived from the same root: hounfor,
designating the sacred building of the Vodoun priest; hounsi, the servitors
("spirit-wives") of the houngan; houngenicon, first apprentice of the houn-
gan; hountor, "spirit of the drums." In Cuba the Vodoun priest is called
houmnbono.Boc6 may come from the Dahomean bocono, or diviner, and in this
connection it ought to be pointed out that the word ditineur is sometimes ap-
plied to the houngan. Gangan is probably a Congo word. Schweinfurth, in
The Heart of Africa, II, 31, says, "In Loango all exorcists and conjurors are
 GODS OF THE HAITIAN MOUNTAINS 341

it. He pirouettes his followers to help the loa to come in,

conducts the possessed ones through ritual activity while
they are mounted, and, at the right moment, encourages the
loa to leave. He is, in essence, a valuable catalyst.7
The spectators, those who observe possession in others,
are usually aware of the identity of the loa who have "come
in." When the old African loa Damballa Wedo enters, his
"horse" falls to the ground, wriggles like a snake, and
makes what are considered to be snake-like sounds in his
throat. When Tiwawe Gede comes, the "horse" makes un-
couth jokes about persons present and enacts all kinds of
mischief. Ogoun Chango is a fire-eater; he walks in hot
coals and plays with heated iron. Legba is characterized
as a limping old man, and often carries a kind of crutch
called a Legba stick-a probable development of the phallic
stick of Dahomey. Every god has his distinctive mark.
Elsie Clews Parsons properly pointed out that "You learn
about the loi (loa) through the ways of his devotee."
In addition to having a home in the "island below the
sea" or in Africa, most loa have special residing places in
Haiti, such as stones, caves, trees, waterfalls, and springs.
One may encounter a boulder or a bamboo grove sacred to
some loa, and food offerings are likely to be seen there.
Most of the loa are identified with some specific variety of
tree, and will "inhabit" all such trees throughout the coun-
try. For example, loa Calbassie lives in the calebasse tree,
and loa G6eneralBrise in the chardette tree. Offerings are
either set out underneath or hung in the branches, and
services to the loa are often held around the trunk. Loa
called 'ganga' . . ." Leo Wiener in Africa and the Discovery of Ainerica,
III, 132, says: "Forms of ganga have in the Bantu languages the meaning
'medicine,' but also 'magic' . . . Such are . . . Nyika ganga, Kongo nganga,
etc." The expression papa loa for Vodoun priest, rarely used by Haitians
themselves and perpetuated mainly by the uninitiated, may be of Yoruba
origin. One of the levels of cult priesthood among the Lucumi (Yoruba)
groups in Cuba is called babalao.
7 Similar powers are possessed by the mambo, or priestess.
342 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

also live in the old Indian celts which are dug up in gar-
dens. These loa-stones are identified by their clearly de-
fined forms, and by ability to perspire, whistle, and talk.
They are generally passed on to one generation from an-
other, just as the loa themselves are inherited. Some stones
are sold from time to time at extremely high prices. It is
an offense to the loa to dispose of the stones without re-
ceiving substantial payment for them.
The loa are a great and dramatic element in the religious
life of the people. They give it meaning. They are an
authority stronger than the Vodoun priesthood, and more
intimate, better understood, and more trusted than the
Christian Church. They give advice, consolation, courage,
and status to their followers. They add much to a hard and
ungenerous environment, and tie men to old ideas and re-
membranceswhich go back into the Africa from which their
ancestors were uprooted. They are an integrating factor
in Haitian society today. Without them Haitian life and
attitudes would be profoundly different.
For many of the loa are ancient deities, sib-founders,
and ancestors who loom out of a misty, half-forgotten past.
Nananbouclou, Legba, and Ayida Wedo have been known
for many lifetimes in Dahomey. Chango, Ogoun, and Loko
were old spirits in Nigeria before the first slave ships sailed
to the New World. Their names and many others in Haiti
today come from an ancient lore, and they recall places,
tribes, and old kingdoms from Senegal in northwest Africa
to Angola in the south. They are the decisive bond which
holds the people of Haiti to Africa. "Haiti is the child of
Guinee" or of "Dahomey, " they often say in the mountains.
The gods divide their time between their Haitian children
and their African.
Yet a purely African conception of these loa probably
does not exist in Haiti. The African religious patterns
have been somewhat modified by the lore of the Catholic
 GODS OF THE HAITIAN MOUNTAINS 343

Church,8 and fused with the folk beliefs of old France and
old Spain. In Dahomey, which was the wellspring for much
of Haiti's culture, there was no supreme being quite like that
introduced to the slaves in Haiti by the missionaries. There
was a pantheon of gods with Mawu and Lisa at the top, and
chronologically these deities had a parent named Nananbu-
luku. None of them was strictly comparable to our idea of
a supreme being. In Haiti God has been placed at the very
apex of the pantheon, although he has distinctive qualities
and character. His power as the supreme source of all
things is fully recognized. A Haitian song, now associated
with Vodoun ritual but probably of Protestant origin, goes:
"Ce Bondieu qui voye'moin, quand 1i vletmon l'apprend."
"It is God who sent me, when he wants me he'll take me."
Another song, from the Guinee service, goes:
"Oh Quitta oh so'ti nan dleau, 1i tout mouille'!
Oh nen point houngan passe Bondien nan pays-ya!"
"Oh Quitta comesout of the water, he is dripping wet!
Oh there is no hounganin this country greater than God!"
While it is recognized-or at least stated-that God is a
supreme force, still the loa are in no way nminimnized.God
is not considered the total supernatural force of the world.
In many Vodoun services the houngan may invoke the loa,
the dead, the marassas (twin spirits), and God. Haitians
do not have a consistent schematized picture of the super-
natural world. God comes first, but he is less immediate
than the loa. He is identified with destiny, yet within the
framework of that destiny man's lot can be bettered or
worsened through dealings with the dead, baka, and loups
garous (demons).
A folktale demonstrating one view of God's position in
relation to the loa in the Haitian Vodounist's world tells
about a great Vodoun priest who decided to stage an un-
forgettable religious ceremony:
8 See Herskovits, ibid.; Eugene Aubin 's En Haiti, Paris, 1910, also dis-
cusses fusion of loa and saints.
344 JOURNAL OF NEGROHISTORY

Bocor Zandolite invited people from the whole countryside.

They sacrificed chickens, goats, and bulls, and the feast was to last
seven weeks. The finest drummers in the country were drumming,
and everyone danced, from the old women and the old men down to
the babies who could hardly walk. They danced all night and all
day, day in and day out. The noise was deafening. Ten hills away
people could hear them singing and drumming. Bocor Zandolite
brought out his great Assotor drum, which stood as high as a man
could reach, and when his musicians began to play it even the peo-
ple down in the villages by the sea could hear. God heard it too.
All night and all day he heard it, week in and week out. He
couldn't sleep at night, and in the daytime he couldn't work, for
all the noise. Finally he called St. John and instructed him to go
down to halt Bocor Zandolite's feast. St. John descended and
approached the gateway of Bocor Zandolite's habitation. He was
very stern. Bocor Zandolite met him at the gate. The drums were
pounding, and the dancers were dancing, and the loa had entered
people's heads. Bocor Zandolite took St. John by the hand to
greet him. He sang:
"Factionnaire ouv'e' baye pou' moin passe!
Wa wa ile londja londja!
Bocor Zandolite, wa wa ile londja londja!"
Then he shook St. John's hands three times, and pirouetted him
twice, first to the left and then to the right.9 Suddenly St. John
staggered. He staggered this way and that, and his face broke into
a sweat. He grasped the centerpole of the dance ground, and reeled
around and around it. Then Bocor Zandolite took him by the hands
and gave him a lighted candle in one and a glass of water in the
other, and St. John spilled water on the ground for the loa who
was in his head.10
A week went by, and the noise was getting worse, and God
wondered where St. John was. So he called St. Patrick and sent
him down to stop the ceremony. Bocor Zandolite met St. Patrick
at the gate. He took him by the hands and sang:
"Wa wa ile londja londja!
Bocor Zandolite, wa wa ile londja londja!"
Then he pirouetted St. Patrick back and forth and shook his hands.
St. Patrick staggered and reeled, for he had a loa in his head too.
Another week went by, and God sent St. Miehael, and the same
thing happened.
The next week God sent St. Anthony, and when St. Anthony
didn't come back he sent St. Peter.
But when St. Peter didn't return God was angry. He hadn't
9 Note that this is a procedurefor inducing possession.
10A common ritual associated with possession.
 GODS OF THE HAITIAN MOUNTAIN S 345

slept for weeks,and that madehim feel worse.So he welntdown him-

self. The drums were beating louder than ever, and half the peo-
ple of the North were there dancing with loa in their heads. God
frowned at everything, and he scowled when Bocor Zandolite met
him at the gate.
Bocor Zandolitetook God by the hands to greet him. He shook
his hands downwardthree times, and then he pirouetted him, first
to the right and then to the left. God suddenly staggered and
jerked, and he reeled from one end of the habitation to the other.
the drummersbeat an ochon (salute), and the singers sang loudly
and clapped their hands, for God had a loa in his head....
The Christian saints have been absorbed into the Vo-
doun pantheon, as nearly every observer has noted. There
is no special category for the saints, for they have become
identified with the loa according to their most obvious and
superficial traits. St. Patrick, because he is always pic-
tured with snakes, has become one with Damballa Wedo,
the old Dahomey spirit who is also symbolized by a snake.
izilie Fre6dais now considered to be the same as the Holy
Virgin. Thus the visual conception of many of the old loa
has undergone modification. In northern Haiti the word
zange (probably from the French, les anges, the angels) is
used synonomously with loa and saint, and various regions
employ the word mystere. Price-Mars, Herskovits, and
Dorsainvil have indicated in some detail the extensiveness
of the confusion of saints and loa. No consistency is appar-
ent throughout, however, a saint sometimes being identified
with one loa, sometimes with another.
No one in Haiti knows all the loa. Some of them are so
old as to be nearly forgotten. Others are spontaneous
creations or revelations on the part of persons mounted by
loa. Some names may be the result of a devotee seizing
upon a word or phrase in a religious song and imparting to
it the concept of a loa. Usually the word or phrase selected
in this manner is "African language," although a series of
Creole words may be agglutinated into a single name.
The possibility of frequent additions to the list of gods
is heightened still further by the general illiteracy of the
346 JOURNALOF NEGROHISTORY

Haitian people and the lack of a stabilizing influence in the

written word. The phonetics of different regions of Haiti
vary considerably. Furthermore, change of consonants or
vowels is a frequent occurrence,so that a single loa's name
may have several forms. One may well wonder if Aza,
Akadja, and Adja were not originally the same, or whether
Balbindingue and Blinbindingue may not have been derived
one from the other. Yet in the Haitian mind they are all
different personalities.
In the naming of loa no tight system is apparent at any
poinlt. The "surname," or what may be in some cases a
generic designation, may appear first or last. One may
hear Ogoun Chango or Chango Ogoun, General Brise or
Brise General, Congo Savanne or Savanne Congo. This is
a characteristic of every-day speech. A former President
of Haiti is indiscriminately called Nord Alexis and Alexis
Nord. The "surname'" can be a designation of tribal affilia-
tion, regional provenience, a description of character and
temperament, or an indication of function. Thus we find
Boulicha Nago, or Boulicha of the Nagos; Izilie W8do and
]Izilie Doba, probably from Wado and Doba in Dahomey;
Tijean Pied Cheche (Tijean Dry Feet), a loa of bad char-
acter, "dry feet " signifying malevolence; and Legba Grand
Chimin, or Legba of the Highway.
Identification of loa is often made difficultby the use of
the generic or family title only. The term Nago covers all
the loa associated with this "nation," as with Nago Piment,
Amine Nago, and Boulicha Nago, but in a song or a service
any one of them is as likely as not to be referred to simply as
Nago with no clue to his exact identity. Each listener takes
the word to designate the loa with whom he is most familiar,
unless possession occurs and the loa can be identified by the
behavior of the "horse. "
On the whole it appears that there was, at least in the
beginning, a strong awareness of regional origins. There
are names among the pantheon which indicate Senegal,
 GODS OF THE HAITIAN MOUNTAINS 347

Dahomey, Nigeria, Congo, and Angola provenience. Many

loa bear the names of African towns. Here, possibly, lies a
reason for numerous loa having the same surnames, and
for the existence of certain "families." There are numer-
ous Itzilies in Haiti, including ]zilie Doba and Itzilie Wedo;
Doba and Wedo, as already pointed out, are old Dahomey
towns. Among the Ogoun family of loa are such regional
designations as Badagry and Jekke, the first being a town
in Nigeria, the second in Dahomey. It is clear that a de-
tailed geographical knowledge of certain West African re-
gions would illuminate considerably a study of Afro-Haitian
loa.
Local shrines, too, doubtless enter into the naming sys-
tem. While Badagry is the name of a town in Nigeria, it
is also a Dahomean word designating the structure in which
Dahomean young men used to be circumcised and initiated
into the secrets of warriors.1"The loa Ogoun Badagry might
be conceived, in this light, as the god of that particular
shrine.
The slaves who were brought to Haiti and some of
their gods, were preponderantly West African.12 Yet it
is possible to conceive that East Africa also contributed
to the slave population. The Bumbas and Moundongues,
though sold from the West Coast, were Central and not
West Africans. Their home was in the vicinity of 2?30 N.,
22030YE., a point which appears to be nearly as accessible
from the east as from the west. Mere distance seems not
to have been a primary factor in the slave trade, which
flourished on both sides of the Continent. It is understand-
able and not surprising that East Africans, if they existed,
would be largely submerged and lost in the profusion of
West African society in Haiti. Yet certain recollections
11 Informant, Esteva Bar6, Arara (Dahomean) cult priest in Jovellanos,
Cuba.
12It is not to be inferred that all boa came originally from Africa. In
addition to those created by a kind of "spontaneous generation," many loa
are recruited out of a special category of the dead.
348 JOURNAL HISTORY
OFNEGRO

still exist. One of my informants'3 made occasional refer-

ence to the nanchon Janghey, or Janghey people. In answer
to questioning he said they were an African people "far
from Dahomey, far from Congo," and that there are de-
scendants of Janghey people in Haiti today. Janghey, of
course, is a local African synonym for Dinka,'4 and the
Dinkas are found today in southern Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
One might even speculate on whether the Juba Dance,
known throughout the French West Indies, is not named
for the old East African Kingdom of Juba. At least, the
assumption that all survivals in Haiti are West African
is open to question.
In discussing the relationship of their deities, Haitians
sometimes say, "There are seven of everything. There are
seven INzilies,seven Marassas, seven Ogouns. There are
seven brothers and sisters in every family of loa. " Or they
say something like, "There is only one Legba, but there are
seven. "'15 It is interesting to note how duplications and new
generations of loa have been set up into families in a literal
sense. No doubt these families are still growing. In the
GMedfamily I have counted no less than seventeen pos-
sibly distinct individuals: G&e1Nimbo, Gede Mazaka, Gede
l'Oraille, Gede Mivevou, Gede Nansou, Gede Nouvavou,
Gede Vi, G'edeZeclai, Manman (or Manze) Bridgit, Marie
G?ede,Brave Gede, Tiwawe Gede, Ti Gede, Malt' Sansan,
CerclequitteGMed, Baron Samedi, Balerouze, and Jean Zom-
bie. Of these, Brave Gede and G^de Nimbo might be the
same, as is the case with Tiwawe Gede and Ti Gede. Hers-
kovits mentions a Gedeou and a Gedehun,who would bring
the family to nineteen or twenty in number. When I pointed
out to my informants that the Gede household is consider-
13Libera Bordereau, in Leogane, Haiti.
14 Schweinfurth'smap reads, "Dinka, or Dyangeh." On a recent trip to
the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan I was able to confirm that the Dinkas call them-
selves Jangheys.
15 This concept is also prevalent among the Arara (Dahomey) cults in
Cuba.
 GODSOF TIE HAITIANMOUNTAINS 349
ably in excess of seven they were unable to explain the
discrepancy. The Ogoun family which appears in the subse-
quent list numbers twenty-two individuals. From Hersko-
vits's list one can add two more, and from Dorsainvil's list,
seven more, making more than thirty Ogouns in all. The
Ogouns and Gedes are not special cases, for in most in-
stances the families number far in excess of seven mem-
bers each.
Most of the loa belong to either the Vodoun or Congo-
Guinee cycles of rites and dances. Each of these groups
contain numerous "nations. " Foremost of these " nations "
in the Vodoun cycle are the Arada, from Dahomey, and the
Nago, from Nigeria.16 These form the nucleus of the group,
which includes many loa and rites bearing the names of
various African tribes, such as the Mais, the Amines, the
Adjas, the Foulas, the Sousous, the Sobos, and the Haous-
sas. Haitians are not always aware that these names have
significance in terms of provenience, however; and con-
versely, they designate other titles, about which we know
little, as being of African beginnings. Affiliation with the
Vodoun group is indicated in the subsequent list by the
symbol (V), appearing after the name of the loa.
The Congo-Guineecycle is composed of a melange of loa
and probable remnants of rites drawn from many parts of
West Africa. Among the Congo-Guineeloa are found such
tribal and regional references as Bambarra, Mayombe,
Senegal, Loango, Banda, Bumba, Moundongue,Mousoundi,
16The Nagos are largely absorbed into the Dahomean "system" in Haiti,
though Nago loa and dances are usually thought of as being in a slightly dif-
ferent class. Nago dances are "Vodoun" but they are not "real Vodoun."
The few remaining distinctions between Arada and Nago are wearing thin,
almost to the vanishing point. In contrast, Cuban Arar'a (Arada) and Lucumi
(Nago) cults maintain completely separate establishments and systems, in which
the pantheons cling rigidly to old precedents. The gods in each of them are
different, and the Lucumi still use the term orisha to designate their deities,
this word being Nago in origin. The Nagos and Araras of Cuba also have their
own ritual "African" languages, as well.
350 HISTORY
OFNEGRO
JOURNAL

Angola, Kanga, and Solongo.17 In the north of Haiti, espe-

cially in the northwest, Congo-Guineerites are referred to
simply as Congo. In the south and southwest this cycle is
broken down into two distinct groups, the P6tro and Congo,
with the former accumulating the most important rites
and deities.-8
The loa appearing in the following list have not been
assigned to their specific rites or "nations," but to the
major groups to which they belong. Congo, Petro, and all
associated "nations" are designated throughout as Congo-
Guinee,and affiliationto the cycle is indicated by the symbol
(C-G) after the name of the loa.
The names appearing here were all gotten through di-
rect questioning and observation in March and April, 1939;
in January, February, and March, 1938; in preceding peri-
ods of residence in Haiti; and in conversation with Haitians
in New York. Numerous informants were consulted,19most
of them from the south and southwest of Haiti, though a
few came from the environs of Port de Paix, Cape Haitian,
and Gonaives. Many of the names of loa first came to my
attention in the numerous song texts which I gathered.20
17 Many of these regional and tribal names survive among Congo cults in
Cuba, including Loango, Mondongo, Mayombe, and Mousoundi.
18 Among the rites and dances of the Vodoun cycle are the Arada, Jenvalo,
Zepaule, Nago, Dahome, Ma-s, Calebasse, Carabienne (rest dance), Bambocha
(in North Haiti), Mazonne Rada, Assotor, and Bouleverse (rest dance, North
Haiti). Those of the Congo-Guinee cycle include P6tro, Quitta, Bambarra,
Bumba or Maeaya, Salongo or Quinan, Moundongue, Congo Mazonne or Congo
Larose, Congo Loangue or Congo Franc, Mousoundi (North Haiti), Mout-
ch6tch6 (North Haiti), and Pastorel (rest dance). The Ibo and Kanga dances
sometimes appear with one or the other of the major cycles, or as a separate
group.
19 Foremost informants were: Libera Bordereau, born at L6ogane; T61is-
man Charles, born at Furey; Morgina La Vache, born at Jacmel; La France
Belvue, born at Anse-a-Veau; Ti Yogan Bordereau, born at Leogane; Dais
Charles, born at Anse-a-Veau; Al6is Conrol6, houngan near L6ogane; Lydia
Augustin, born at Lazile; Alie D6rosier, born at Port-au-Prince.
20 The texts referred to are among the extensive collection of phonograph
recordings I made for the Archive of Primitive Music of Columbia University
in 1939.
 GODS OF THE HAITIAN MOUNTAINS 351

Many of these loa have been mentioned in other lists, and

a number of names noted by other observers do not appear
here.
Melville Herskovits's Life In A Haittan Valley (Chap-
ters IX, X, XII, and pp. 309 ff.) and J. C. Dorsainvil's
Vodou et Nevrose (pp. 38, 73, 146, 158-60, 174-5) contain
references, compilations, and classifications. Names of loa
will be found in Elsie Clews Parsons 's Spirit Cult in Haiti;
in George Simpson's "The Vodoun Service in Northern
Haiti"; J. C. Dorsainvil's Vodou et Magie, Port-au-Prince,
1937 (pp. 16-17); James G. Leyburn's The Haitian People,
New Haven, 1941 (pp. 131 ff.); in three novels of Haitian
life, Philippe Thoby-Mareelin 's and Pierre Mareelin 's
Canape-Vert, Jean Baptiste Cineas's La Drame de la Terre
and Petion Savain's La Case de Damnballah (see text, and
also songs on pp. 28,38,49,77,98,147,152,202,208-12), Port-
au-Prince, 1939; and in Milo Rigaud's Jesus ou Legba?,
Paris (?), 1933. Zora Hurston 's Tell My Horse, New York,
1938, contains considerable material about loa, but careless
notation of names and Creole terms make it an unreliable
source. A portion of the following list appears in my Haiti
Singing, although comments have been generally revised in
the light of fuller information. Names that appear in any
of the first four above publications as well as in this com-
pilation are acknowledged by the initials of the authors:
(H.) Herskovits, (D.) Dorsainvil, (S.) Simpson, (P.) Par-
sons. Wherever names of loa are only approximately the
same this acknowledgment is given if such names might
possibly refer to the same loa. Thus Petro and Dan Petro
would be treated as a single loa, as would Osange and Os-ai.

THE PANTHEON
ADAI LOKO (V). Said by some Haitians to be the son of
LOKO ADAICO, but by others to be the same as
LOKOADAICO.
352 JOURNAL
OF NEGRO
HISTORY

ADJA (V). A female loa associated with the arts of phar-

macy. The Yoruba people of Nigeria had a spirit
named ADJA who carried men and women off into
the forest to teach them the medicinal properties of
roots and herbs.2' In Haiti persons possessed by her
occasionally eat broken bottles. Note that ADJA is
also the name of an old kingdom in southern Da-
homey.
ADJA BOSU (V). Probably the same as AKADJA BOSU
or KADJA BOSU, who is known is Dahomey as well
as in Haiti. Notice that the Tshi word for "spirit"
equivalent to loa-is bosum. [H., D.]
AGANMAN (V). A male deity characterized as a chame-
leon. [D.]
AGAO LOKO BAYS (V). A male gateway and crossroads
guardian. In Creole baye means gate [D.]
AGAO WIRDO(V). Said to be a "work" loa. Aids men
with their gardens, especially in time of illness. Some
people say AGAO WtDO is related to DAMBALLA
WiDO. Note that WIDO is the name of a town in
southern Dahomey, just north of Lake Nokoue.
[H., D., P.]
AGASU (V). In Dahomey, according to Herskovits,
AGASU is the name of the panther fetish.'2
[H., D., P.]
AGASU YIMAIN (V).
AGOM1A TONNERE, also pronouncedABOMI8TONNERE
(V). Observe that ABOME or AGBOM]tis the name
of a city in Dahomey. This loa is a thunder deity.
AGOVI WANGOL (V). WANGOL may refer to Angole
(Angola), in which case this loa would appear to be
transposed from the Congo-Guineerites. [D.]
21A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-SpeakingPeoples of the Slave Coast of West
Africa, London, 1894, pp. 79-80.
22M. J. Herskovits, Dahomey,New York, 1938, V. I, pp 165 if. A. B. Ellis,
The Ewe-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa, London, 1890,
p. 83, says this deity was especially important in the town of Agbome.
 GODS OF THE HAITIAN MOUNTMNS 353

AGUI WOYO, known also as COQUI-NAN-MER (V). He

is a loa of the sea, and thunder and lightning during
storms are thought to be AGUI1 shooting his cannon.
He is usually symbolized in pictures by a sailing or
steam vessel. This deity is probably derived from
the Dahomean AGUIR,also a sea deity and a member
of the Thunder Pantheon. Notice that the old capital
of the Yorubas was called OYO or WOYO, and that
the people of this region were sometimes called Oyos
or Woyos.23 [H., S., P.]
AGUISU WANDIPOU (V). Said to be the son of AGUI:
WOYO.
AGUItTTA WOYO (V). She is thought to be AGUI:
WOYO's wife, though in Dahomey she was consid-
ered to be his daughter. [H., P.]
ATSON (V). A market place protector. In Dahomey AISON
was a protector of all public gathering places.24
[H., D.]
AISON FRIDA (V). There is some likelihood that FRIDA
is the name of a town or shrine in Dahomey. See
iZILIE FRIDA.
AKADJA (V). He may be the same as ADJA BOSU or
AKADJA BOSU, or he may be the King AGADJA
of Dahomey who was alleged to be responsible for
the coming of vodu (i. e., loa) into that country.
Herskovits25tells the legend of how a woman named
Hwandjile prevailed upon AGADJA to bring the
vodu from the Kingdom of Adja. In his list of loa
Dorsainvil names one called OUAN-GHIL]R.
AKWA (cycle unknown). A loa who manifests his presence
by speaking "unknown" languages.
ALOVI (V). A masculine dwarflike spirit who likes to dis-
arrange things and play practical jokes. Persons pos-
23 Ellis, The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples, pp. 9-10.
24 Ellis, The Ewe-Spealcing Peoples, p. 52.
25 Dahomey, V. II, p. 104.
354 JOURNAL OF NEGROHISTORY

sessed by ALOVI may break up gatherings, dis-

commodespectators and dancers, and generally make
a nuisance of themselves.
AMINE (V). An aged femraleloa. Sacrifices to her consist
of rice, sugar cane, lima beans, eggs, and the use of
perfumes.
AMINE GATIGAL LAFLAMBO (V). Might AMINE
here, as above, be a generic title referring to the
Amine people of Africa?
AMINE NAGO (V). Another of the multiple AMINES.
ARCHARDI, ACHARDI, CHARDI, or CHADIP (V).
Often considered one of the OGOUN family, and in
some instances called OGOUN CHADIP.[H.]
ATTIBON (or ADIBON) Ki?KiS (or AKI?K]2) (V). He is
said to be a member of the ATTIBON LEGBA
family.
ATTIBON LEGBA. See LEGBA SIP.
ATTIBON SAMARDI (V). Related to the above ATTI-
BONS.
AUGISSAUT (V).
AYIDA WIDO (V). A female deity, generally conceived
as the wife of DAMBALLA WINDO.Like DAMBAL-
LA, AYIDA is symbolized in Haiti by snake and
rainbow, and her color is white. Sometimes DAM-
BALLA and AYIDA are thought of as a single loa
called AYIDA-DAMBALLA. AYIDA is known in
Dahomey, Nigeria, and possibly elsewhere. In cer-
tain parts of West Africa AYIDA is considered a
male rather than a female spirit, and in virtually all
instances is identified with the rainbow.26[H., D., P.]
AZA (Juba).
AZAKA BAING BAING (V).
AZAKA MitDit, or ZAKA MitD]t (V). Herskovits reports
that AZAKA Mi?Di is the name of a stream which
26See Ellis, The Ewe-Speaking Peoples, pp. 47-49, and Herskovits, Da-
homey, V. II, pp. 245 if.
 GODS OF THE HAITIAN MOUNTAINS 355

Dahomeans believe all the dead must cross.21

[H., D., P.]
AZAKA TONNt (V). A thunder loa.
AZAGON LACROIX, also called BARON LACROIX (V
and C-G). This loa is generally thought of as the
"chief" of the cemetery. Some opinion holds that
he is a brother to BARON SAMEDI and BARON
PIQUANT, and that all three personalities are part
of the GIDI2 family.
AZUI (V). A loa conceived of as a snake.
BABOULE (Juba). A loa associated with the Baboule
dance.
BAD:X, or BADtN (V). This loa is possibly the same as
SOBO BADI, although some informants felt that
SOBO BAD]Xwas another related deity. There is a
BADI (GBADIX)in Dahomey sometimes designated
as the son of the Dahomean SOBO (SOGBO).28 In
the Arada cult language of people in Haiti and Cuba,
bade signifies house or temple.
BAIACOU (C-G). A loa identified with the morning star,
also called Baiacou. Note that there is a town called
Baiacou in Dahomey, approximately 90 24' N., 00
30' W.
BAKULU BAKA (C-G). Probably the same as BABAKU
BAKA, reported by Herskovits. He is a malevolent
spirit who"eats '-i.e., destroys-people. [H.]
BALBINDINGUE (V). Bindingue may indicate a ge-
neric or family group of some kind, since it appears
in the name of another loa, BLINBINDINGUE, and
in the term Vinbindingue,which is the name of an al-
leged Haitian secret society.
BALIROUZI (V). One of the GEDE brothers. His name
means "to sweep and sprinkle," a ritual activity
characteristic of certain Vodoun ceremonies. [H.]
27 Herskovits, Life in a Haitian Valley, p. 280.
28 Herskovits, Dahomey, V. II, pp. 152 ff.
356 JOURNAL HISTORY
OF NEGRO

BAMBARRA TAIBA (C-G). He is visualized as a sea crab.

Taille bas in Creole literally means "low hips," and
is sometimes descriptive of a dance posture. The
name TAIBA may therefore describe the movements
of the sea crab and-by extension-of this deity.
BARON LACROIX (V and C-G). Same as AZAGON LA-
CROIX.
BARON PIQUANT (V). He is alleged to be in charge of
grave digging, and is a brother of AZAGON LA-
CROIX. He is usually thought of as a "hard" and
malevolent character.
BARON SAMEDI (V). A graveyard loa, brother to the
other BARONS. Some Haitians feel that BARON
SAMEDI and GtDIP NIMBO are the same. Persons
possessed in cemeteries are thought to be mounted by
BARON SAMEDI or one of his brothers. They are,
like the G]D1g:S, sometimes spoken of as "dead"
spirits. [H., P.]
BLINBINDINGUE (V).
BLINGINSOU (V). Possibly the same as, or related to,
LINGLESSOU, the rainbow deity. See LINGLES-
soU.
BOLISI BOLISA (C-G).
BOULICHA NAGO (V).
BRAVE GAD1P(V). One of the many GADI2 brothers.
Possibly the same as GI:3D1t NIMBO.
BRISI2 GihNIRAL or GIMNIMRAL BRISI2 (C-G). He is
enormously large and ferocious in appearance. He
is a special loa of the country people, and although
stern, he is fond of children. BRISI2 is symbolized
as an owl, and is identified with the chardette tree.
His physical description suggests that he is a deifica-
tion of the epic folklore character of the Haitian
mountains called Brise Montaigne. [D.]
CALBASSIE (V). Loa of the Calebasse dance.
CAPLAOU (Kanga). [H., D.]
 GODSOFTHEHAITIANMOUNTAINS 357

CAPLATA (cycle unknown).

CERCLInQUITT1tGADS (V). One of the huge GRDiR
family. His name means "to sickle." [H.]
CHANGANAN (C-G).
CHANGO, also called OGOUN CHANGO (V). A member
of the OGOUN family and, like most of his brothers,
a warrior and ironworker deity symbolized by pieces
of iron. A special altar for the OGOUNS often is
made of a huge pile of scrap iron, or a massive object
such as a sugar vat. In West Africa CHANGO and
OGOUN were considered separate deities; in Ni-
geria, according to Ellis, they were brothers and
closely identified with each other.29 Among the Yo-
ruba, Chango was a lightning god. In the Lueumi
(Yoruba) cult of Cuba, CHANGO is the orisha (loa)
of the storm. This Yoruba spirit is also well known
in the cults of Trinidad and Brazil. [H., D., S.]
CHANGO GOLO (V).
CHJRBOPROFIRL (V). An ancient male deity. Herskovits
suggests that he may be a leopard spirit, sebo being
Fon for leopard. The wildness of attack by persons
possessed by CHI2BOupon the carcass of the sacri-
ficed animal supports this conjecture.
CIMALO (V and Juba). A male loa who is responsible for
fine physical proportions and bodily strength in men.
CLERMI?ZTNE(V). Daughter of GINItRAL CLERMEIL.
[H., S.]
CONGOJItROUGE (C-G). "Congo Red Eyes." A malevo-
lent male spirit. Red eyes are always associated with
meanness and evil. This loa "eats" people, i. e., de-
stroys them.
CONGOMAPIONNE, or MAPIONGLE (C-G). A malevo-
lent spirit. [H.]
CONGOSAVANNE, or CONGOZANDOR (C-G). "Congo
of the Plains." Malevolent, fierce, and strong, he is
29 The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples, p. 47.
358 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

a man-eater, and constant reference is made to his

mortar, in which he grinds people. His ritual color
is white, and some informants believed his skin to be
white also. [H., S.]
CONGOYAMINGAN (C-G). A benevolent loa associated
with curing and protecting the sick.
COQUI-NAN-D'L 'EAU (V).
CORNELLE BERNA (cycle unknown).
COUSIN ZAKA(Juba). One of the AZAKAS?
CYMBA (C-G). A male deity, patron of rain and drinking
water. Said to be the father of the CYMBIS and the
son of GRANDE CYMBA.
CYMBI D'L'EAU (C-G). Probably the best known of the
CYMBI family. Like his father CYMBA, he is a
patron of rain and drinking water and is always asso-
ciated with the spring and usually symbolized as a
snake. He is said to be white.30 Altars to CYMBI
D'L'EAU usually consist of a spring or well, in or
around which small green snakes make their home.
[H.]
CYMBI QUITTA (C-G). [H.]
CYMBI YENDltZO, or CYMBI NAN DP ZEAUX (C-G).
"Cymbi in Two Waters." A brother of CYMBI
D 'L 'EAU, and also symbolized as a water snake
[H.]
DADAL (V). Among the Yoruba people of West Africa,
DADAL was a brother of OGOUN and CHANGO,
and a patron of vegetables.-1
30 Herskovits, pp. 311-313, lists fourteen Cymbis (spelled Simbi), only two
of which appear in this compilation. The twelve others are: Papa Simbi, Simbi
Gran' Bois (Simbi of the Forest), Simbi Cimitibre (Simbi of the Cemetery),
Simbi Caille Moin (Simbi of My House), Simbi Carrefour (Simbi of the Cross-
roads), Simbi Magie (Simbi of Magic), Simbi P6tro, Simbi Macaya, Simbi
Prom6n6 (Simbi Walking), Simbi Troi' Zil6 (Simbi of the Three Islands),
Simbi Wangol, Simbi Gallon6. These qualifying titles are a practical dem-
onstration of how new loa can be created out of old to increase the size of the
family.
31 Ellis, ibid., pp. 45, 76.
 GODS OF THE HAITIAN MOUNTAINS 359

DADA iZILIE (C-G).

DAMBALLA GRAND CHIMIN (V). "Damballa of the
Highway," and also a crossroads deity.
DAMBALLA VERRE (V).
DAMBALLA WIGDO (V). One of the most venerable loa.
He is generally recognized as the husband of AYII)A
WiRDO. (See AYIDA WIGDO.) In both Haiti and
West Africa DAMBALLA is identified with the rain-
bow and symbolized as a snake.32 In Haiti he is asso-
ciated also with rainfall, springs, and fertility, and is
sometimes described as "white." The proper food
offering to DAMBALLA is a white chicken. Persons
possessed by him usually "become" snakes. As with
many of the important loa, DAMBALLA has fused
with characters in Christian religious belief. There
are, in fact, "two" DAMBALLA WRDOS; the one
considered "the same" as Moses comes in talking,
while the one who is considered "the same" as St.
Patrick never talks. Food offerings for the second
of these consist of eggs, flour, sugar, and almond
syrup. Note again that Wedo is the name of a town
in southern Dahomey. DAMBALLA is one of the
chief gods of the Arara (Dahomey) cult in Cuba.
[H., D., S., P.]
DAN PI2TRO (C-G). A malevolent loa said to have been a
powerful houngan in colonial days.33 The food DAN
P:ITRO likes is a pig.
DANSI OSOU (V). Possibly related to OSOU JAMAIN.
Among the Tshi-speaking people of West Africa
there was a spirit called ADANSI, a malignant giant
female.34
DANTITI (cycle unknown).
32 Herskovits, Dahomey, pp. 245 ff.
33 Moreau de St. Mery, De La Danse, Parma, 1801.
34 Ellis, The Tshi-Speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast of West Africa,
London, 1887, p. 68.
360 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

DAN WIZO (V). A loa known mostly in the Artibonite sec-

tion of Haiti.
DJA KI2Kl (V).
DOMICI WIDO (V). Considered to be the daughter of
DAMBALLA WiNDO. The -si ending suggests that
she may have been once considered a wife rather than
daughter.
*ijZILIE BALIANNE (C-G). [D.]
*RZILIE DANKi-Kin (probably C-G).
*INZILIEDOBA, or DOGBA (V). She is one of the "big"
(gros) loa of Haiti, a symbol of purity and a counter-
part of Virgin Mary. Services to her include a ritual
sweeping and sprinkling of the earth and a perfum-
ing of the air. All the INZILIESof the Vodoun group
are considered "sisters," although some persons
hold that RZILIE DOBA is the ancestor of the other
RZILIES. Notice that there is a Dahomean town by
the name of Dogba at approximately 00 6' E., 6? 50'
N. [H., S., P.]
*kZILIE FRJ1WDA, or 2ZILIE DAROMAIN (DAHOM:X),
or SZILIE FRliDA DAROMAIN (V). Like IZILIE
DOBA, she is a symbol of purity and identified with
the Virgin Mary. Men who follow in her service have
nights devoted to her when they may not sleep with
women. [H.]
*]kZILIEJIROUGE (C-G). "Itzilie Red Eyes." Red eyes
indicate malevolence. She eats people. [H., D.]
*NZILIE MAISOL (V). A sister of fiZILIE FR1tDA.
*IMZILIEMAPIONGLE, or MAPIONNE (C-G). Malevo-
lent, sister of ]iZILIE JI-ROUGE. [H., P.]
*tZILIE WINDO (V). A sister or daughter of tZILIE
DOBA. Note that W]DO may be a regional designa-
tion, there being a town by that name in Lake No-
koue district of Dahomey.
*Azilie is sometimes pronouncedErzulie, or Erzilie.
 GODS OF TIE HAITIAN MOUNTAINS 361

FARO PIERRE (V). Said to be a son of PIERRE BAS-

SICO.
FRR LEB1RUN (V).
GADALOVI (V). A male loa well known in central Haiti.
May be the same as ALOVI.
GIPDISL'ORAILLE (V). A thunder or storm loa. He is
closely associated with death, as are all the GI:DIE
brothers, and is generally considered a malefactor.
He is repulsive in appearance and dwarflike in stat-
ure. He and his brothers are sometimes referred to
as "dead" spirits, and belong to a somewhat special
-although indefinite category. They are loa, but
of a kind different from the others. In a Vodoun
service no other loa care to enter while any of the
GI:DIPSis present. Although Herskovits points out
that GEDEONSU, or GPDI), is a Dahomean totem,35
it is worth noticing that in Haiti the GItD?irites, loa,
and dances appear to belong primarily to the Nago
" nation." ORAILLE is Creole for orage, storm.
[D.]
G:Di MAZAKA (V). Brother of G:D? NIMBO, asso-
ciated with death.
GRDi2MlVOU (V). Another GID1 brother.
GRD?iNANSOU (V). A GRD?2brother.
GANDSNIMBO, or NIBO (V). One of the powerful deities
of the Vodoun pantheon, particularly in the region
of Port-au-Prince, where the GItDI) cult is very
strong. GiND?NIMBO is always spoken of as dressed
in black. Typical costume for him consists of a black
frock coat, black stovepipe hat, black trousers or a
blue polka-dot skirt, and a pipe. He talks with a
strong nasal accent, which is acquired by anyone
mounted by him. GtD]S NIMBO is always asking
for money. Persons possessed by him may rub hot
peppers on their tongues or in their eyes. In some
35 Life in a Haitian Valley, p. 267.
362 OFNEGRO
JOURNAL HISTORY

parts of Haiti GIAIDS NIMBO is thought to be iden-

tical with BARON SAMEDI. [H., S., P.]
GI'DIANOUVAVOU (V). Another of the GIMDII brothers.
[D.]
GiMD]PVI (V). Said to be the son of GiMD]PNIMBO,
though some informants thought this loa to be a fe-
male, probably NIMBO's wife. [H.]
G;iDI2 Z]?CLAI (V). A loa of lightning, thought to be re-
sponsible for death by lightning, violent death in gen-
eral, and destruction by the elements of cattle and
other property. A brother of G]PDI NIMBO, GI1D]
L'ORAILLE, etc.
Gt13NIXRAL CLERMEIL, or PRISIDENT CLERMEIL
(V). He is thought of as the patron and father of all
light children born to dark parents. Stories are some-
times heard of men who wrongly accused their wives
of infidelity because of the lightness of their children,
and how they were finally confronted and punished
by CLERMEIL. Some persons maintain that he is a
loa who never enters people's heads. [S.]
G]PN1ARALYENBATISSE, or JEAN BAPTISTE (V).
[H.]
GOUNGOUN (cycle unknown). He is a child loa, and per-
sons possessed by him take on the characteristics of
children. [D.]
GRANDE ALABA, or ALOUBA (V). [H.]
GRANDE ASSOLONGO (C-G).
GRANDE CYMBA (C-G). The female ancestor of the en-
tire CYMBA-CYMBI family.
GRAND LESSAIGNE (V). An aged, dwarflike loa, guar-
dian and protector of children.
GRANDE WRDO (V). Said to be the mother of AGAO
WIDO.
IBO FOULA (Ibo). Note that both IBO and FOULA are
tribal designations.
IBO MARIANI, or MARIANA2(Ibo).
 GODS OF THIEHAITIAN MOUNTAINS 363

IBO H?nQUOIK?2(Ibo).
IBO JiROUGE (Ibo). "Ibo Red Eyes," a malevolent
spirit. Food offerings to her consist mainly of pigs
and cocks.
IBO LAZILE (Ibo). The food offering to this loa is a goat.
Note that there is a town in southern Haiti by the
name of L'Asile.
IBO L]RLIl,or IANMAN IBO (Ibo). Some Haitians feel
that these are two distinct loa, others that they are
the same [H., D., S.]
JEAN BATEAU (V). A mystere (loa) from the region of
Leogane. When he comes in the possessed persons
talk langage Guinee into a canarie (clay water ves-
sel).
JEAN PIERRE POUNGOUP (C-G).
JEAN ZOMBIE (V). One of the GIDII brothers, a "dead"
spirit.
JENSIMAN BRITISSE (V). A loa who "works with the
G]NDI2family," one of GItDI2NIMBO'S assistants.
The surname might be a pronunciation of "British."
JERISON (V).
KADJA BOSU (V). See ADJA BOSU.
KANGA (Kanga). A stern boa,thought by some to be the
same as CAPLAOU. Persons mounted by him play
with fire and eat hot peppers. The name may be a
reference to the Kanga, or Ganga, tribe of Angola.
[H., D.]
KANGA TROIS (Kanga).
LAWIDJI (cycle unknown).
LEGBA GRAND CHIMIN (V). "Legba of the Highway."
A split personality of LEGBA SI2 [H.]
LEGBA GRAND BOIS (C-G). "Legba of the Forest."
LEGBA IBO (Ibo). Another version of LEGBA.
LEGBA KIJY?t (V).
LEGBA MATT' 'BITATION (V). "Legba Master of the
Household." A split personality of LEGBA St. [H.]
364 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

LEGBA P]PTRO (C-G). A malevolent deity.

LEGBA S]P, or ATTIBON LEGBA (V). One of the most
important of Haitian loa, generally the first one in-
voked in any service. He is the protector of the gate-
way, the crossroads, and the highway. Cocks and
male goats are his favorite foods, as in West Africa.
In Africa, LEGBA was something of a mischief-
maker, and assigned to the part of go-between who
spoke to the vodouns (loa) in behalf of human peti-
tioners.36 He was a linguist who knew how to talk all
the languages of the gods. This may be the basis for
LEGBA's precedence in all Vodoun services in Haiti.
He is, as in Africa, identified with fertility and viril-
ity. LEGBA is also known today in African cults in
Dutch Guiana, Brazil, and Cuba [H., D., S., P.]
LIMBA ZAO (C-G). Said to be a son of ZAO PIMBA.
[H., D., S.]
LINGLESSOU (V). The rainbow loa. Persons mounted in
sight of a rainbow are thought to be possessed by
LINGLESSOU. [D., S.]
LOKO (V). [H., D.]
LOKO ADAICO, or DAICO (V). Possibly the same as
ADAI LOKO.
LOKO ATTISSO (V). He is sometimes pictured as the
protector of the hounfor, or Vodoun temple, and is
closely identified with the pe, or altar. In Dahomey,
LOKO is one of the Sky Pantheon and an offspring
of the divine Mawu and Lisa.37 He is still remem-
bered among the Arara (Dahomey) cults in Cuba.
[H., D.]
LOKO ATTISSOGUIt (V). Said to be LOKO ATTISSO's
wife.
LOKO BASSIYI (V).
LOKO DAHOM12(V). [H.]
36 See Herskovits, Dahomey, V. II, pp. 201 if.
37 Herskovits, ibid., pp. 108-9.
 GODS OF THE HAITIAN MOUNTAINS 365

LOKO DAIFRR (V). A brother of LOKO ADAICO.

(DAICO + FRERE.)
LOKO DAINZO (V).
LOKO TOKAMIWRZO (V).
MACAYA BUMBA, or BAMBA, sometimes called CAYA
(C-G). The BUMBA are a tribe in the upper Congo
Rover valley, about 230 30' E., where they are neigh-
bors to the Moundongues. It is possible that the
Bombas or Bambas were a different Congo tribe than
the Bumbas, and that they have become confused in
the Haitian mind. [H.]
MAfT' BOIS (V). "Master of the Woods."
MAIT' DAVID (V). This loa always comes in talking im-
maculate French, and persons possessed by him read
cards and tell fortunes.
MATT' D 'L'EAU (V or C-G). [H.]
MAfT' GRAND BOIS, or GRAND BRAS (C-G). "Master
of the Forest." He comes in with a great din and
racket. Some informants said he was a great houngan
who lived in the town of GrandBois, in which case his
name would be translated "Master of Grand Bois."
[H.]
MAIT' GRAND CHIMIN (V). "Master of the Highway."
Probably refers to LEGBA GRAND CHIMIN.
MAIT' KALFU (V). "Master of the Crossroads." Pos-
sibly the same as LEGBA. [H.]
MAIT' OGOUN (V). This title may refer to any one of the
OGOUNS, but it is generally taken to mean the
"chief" and ancestor of all the other OGOUNS in
Haiti. He is a patron of ironworkers and warriors,
and his symbol is a piece of forged iron, such as a hoe
blade, a machete, a bit of iron chain, or a sabre. In
West Africa, OGOUN is considered, in addition, a
patron of hunters.8 He was widely known by the
peoples of Dahomey and Nigeria. In Dahomey he
38 Ellis, The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples, p. 67.
366 OFNEGRO
JOURNAL HISTORY

was considered the child of Mawu and Lisa,39and in

Nigeria he was thought of as a brother to CHANGO
and DADA,40 two spirits who still survive in the Hai-
tian pantheon. As with OGOUN CHANGO (see
CHANGO), an altar to MAIT' OGOUN may consist
of a pile of iron or a sugar vat. In Cuba OGOUN is
known to both the Arara (Dahomey) and the Lucumi
(Yoruba) cults. [H., P.]
MAIT' PIMBA (C-G). Said to be the father of ZAO PIM-
BA, or perhaps the same loa.
MAIT' SANSAN (V). A "dead" spirit, considered one of
the GID]R family.
MAIT' ZAKA M?iD?R(V). See AZAKA MIDlI.
MAITRESSE ESPAGNOLE, or 'PAGNOLE (V). A fe-
male loa, another version of iRZILIEFRIDA. When
she enters she talks only Spanish.
MAITRESSE MAMBO (V). Thought to be related to
I:ZILIE FRIWDA.The word mambodesignates a cult
priestess in Haiti.
MAMBO QAQA (V).
MANMAN ALOUMANDIA (V). A female deity known in
the Artibonite section of Haiti. [D.]
MANYO BUMBA, or BAMBA (C-G). BUMBA is a tribal
name (see MACAYA BUMBA).
MANZit BRIDGIT, or MANMAN BRIDGIT (V). The
mother of the GiADRi brothers and of MARIE GIfDI.
A "dead" spirit.
MARDI KAMA, or IBO KAMA (Ibo).
MARIANI MOUNDONGUE (C-G).
MARIE LOUISE (Ibo). [D.]
MARINETTE BRAS CHPCHE (C-G). "Marinette Dry
Arms." A malevolent female, "dry arms" signify.
ing bad character. The wife of CONGOZANDOR.
MARINETTE CONGO(C-G). A malevolent female loa.
39 Herskovits, Dahomey, V. II, pp. 105 ff.
40 Ellis, The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples, pp. 45, 67 ff.
 GODSOFTHEHAITIANMOUNTAINS 367

MARINETTE PIED CHRCHE (C-G). "Marinette Dry

Feet." Sister to MARINETTE BRAS CHRCHE,
and equally malevolent.
MARASSA BLANC (V). Patron of white twins.
MARASSA BOIS (V). "Marassa of the Woods." He is
considered an "unbaptized" or "untamed" loa (i. e.,
a loa bossale), and very savage. He likes sweets and
never eats salt.
MARASSA CAILLE (V). " Marassa of the House." This
one eats salt.
MARASSA CINQ (V). Patron of quintuplets.
MARASSA CRIIOLE,or CRIOLLE (V). Patron of twins
when both are of the same sex. He is symbolized as a
small snake.
MARASSA DOCA (V). Patron of the first child after twins
if it is a girl. [H.]
MARASSA DOQU (V). Patron of the first child after twins
if it is a boy. [H.]
MARASSA DOGU]2 (V).
MARASSA GUIN]AE (V). Patron of twins when one is a
boy and the other a girl. [P.]
MARASSA QUAT' (V). Patron of quadruplets.
MARASSA TROIS (V). Patron of triplets.
MARIE GItDI (V). A sister of the G7RD1brothers. A
"dead" spirit.
MINISE ZAKA (V). Father of AZAKA MI3DIP.
MOUNDONGUE (C-G). Often considered to be an evil loa.
Persons of bad reputation are often taunted as fol-
lowers of MOUNDONGUE. Ritual service to him
includes, on special occasions, the cutting off of dogs'
ears and tails. He is fond of dogs and benevolent to-
ward them. MOUNDONGUEis a tribal designation.
See MACAYA BUMBA. [H.]
MOYISE (C-G).
NAGO PIMAN, or PIMENT (V). [S.]
NANANBOUCLOU, or NANAN BOULOUCOU (V). Loa
368 JOURNALOF NEGROHISTORY

of herbs and medicines. In Dahomey NANANBOU-

CLOU was a member of the Sky Pantheon and the
parent of the divine Mawu and Lisa, and was consid-
ered chronologically as first of all the deities.41 She
is still remembered among the Arara (Dahomey)
cults in Cuba.
NANCHOU (C-G). A warrior deity.
NtGtSSE IBO (Ibo).
OBATALA, or BATALA (V). Among the Yoruba people
OBATALA was a Sky deity and protector of the
town gates. He was thought to form children in the
womb, and was therefore identified with albinism and
congenital deformities.42 OBATALA is one of the
main Lucumi (Yoruba) deities in Cuba. [H.]
OGOUN BACHANGO (V). Possibly the same as OGOUN
CHANGO,or he may be named after the Bachangos,
a Congo tribe. Like the other OGOUNS, he is a war-
rior and ironworker.
OGOUN BADAGRY (V). One of the " grandsons" of
MATT' OGOUN. He is a "work" loa as well as an
ironworker and warrior, and helps in the fields, espe-
cially during time of sickness. BADAGRY is the
name of a town near the mouth of the OGOUNRiver
in western Nigeria. According to a Cubancult priest,
batagry is the word used to designate the circum-
cision house in Dahomey. OGOUN BADAGRY thus
may have been the Dahomean spirit of that shrine.
[H., D.]
OGOUNBAKALA (V). One of the OGOUNbrothers.
OGOUN BALINDJO (V). One of the OGOUN brothers.
[H., D.]
OGOUN BALTAZA (V). One of the OGOUN brothers.
OGOUN BAYS (V). A gateway guardian, and one of the
OGOUN brothers.
41 Herskovits, Dahomey, V. II, pp. 101 if.
42 Ellis, The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples, pp. 38 if.
 GODSOF THE HAITIANMOUNTAINS 369

OGOUN BLANC (V). A "white" OGOUN. He doesn't

drink rum, which is a favorite beverage of the other
OGOUN brothers.
OGOUN CHANGO (V). See CHANGO.
OGOUN D'L'EAU (C-G). "Ogoun of the Water." This
loa is not a member of the OGOUN family of the
Vodoun cycle. [H.]
OGOUN FAI (V). One of the primary patrons of iron-
workers and warriors. He is sometimes called ST.
JACQUES MAJEUR, or simply ST. JACQUES.
[D.]
OGOUN FEREI (V). Brother of OGOUN FAI, OGOUN
BADAGRY, etc., an ironworkers' deity. A machete
is his symbol and his color is red. [H.]
OGOUN JIBBA (V).
OGOUN J:KKA, JRKKR, or YRKKR (V). A warrior
and ironworking loa. JINKKINmay have been a shrine
or regional designation.
OGOUN J?tNISON (V).
OGOUN JERISON (V). Possibly the same as OGOUN
J?NISON.
OGOUN JI2ROUGE (C-G). "Ogoun Red Eyes." Malevo-
lent, red eyes being the mark of a loa who eats people.
A brother of OGOUN D 'L'EAU.
OGOUNK]BPK (V).
OGOUNKitNISON (V).
OGOUNLAFLAMBO (C-G). A fire loa. When he comes in
he plays with hot coals, hot irons, and flames.
OGOUN LODR2or YALODR2(V). Brother of OGOUN
BADAGRY, etc. In Dahomey Yalode is the name for
the crocodile god, possibly a totem.43
OGOUN PANAMA (V). Guardian against sunstroke, and
brother to OGOUN BADAGRY. He is generally de-
scribed as wearing a Panama hat.
43 Ellis, The Ewe-Speaking Peoples, pp. 71-74.
370 JOURNALOF NEGRO HISTORY

OGOUN P1ITRO (C-G). Malevolent, and a man-eater. He

is a brother to OGOUN J1tROUGE.
OGOUN PIERRE NARCISSE (V).
OGOUNYEMSEN (C-G). He likes red cocks to eat. [D.]
OLICHA (V).
OSAI, or OSANGE (V). Known also among the Lucumi
cults of Cuba. May be any one of the OSANGES
cited by [H.]
OSANGE (or OSAI) LI?LI: (V).
OSOU JAMAIN (V). Perhaps the same as SOUSOU Y2-
MAIN?
PAPA DAHOM1t,or DAROMAIN (V).
PAPA PIERRE BASSICO (V). This loa is sometimes
identified with St. Peter.
PIERRE DAMBALLA, DAMBARRA, or DAMBADA
(V). Identified sometimes with St. Peter. [H.]
PIERRE WALO (V). Related to WHYDAH WALO.
Herskovits mentions a loa called simply WALO.
PIMBA, or PEMBA (C-G).
POULA, or FOULA (V). This name is probably a tribal
designation.
QUITTA BANDA (C-G). BANDA may refer to the Banda
tribe in Central Africa.
QUITTA BAYS (C-G). A gateway guardian.
QUITTA CONGO (C-G).
QUITTA KANGA (C-G). KANGA is a tribal designation,
probably the same as the Ganga.
QUITTA LEGBA (C-G). A LEGBA of the Congo-Guin'e
rites, possibly the same as QUITTA BAY]6.
RAS MID1I (cycle unknown).
RIGAL (C-G). A brother to GitNIPRALBRISI. Benevo-
lent.
ROI GRAND CHIMIN (C-G). "King of the Highway."
May possibly refer to LEGBA or to another highway
loa.
 GODSOF THE HAITIANMOUNTAINS 371

ROI LOANGUE, or LOANGO (C-G). "King of Loango."

LOANGOrefers to the old West African kingdom by
that name.
SAILA (V). A female deity, member of the 1ZILIE
FRIDA family.
SI AZAKA (V). Wife of ZAKA MID]R.
SILIBO GW]NTO(V). In Dahomey, according to Hersko-
vits, SILIBO is an ancient sib-founder. [H.]
SILIDJA (V).
SILILIRWO BOQUOIM?R(C-G).
SINDIR,or SINGIR(V). See LOKO ATTISSO.
SININGAL KENWfl (C-G). The first name is obviously
a reference to Senegal. [H.]
SO NARCISSE, also called SO or SOGONARCISSE (V).
A thunder loa. In Dahomey, where he is known as
Xevioso, he is regarded as an offspring of Mawu and
Lisa, and a member of the Sky Pantheon.
SOBO BADIR,or SOGOBADIR(V). Protector of the tem-
ple (bade). See BADI. This loa is well known among
the Arara (Dahomey) cults in Cuba [H., D., S., P.]
SOLEIL, or ST. SOLEIL (V). Persons mounted as the re-
sult of exposure to sunlight are thought to be pos-
sessed by SOLEIL. Herkovits mentions also ST. LA
LUNE (St. Moon), ST. IRTOILE(St. Star), and ST.
LA TERRE (St. Earth). [H.]
SOUSOU YIMAIN (V). SOUSOU may be a tribal desig-
nation.
TAKWA (cycle unknown). Possibly named after the Tak-
wa, or Tacua, people of Nigeria.
TAUREAU (V and C-G). [H., D., P.]
TI CRAB (V). TI CRAB is a "false" name, this loa keep-
ing his "real" name a secret.
TI G1RDIR (V). One of the GRDfl brothers, and therefore a
"dead" spirit.
TIJEAN DANTOR, or DANTAN (V). DANTAN means
" ancient."
372 HISTORY
OFNEGRO
JOURNAL

TIJEAN P]TRO (C-G). A malevolent, one-legged loa who

preys on children from the foliage of coco-palms.
[H., D.]
TIJEAN PIED CHRCHE (C-G). "Tijean Dry Feet." A
malevolent spirit, brother of TIJEAN PITRO. [H.]
TIQUITTA DISMANMBRI, or QUITTA DIMANMBRIS
(C-G). He is thought to be the son of QUI7TTA
BAYR [H.]
TI MOUNDONGUE (C-G). Said to be the "son" of
MOUNDONGUE.
TIWAWR GADS~,or TIWAWft GPD1 (V). One of the
main G]PDIR brothers, and therefore a "dead" spirit.
TIWAWI is one who comes in making jokes and
mischief.
TOR LOKO (V). "Loko of the Drums."
YAKI BOSSAN (cycle unknown).
YALOD]3 (V). See OGOUN LODI8.
WANGOL (C-G). An " earth" loa. His name may refer to
Angola [H., D.]
WANGOL D 'L 'EAU (C-G). "Wangol of the Water."
WHYDAH WALO (V). WHYDAH is the name of a sea-
coast town in Dahomey.
YABOFI8 LIMBA (C-G).
YAOMBI, or MAYAOMBI8.The name is a tribal designa-
tion, referring to the Mayiiombesof the Congo.
YENVALO (V). According to one informant, and to Hers-
kovits, YENVALO is a Fon term designating "ap-
peal" or "supplication."
ZAO-PIMBA (C-G). The son of MAIT' PIMBA and the
father of LIMBA ZAO. [H.]
ZO (V). A fire deity. This god is of clear Dahomean ori-
gin.44 [D.]
HAROLD
COURLANDER
New York City
44 Ellis, ibid., pp. 71-74.