TIDAL ENERGY

WHAT IS TIDAL ENERGY?

Tidal power or tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts the

energy obtained from tides into useful forms of power, mainly
electricity. Although not yet widely used, tidal energy has potential
for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than the
wind and the sun. Among sources of renewable energy, tidal energy
has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited
availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow
velocities, thus constricting its total availability.

WHAT CAUSES TIDAL ENERGY?

From the word it self, tides are the cause of Tidal Energy. Tides are the
rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the
gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun, and the
rotation of the Earth. It happens twice a day and is predictable.

TIDAL TECHNOLOGIES

 TIDAL FENCES
A Tidal Fence is another form of tidal stream
technology, which directly exploits fast flowing
underwater ocean currents for energy generation.
In many ways, a tidal fence installation is a cross
between a tidal barrage and a tidal turbine stream
system. Unlike submerged tidal turbines which are
individually positioned around the oceans floor,
tidal fences are composed of individual vertical-
axis turbines that are mounted together within a
single fence like structure.
 TIDAL TURBINES
Tidal turbines look similar to wind
turbines. They can be placed on
the sea floor where there is
strong tidal flow. Because water
is about 800 times denser than air,
tidal turbines have to be much
sturdier and heavier than wind
turbines. Tidal turbines are more
expensive to build than wind
turbines but capture more energy
with the same size blades.

Placing turbines in tidal streams

is complex, because the machines
are large and disrupt the tide they
are trying to harness. The
environmental impact could
be severe, depending on the size of
the turbine and the site of the
tidal stream. Turbines are
most effective in shallow water.
This produces more energy and
allows ships to navigate around
the turbines. A tidal generator's
turbine blades also turn slowly,
which helps marine life avoid
getting caught in the system.
 TIDAL BARRAGES
The barrage is installed across an inlet of an ocean bay or
lagoon that forms a tidal basin. Sluice gates on the barrage
control water levels and flow rates to allow the tidal basin to
fill on the incoming high tides and to empty through an
electricity turbine system on the outgoing ebb tide. A two-way
tidal power system generates electricity from both the incoming
and outgoing tides.

Turbines inside the barrage harness the power of tides the same
way a river dam harnesses the power of a river. The barrage gates
are open as the tide rises. At high tide, the barrage gates close,
creating a pool, or tidal lagoon. The water is then released
through the barrage's turbines, creating energy at a rate that
can be controlled by engineers.

A potential disadvantage of tidal power is the effect a tidal

station can have on plants and animals in estuaries of the tidal
basin. The environmental impact of a barrage system can be quite
significant. The land in the tidal range is completely disrupted.
The change in water level in the tidal lagoon might harm plant
and animal life. The salinity inside the tidal lagoon lowers, which
changes the organisms that are able to live there. As with dams
across rivers, fish are blocked into or out of the tidal lagoon.
Turbines move quickly in barrages, and marine animals can be
caught in the blades. With their food source limited, birds might
find different places to migrate.
 TIDAL STREAM GENERATOR
Tidal stream generators make use of
the kinetic energy of moving water to
power turbines, in a similar way
to wind turbines that use wind to power
turbines. Some tidal generators can be
built into the structures of existing
bridges or are entirely submersed, thus
avoiding concerns over impact on the
natural landscape. Land constrictions
such as straits or inlets can create high
velocities at specific sites, which can
be captured with the use of turbines.

These types of generators have a very

low visual impact and are mostly or
totally submerged. Furthermore, they
are less intrusive to marine life
because they produce less noise
pollution. The density of water is also
much higher than air, which means
that tidal turbines can be much smaller
than wind turbines for the same
output This is further enhanced by the
use of the Venturi effect, which is a
way of getting water to move faster
through these turbines.
 TIDAL LAGOON
A new tidal energy design option is to
construct circular retaining walls
embedded with turbines that can
capture the potential energy of tides.
The created reservoirs are similar to
those of tidal barrages, except that
the location is artificial and does not
contain a pre-existing ecosystem. The
lagoons can also be in double
(or triple) format without pumping or
with pumping that will flatten out
the power output.

A tidal energy generator using tidal

lagoons would function much like a
barrage. Unlike barrages, however,
tidal lagoons can be constructed
along the natural coastline. A tidal
lagoon power plant could also
generate continuous power. The
turbines work as the lagoon is filling
and emptying.

The environmental impact of tidal lagoons is minimal. The

lagoons can be constructed with natural materials like rock.
They would appear as a low breakwater (sea wall) at low tide, and
be submerged at high tide. Animals could swim around the
structure, and smaller organisms could swim inside it.
Large predators like sharks would not be able to penetrate the
lagoon, so smaller fish would probably thrive. Birds would
likely flock to the area.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Tidal energy pertains to a form of power that particularly transforms

the efficiency of the tides to beneficial forms of dynamism. Though it is
not widely used, it serves as a significant investment when it comes to
electricity generation.

Currently, tidal energy is still in the early development stages, not

being able to compete with fossil fuels. However, the focus on
renewable energy sources and the demand for clean energy are
contributing to a rapid development of methodologies to harness this
type of energy source. Tidal energy is already offering many
advantages, but put in mind that it is also linked to some disadvantages.
In order to completely understand its significance and effects, it
would help to gain a clearer understanding of these opposing
aspects.

 ADVANTAGES

1. It is renewable.
Tidal energy’s source is a result of the effects of the sun and
moon’s gravitational fields, combined with our planet’s
rotation around its axis, which result in low and high tides.
With this in mind, the power source of tidal energy is
potentially renewable, whether we are talking about tidal
barrages, stream generators or the more recent technology,
dynamic tidal power (DTP). Compared to nuclear reserves and
fossil fuels, the sun and moon’s gravitational fields, as well
as the Earth’s rotation around its axis, will not cease to exist
any time soon.

2. It is green.
Aside from being renewable, tidal energy is also an
environmentally friendly energy source because it does not
take up a lot of space and does not emit any greenhouse gases.
However, there are already some examples of tidal power
plants and their effects on the environment. Important studies
and assessments are being conducted on these things.

3. It is predictable.
Sea currents are highly predictable, developing with well-
known cycles, which makes it easier to construct tidal energy
systems with the correct dimensions, since the kind of power
the equipment will be exposed to is already known. This is why
both the equipment’s installed capacity and physical size have
entirely other limitations, though tidal turbines and stream
 generators that are being used are very similar to wind
turbines.

4. It is effective at low speeds.

Water is a thousand more dense than air, which makes it
possible to produce electricity at low speeds. Based on
calculations, power can be generated even at 1 minute per
second, which is equivalent to a little over 3 feet per second.

5. It has a long lifespan.

So far, there is no reason to believe that tidal energy plants
are not long lived. This means an ultimate reduction of the
money spent on selling the electricity, making this energy
source a very cost-competitive one. As an example, the La
Rance tidal barrage power plant was constructed in 1966 and
is still generating large amounts of electricity up to this day.

6. It reduces foreign importation of fuel.

By harnessing tidal energy on a large scale, we can help
reduce foreign fuels importation and enhance energy
security, as people would no longer have to rely much on
foreign fuel import to satisfy the growing energy demand.

7. It serves as coastal protection.

Small dams and barrages, which are used to harness tidal
energy, could protect ship ports and coastal areas from the
dangerous tides during storms and bad weather conditions.
 DISADVANTAGES

1. It still has some environmental effects.

As previously mentioned, tidal power plants are suspected to
have some environmental effects, but are yet to be determined.
As we know it, these facilities generate electricity with the use
of tidal barrages that rely on ocean level manipulation, thus
potentially having the same environmental effects as
hydroelectric dams. Also, the turbine frames may potentially
disrupt the natural movement of marine animals, and the
construction of the whole plant may also disturb migration
of fish. Nevertheless, technological solutions are now being
developed to resolve these issues.

2. It is an intermittent energy source.

Tidal energy is considered as an intermittent source of
energy, as it can only provide electricity when the tide surges,
which happen about approximately 10 hours per day on
average. This means that tidal energy can only be considered
as reliable when accompanied with effective energy storage
solutions.

3. It should be close to land.

Tidal energy facilities need to be constructed close to land,
which is also the place where technological solutions that
come with them are being worked on. It is hoped that in a few
years we will be able to use weaker tidal currents at
locations further out to sea. In addition to this disadvantage,
the areas where this energy is produced are far away from the
exact locations where it is consumed or needed.

4. It is expensive.
We should know that the method of generating tidal energy is
relatively a new technology. It is projected that it will be
commercially profitable by 2020 in larger scales with better
technology. Also, the plants that harness this type of energy
are linked to higher upfront costs that are required for
construction. Thus, tidal energy displays a lack of cost-
effectiveness and efficiency in the world’s energy market.

5. It is not cost-effective.
 The tidal energy technology is not that cost-effective, as
more technological advancements and innovations are still
needed to make power commercially viable.

6. It is still considered a new technology.

Still a more theoretic source of power, tidal energy is limited
in real life to just a few prototype projects because the
technology has just begun to develop and needs plenty of
research and huge funds before it reaches the commercial
status.

7. It requires long gestation time.

The time and cost overruns can be huge for tidal power
plants, which led to some of them being cancelled, such as
UK’s Severn Barrage. In fact, some tidal power stations, like
the one being planned in Russia, will never be realized because
of very long gestation time.
Solar Energy

The most precise Solar Energy definition : Energy from the sun.

It is the radiation from the sun that is capable of producing heat,

causing chemical reactions, or generating electricity.

Out of all energy emitted by sun only a small fraction of energy is

absorbed by the earth. Just this tiny fraction of the sun’s energy is
enough to meet all our power needs.

Solar energy is rapidly becoming the ultimate energy source because

of its non-polluting character and its inexhaustible supply which are in
stark contrast to such fossil fuel sources as coal, oil, and natural
gas.

The surface receives about 47% of the total solar energy that
reaches the Earth. Only this amount is usable.
The Sun emits EM radiation across most of the electromagnetic
spectrum however, emit X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light , infrared , and
even Radio waves.

Solar Radiation is composed of

: Ultra-violet (200 nm – 400 nm)

: Visible (400 nm – 700 nm)

: Infra-red (700 nm – 2500 nm)

The sunlight that reaches the ground consists of nearly 50% visible
light, 45% infrared radiation, and smaller amounts of ultraviolet
light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.

This radiation can be converted either into: thermal energy or into

electrical energy.
THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Thermal Energy

. It’s lights up our days. It heats the earth, our bodies and our
homes.

Solar thermal technologies involve harvesting energy from the sun

for heating water or producing electrical power.

Solar collectors are used for this purpose. There are 3 types or
solar collectors : Flat-plate collectors

Evacuated-tube collectors

Integral collector-storage systems(Batch or Bread Box)

FLAT-PLATE COLLECTORS

A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic

cover (called glazing) on top and a dark-colored absorber plate on
the bottom. The sides and bottom of the collector are usually
insulated to minimize heat loss.
EVACUATED TUBE COLLECTORS

Evacuated Tube Solar Collectors convert energy from the sun into
usable heat in a solar water heating system. This energy can be used
for domestic and commercial hot water heating, pool heating, space
heating or even air conditioning.
INTEGRAL COLLECTOR SYSTEM

Integral collector storage or batch type systems put the tank

and collector together to form a large mass of fluid to be heated by
the sun.
Electrical Energy

Electric Energy uses the power of the sun to produce electricity

through solar cells, otherwise known as Photovoltaics (PV).

Solar power is described as the conversion of sunlight into

electricity. Sunlight could be changed into electricity with the use of
:

Directly using PV or photovoltaic

Indirectly by CSPs

Concentrating Solar Power

-Trough systems
-Power towers
-Heat exchanger plus steam turbine
-Photovoltaics
-Small-scale (buildings) kW production
-Large-scale (utilities) MW production
-Photoelectric effect

CSP (Concentrated Solar Power)

CSP is a power generation technology that uses mirrors or lenses to
concentrate the sun’s rays and, That heat a fluid and produce steam.

The steam drives a turbine and generates power in the same way as
conventional power plants.

Other concepts are being explored and not all future CSP plants will
necessarily use a steam cycle.

There are now several devices and structures created which focus
and concentrate solar power.
-Solar Parabolic Troughs
-Stirling Dish
-Solar Power Tower
-The Linear Fresnel Reflector
A clean, large-scale solar thermal technology known as
concentrating solar power is used in special power plants
(Concentrating Solar Power or CSP plants) that use different kinds
of mirror configurations to convert the sun's energy into high-
temperature heat. The heat energy is then used to generate electricity
in a steam generator.

HOW A POWER TOWER WORKS

This graphic shows how the power tower is used to heat molten salt
which is used to heat water to produce steam to turn a turbine which
produces electricity.

Molten salt is used to transfer the heat because the heat can be
stored and used when the sun is behind the clouds or at night.
Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts.
Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost, have
a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures
compatible with conventional power systems.

PHOTOVOLTAICS

Converting solar energy directly into electrical energy .

Devices used are called solar panels.
Solar panel is a group of solar cells.
Solar cells work on the principle of photoelectric effect.
A typical solar cell is a multi-layered unit consisting of a:

Cover - a clear glass or plastic layer that provides outer protection

from the elements. Transparent Adhesive - holds the glass to the rest
of the solar cell.

Anti-reflective Coating - this substance is designed to prevent the light

that strikes the cell from bouncing off so that the maximum energy is
absorbed into the cell.

Front Contact - transmits the electric current.

N-Type Semiconductor Layer - This is a thin layer of silicon which has

been mixed (process called doping) with phosphorous.

P-Type Semiconductor Layer - This is a thin layer of silicon which has

been mixed or doped with boron.

Back Contact - transmits the electric current.

Photoelectric effect

-When a light of certain frequency falls on the surface of a metal

-Electrons will absorb the energy

-If incident light energy is greater than the work function(minimum

energy required to remove the loosely bound valence electrons)of
the metal

-Then the photo electrons will be emitted and

-The excess energy is converted to the kinetic energy of electron.

-When solar panels are placed in the sunlight , photons will strike the
surface and emits electrons.

-As a result electron hole pair is created in the solar cell.

-When external circuit is connected to the solar cell , electrons

flow in the circuit and the current is generated.

SOLAR PANEL

Sunlight hit the solar panel (photovoltaic/ PV) and absorbed by semi-
conducting materials such as silicone.

Electrons are knocked loose from their atoms, which allow them to
flow through the material to produce electricity. This process is
called the photovoltaic (PV) effect.

An array of solar panels converts solar energy into DC (direct

current) electricity. 4)

The DC electricity enters an inverter.

The inverter turns DC electricity into 120-volt AC (alternating
current)

The AC power enters the utility panel in the house. 7)

The electricity (load) is then distributed to appliances or lights in the

house.

When more solar energy is generated it can be stored in a battery as

DC electricity and will continue to supply your home with electricity
in the event of a power blackout or at nighttime.

When the battery is full the excess electricity can be exported back
into the utility grid, if your system is connected to it.

Utility supplied electricity can also be drawn form the grid when not
enough solar energy is produced

The flow of electricity in and out of the utility grid is measured by a

utility meter, which spins backwards (when you are producing more
energy that you need) and forward (when you require additional
electricity from the utility company). The two are offset ensuring that
you only pay for the additional energy you use from the utility
company. This system is referred to as "netmetering".

APPLICATIONS
OF SOLAR ENERGY
 Heaters, cars, lights, satellites, dryers, calculators, green
houses, water pumps, desalination, chilling, solar ponds,
thermal.

 On an office building , roof areas can be covered with solar

panels .
  Remote buildings such as schools , communities can make use of
solar energy.

 In developing countries , this solar panels are very much useful.

 Even on the highways , for every five kilometres ,solar

telephones are used.

 A partial list of solar applications includes space heating and

cooling through solar architecture, potable water via
distillation and disinfection, daylighting, solar hot water, solar
cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial
purposes.

To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use

solar panels.

Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar

energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants.

Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops

include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying
chicken manure.

Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round

production and the growth (in enclosed environments) of specialty
crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate.
Daylighting systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide
interior illumination.

Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space

heating, space cooling and process heat generation .

Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water.

Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water

potable

Solar water disinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled

plastic polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for
several hours.

Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization.

They can be grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel
cookers and reflector cookers.

Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries (dish,

trough, Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on a cooking container

Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and

Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and
industrial applications.

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either

directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated
solar power (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking
systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV
converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF SOLAR ENERGY

ADVANTAGES:

 Solar panels give off no pollution .

 Solar energy produces electricity very quietly.

 It has the ability to harness electricity in remote locations that

are not linked to a national grid.

 Very efficient in large areas of the globe.

 Solar panels can be installed on top of many rooftops

 It is affordable in the long run.

 The use of solar energy to produce electricity allows the user

to become less dependent on the worlds fossil fuel supplies.
DISADVANTAGES:

 The major con of solar energy is the initial cost of solar cells.

 Solar energy is only able to generate electricity during daylight

hours. This means for around half of each day, solar panels are
not producing energy for your home.

 The weather can affect the efficiency of solar cells.

 Pollution can be a con of solar energy, as pollution levels can

affect a solar cells efficiency, this would be a major con for
businesses or industry wishing to install solar panels in heavily
polluted areas, such as cities.
BIOMASS
• Biomass is a renewable energy source that is derived from living
or recently living organisms.

• Biomass includes biological material, not organic material like

coal.

• Energy derived from biomass is mostly used to generate

electricity or to produce heat.

• Thermal energy is extracted by means of combustion,

torrefaction, pyrolysis, and gasification.

• Biomass can be chemically and biochemically treated to convert

it to a energy-rich fuel.

TYPES OF BIOMASS

 WOOD FUEL

 RUBBISH

 ALCOHOL FUELS

 CROPS

 LANDFILL GAS
BIOMASS CYCLE
Biomass downdraft gasifier

Biogas digestor
Biomass as an energy source?
• California produces more than 60 million bone dry

tons of biomass each year.

• 5 million bone dry tons are now burned to make

electricity

• If it were all used, the 60 million tons could make close to 2,000
megawatts of electricity

• Would give enough energy to power 2 million homes

• About 6% of Canada’s energy needs are met by

biomass, but that could be greatly increased

disagreements
• Biomass has a smaller energy content for its bulk than fossil
fuels .

• Costs of labor, transportation, and storage would then be

higher .
Environmental advantages
• Renewable resource

• Reduces landfills

• Protects clean water supplies

• Reduces acid rain and smog

• Reduces greenhouse gases

– Carbon dioxide

-- Methane

Biomass and carbon emissions

• Biomass emits carbon dioxide when it naturally decays and when
it is used as an energy source

• Living biomass in plants and trees absorbs carbon dioxide from

the atmosphere through photosynthesis

• Biomass causes a closed cycle with no net emissions of

greenhouse gases

Geographic areas

• Comes from the forest

• Can also come from plant and

animal waste

• Wood and waste can be found

virtually anywhere

• Transportation costs
Enhancement

• Wood is the largest resource

• Expand by using other plants,

residues, or waste

• Finding different materials to

use as fuel

Development

• Many areas could be used

• Potentially supply more than

20% of US energy supply

• Bio energy crops will be

• More important in future

• Come closer to area that

• Need energy
Wind
Wind is a perceptible natural movement of the air,
especially in the form of a current of air blowing from a
particular direction. It is also consider as a natural
movement of air of any velocity. It is also a mixture of gases,
water vapor, and other substances, and it has
specific properties, or characteristics as follows:

• It is made is made up of gases.

• It has mass.
• It exerts pressure and has weight.
• It can be compressed.
• It is impacted by temperature.

Wind Energy
Wind energy refers to the process of creating
electricity using the wind, or air flows that occur naturally
in the earth's atmosphere. The use of air flow through wind
turbines to provide the mechanical power to turn electric
generators and traditionally to do other work, like milling
or pumping. Wind energy is
sustainable and renewable alternative to burning fossil
fuels, and has much less effect on the environment
Three Types of Wind Energy
Utility-scale wind
These are wind turbines that range in size from 100
kilowatts to several megawatts, where the electricity is
delivered to the power grid and distributed to the end user
by electric utilities or power system operators

Distributed or "small" wind

Wind turbines that are below 100 kilowatts that are

used to directly power a home, farm or small business and
are not connected to the grid.

Offshore Wind

Wind turbines that are erected in large bodies of water,

usually on the continental shelf. Offshore wind turbines
are larger than land-based turbines and can generate more
power.

Wind Turbines
Specifically, referred to as a wind energy converter
that converts the wind's kinetic energy into electrical
energy. It is manufactured in a wide range of vertical and
horizontal axis. Wind turbines are becoming an increasingly
important source of intermittent renewable energy and are
used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their
reliance on fossil fuels.

There are three primary types of wind turbines shown in

Fig.1:

Figure 1.1

Savonius VAWT (Savonius Vertical Axis Wind Turbine)

It is used for converting the force of
the wind into torque on a rotating shaft. The turbine
consists of a number of aerofoils, usually—but not always—
vertically mounted on a rotating shaft or framework, either
ground stationed or tethered in airborne systems.

Modern HAWT (Modern Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine)

The main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the

top of a tower, and may be pointed into or out of the wind.
Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large
turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo
motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation
of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more
suitable to drive an electrical generator.

Darrieus VAWT (Darrieus Vertical Axis Wind Turbine)

A turbine consists of a number of

curved aerofoil blades mounted on a rotating shaft or
framework. The curvature of the blades allows the blade to
be stressed only in tension at high rotating speeds. There
are several closely related wind turbines that use straight
blades.

Function of Wind Turbine

A wind turbine works on a simple principle: energy in the wind
turns two or three propeller-like blades around a rotor.
The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins a
generator to create electricity. Wind turbines are mounted
on a tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet (30
meters) or more above ground, they can take advantage of
faster and less turbulent wind. Wind turbines can be used to
produce electricity for a single home or building, or they
can be connected to an electricity grid for more
widespread electricity distribution.
Shown in Figure 1.2, the basic parts of a wind turbine:

Figure 1.2

Wind Farm
A wind farm is a large number of wind turbines are built
close together, which is referred to as a wind project or
wind farm. A wind farm functions as a single power plant
and sends electricity to the grid.

Example of a wind farm shown in figure 1.3:

Figure 1.3
HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY
 Hydroelectric power (hydropower) systems convert the kinetic
energy in flowing water into kinetic energy.
 Falling or flowing water turns a propeller like piece called a
turbine.
 The turbine turns a metal shaft in an electric generator which
produces electricity.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant

Advantages

 No fuel required
 No air pollution
 Can easily work during high peak daily loads
 Prevents floods
Disadvantages

 Disrupts the aquatic ecosystems

 Disruption of surrounding areas
 Requires large areas
 Large scale human displacement

How it works?

 Flowing water is directed at a turbine.

 The flowing water causes the turbine to rotate, converting the
kinetic to mechanical energy.
 The mechanical energy produced by the turbine is converted into
electric energy by a turbine generator.
 Inside the generator, the shaft of the turbine spins a magnet
inside coils of copper wire.
 Fact of nature that moving magnet near a conductor causes an
electric current.
Hydel scheme
1. Run off plants without poundage:
As name indicated this type of plant doesn’t store water, the
plant uses as water comes.
2. Run off plants with Poundage:
Poundage permits storage of water during off-peak period and
use of this water during peak periods.
3. Reservoir plants:
A reservoir plant is that which the reservoir of such size as to
permit carrying over storage from wet season to the next dry
season.

4. Low head plants:

In this case small dam is built across the river to provide the
necessary head. In such plants Francis type of turbines are
used.
5. Medium head plants:
The fore bay provided at the beginning of Penstocks serves as
water reservoir for such plant. These plants water is
generally carried out in open canals from reservoir to the
fore bay and then to the penstock.
6. High head plant:
This plant works above 500mtrs ad Pelton wheel turbines are
used. This plant is carried out from the main reservoir by a
tunnel up to surge tank and then from the surge tank to the
power house in penstock.
7. Base load plants:
These plants are mainly depending on the nature of load.
8. Peak load plants:
These plants are mainly used during the peak load. Run off
river plants with poundage can be used as peak load plants.
9. Pumped storage plants:
These plants are used when the quantity of water available
for generation is insufficient. If it is possible to pond at head
water and tail water locations after passing through the
turbine is stored in the tail race pond from where it may be
pumped back to the Head water pond.

Components of Hydel scheme

The principal components are:
1. Forebay

2. Intake structure

3. Penstocks

4. Surge tank

5. Turbines

6. Power house

7. Draft tube

8. Tail race
Forebay

 Enlarged body of water provided in front of penstock

 Provided in case of runoff river plants and storage plants.
 Main function to store water which is rejected by plant
 Powerhouse located close to the dam. Penstock directly take
water from reservoir, reservoir act as forebay.

Intake structure

 Water conveyed from forebay to penstocks through intake

structures
 Main components are trash rack and gate.
 Trash track prevent entry of debris.

Penstocks

 Open or closed conduits which carry water to the turbines.

 Made of reinforced concrete or steel. Concrete penstocks are
suitable for low heads less than 30mtrs.
 Steel penstocks are designed for any head.
 Thickness of penstocks increases with head or water pressure,
 Penstocks gates are fixed to initial of penstocks, and flow of
water is controlled by operating penstock gates.
 Either buried in ground or kept exposed.

Surge tank

 Additional storage for near to turbine, usually provided in high

head plants.
 Located near the beginning of the penstock.
 As the load on the turbine decreases or during load rejection by
the turbine the surge tank provides space for holding water.
 Surge tank over comes the abnormal pressure,
Turbines

 Used to convert the energy water of falling water into

mechanical energy
 Water turbine is a rotary engine that takes energy from moving
water
 Flowing water is directed on the blades of a turbine runner,
creating a force om the blades.
 Since the runner spinning, the force acts through a distance in
this way, energy is transferred from the water flow to the
turbine.
 The principal turbines are:
1. Impulse turbine
2. Reaction turbine

Impulse turbines: mainly used in high head plants

 The entire pressure of water is converted into kinetic

energy in a nozzle and the velocity of the jet drives
the blades of turbine.
 The nozzle consist of a needle, and quantity of water
het falling on the turbine is controlled this needle
placed in the tip of the nozzle.
 If the load on the turbine decreases, the governor
pushes the needle into the nozzle, thereby reducing
the quantity of water striking the turbine.
 Examples of impulse trubines:
 Pelton wheel
 Turgo
 Michell-banki (also known as the Cross flow or
ossberger turbine)
 Reaction turbines: are mainly for low and medium head
plants.

 In reaction turbine the water enters the runner partly

with pressure energy and partly with velocity head.
 Most water turbines in use are reaction turbines and
are used in low and medium head applications.
 In reaction turbine pressure drop occurs in both fixed
and moving blades.
 In this turbine the runner blades changed with respect
to guide vane opening.
 As the sudden decrease of load takes place, the guide
vane limit decreases according to that runner blade
closes.
 Examples of reaction turbines:
 Francis and Kaplan turbine.

Draft tube

 Is a pipe or passage of gradually increasing cross sectional area,

which connect to the exit to tail race.
 It reduces high velocity of water discharged by the turbine.
 Draft tube permits the turbines to be installed at a higher level
that the tail race.

Power house

 Power house contains the electro mechanical equipment i.e.

hydro power turbine, generator, excitation system, main inlet,
valves, transformers, switchyard, DC systems, governor, bus
duct, step up transformers, high voltages switch gears, control
metering for protection of systems.
Tail race

 Tail race tunnel or channel are provided to direct the used of

water coming out of draft tube back to the river.
 Important criteria of designing the tail race is kind of draft tube,
the gross head and geographical situation of the ares.
 Tail race is designed in such a way that water hammer is minimizes
when water leaves the draft tube.

Power generation

The amount of electricity that can be generated by a hydropower plant

depends on two factors:

Flow rate – the quantity of water flowing in a given time; and

Head- the height from which the water falls. The greater the flow and
head, the more electricity produced

Flow rate = quantity of water flowing

Head height from which water falls

Power = head x flow x efficiency / 11.8

Power = KW

Head = feet

Flow = cubic feet per second

Efficiency = can range from 60% for older, poorly maintained

hydroplants to 90% for newer, well maintained plants.

11.8 = imdex converts units of feet and seconds into kilowwatt

Geothermal Energy

I. What is Geothermal Energy?

The word geothermal comes from the Greek words
geo (earth) and therme (heat). So, geothermal energy
is heat from within the earth. We can use the steam
and hot water produced inside the earth to heat
buildings or generate electricity. Geothermal energy
is a renewable energy source because the water is
replenished by rainfall and the heat is continuously
produced inside the earth.

II. History about Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy has been around ever since the
Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago. This
thermal energy generated and stored by the Earth
has been used in various ways throughout history.
This article takes a look at the history of geothermal
energy from the first known use by mankind through
to the modern day.
 Development of Geothermal Power
Technologies
It wasn’t until 1904 when there was a
breakthrough in the use of geothermal energy as
a power source. On the 4th July 1904 at the
 Larderello dry steam field in Italy, Piero Ginori
Conti tested the first ever geothermal power
generator. This small generator was able to
provide enough power in order for five
lightbulbs to be lit. Piero Ginori Conti would
further develop his technology in order to build
the first ever geothermal power plant which
became operational in 1911 at the Valle del
Diavolo (“Devils Valley”) in Larderello, Italy.
This ‘dry-steam’ geothermal power plant would
provide electricity for the Italian railway system
and would remain the world’s only geothermal
power plant until 1922.
 Timeline of Note-worthy Events
In 1922 in the United States, John D. Grant
would launch the world’s second geothermal
power plant. It was able to produce 250
kilowatts of electricity and was used to power
street lights and buildings in the local area.
Unfortunately, the power plant wasn’t very
competitive with other sources of power and
would close soon after.
In 1958, New Zealand’s Wairakei Power Station
became operational, making it the world’s
second major industrial producer of
geothermal electricity. This power station
would be the first in the world to make use of
‘flash steam’ technology. You can learn more
 about the different types of geothermal power
stations
The United States would eventually find
success with geothermal electricity
production in the 1960’s when its first large-
scale geothermal power plant came into
operation, producing 11 megawatts (MW) of
electricity. This was seen as a huge triumph for
the United States and would pave the way for a
new generation of geothermal power plants in
the country.
Over the coming decades, other countries
including Iceland, Kenya, Indonesia, Philippines
and Mexico would invest in Geothermal power
technologies.

III. Where is Geothermal Energy found?

Most geothermal reservoirs are deep underground
with no visible clues showing above ground.
Geothermal energy can sometimes find its way to the
surface in the form of:
 Volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic
gases are released)
 Hot springs and
 Geysers.
IV. Uses of Geothermal Energy
Some applications of geothermal energy use the
earth's temperatures near the surface, while others
require drilling miles into the earth. The three main
uses of geothermal energy are:

1) Direct Use and District Heating Systems which use

hot water from springs or reservoirs near the
surface.

2) Electricity generation in a power plant requires

water or steam at very high temperature (300 to 700
degrees Fahrenheit). Geothermal power plants are
generally built where geothermal reservoirs are
located within a mile or
two of the surface.

3) Geothermal heat pumps use stable ground or water

temperatures near the earth's surface to control
building temperatures above ground.

V. GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

Geothermal power plants use hydrothermal
resources which have two common ingredients: water
(hydro) and heat (thermal). Geothermal plants
require high temperature (300 to 700 degrees
Fahrenheit) hydrothermal resources that may come
from either dry steam wells or hot water wells. We
can use these resources by drilling wells into the
earth and piping the steam or hot water to the
surface. Geothermal wells are one to two miles deep.
There are three basic types of geothermal power
plants: Dry Steam, Flash Steam, and Binary Power
Plant.
 Geothermal Dry Steam Power Plants

 This type of geothermal power plant was

named dry steam since water that is
extracted from the underground
reservoirs has to be in its gaseous form
(water- vapor). Geothermal steam of at least
150°C (300°F) is extracted from the
reservoirs through the production wells
(as we would do with all geothermal
power plant types), but is then sent
directly to the turbine. Geothermal
reservoirs that can be exploited by
geothermal dry steam power plants are
rare.

 Dry steam is the oldest geothermal power

plant type. The first one was constructed
in Larderello, Italy, in 1904. The Geysers,
22 geothermal power plants located in
California, is the only example of
 geothermal dry steam power plants in the
United States.

 Geothermal Flash Steam Power Plants

Geothermal flash steam power plants
uses water at temperatures of at least 182°C
(360°F). The term flash steam refers the
process where high- pressure hot water
is flashed (vaporized) into steam inside a flash
tank by lowering the pressure. This steam is
then used to drive around turbines. Flash
steam is today’s most common power plant
type. The first geothermal power plant that
used flash steam technology was the Wairakei
Power station in New Zealand, which was
built already in 1958:

 Geothermal Binary Cycle Power Plants

The binary cycle power plant has one major
advantage over flash steam and dry steam
power plants: The water- temperature can be as
low as 57°C (135°F).
By using a working fluid (binary fluid) with a
much lower boiling temperature than water,
thermal energy in the reservoir water
flashes the working fluid into steam, which then
is used to generate electricity with the turbine.
The water coming from the geothermal
 reservoirs through the production wells
is never in direct contact with the working
fluid. After the some of its thermal energy is
transferred to the working fluid with a heat
exchanger, the water is sent back to the
reservoir through the injection wells where
it regains its thermal energy.

VI. What Are the Advantages of Geothermal Energy?

1. Geothermal Energy Sourcing Is Good for the

Environment
First and foremost, geothermal energy is
extracted from the earth without burning fossil
fuels, and geothermal fields produce
practically no emissions. What’s more,
geothermal energy can be very beneficial, as you
can achieve savings of up to 80% over
conventional energy usage.

2. Geothermal Is a Reliable Source of Renewable

Energy
Geothermal energy also has many advantages when
compared to other renewable sources like solar,
wind or biomass. It is an exceptionally constant
source of energy, meaning that it is not dependent
on neither wind nor sun, and available all year
long. When looking at the availability factor,
which shows how reliable and constant specific
energy sources are, geothermal is ranking on the
top (see the figure below), way above the other
groups, which supports the argument of
its independence on inconstant external
circumstances when delivering energy.

3. High Efficiency of Geothermal Systems

Geothermal heat pump systems use 25% to 50% less
electricity than conventional systems for heating
or cooling, and with their flexible design they can
be adjusted to different situations, requiring less
space for hardware as opposed to conventional
systems.

4. Little to No Geothermal System Maintenance

Due to the fact that geothermal systems only have
few movable parts which are sheltered inside a
building, the life span of geothermal heat pump
systems is relatively high. Heat pump pipes even have
warranties of between 25 and 50 years, while the
pump can usually last for at least 20 years.
VII. What are the Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy?

1. Environmental Concerns about Greenhouse

Emissions
Unfortunately, no matter its reputation of being
an environmentally friendly alternative energy
source, geothermal energy also causes some minor
concerns in regards to the environment.
The extraction of geothermal energy from the
grounds leads to a release of greenhouse
gases like hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide,
methane and ammonia. However, the amount of gas
released is significantly lower than in the case
of fossil fuels.

2. Possibility of Depletion of Geothermal Sources

Furthermore, despite being considered a
sustainable and renewable energy, the chances
are that specific locations might cool down after
time, making it impossible to harvest more
geothermal energy in future. The only non-
depletable option is sourcing geothermal
energy right from magma but the technology
for doing so is still in the process of
development. This option is worth the investment
mainly thanks to the fact that magma will be
around for billions of years.
 3. High Investment Costs for Geothermal System
Another disadvantage is the high initial cost for
individual households. The need for drilling and
installing quite a complex system into one’s home
makes the price climb quite high.
Nevertheless, the return on such investment is
very promising, being able to earn the investment
back within 2 to 10 years.

4. Land Requirements for Geothermal System to Be

Installed
In case of geothermal systems, having a piece of
land next to the house is required in order to be
able to install one. That makes geothermal
systems hard to be implemented for homeowners
in big cities, unless a vertical ground source heat
pump is used.
University of Cebu – Main Campus
Sanciangko St., Cebu City 6000
a.y. 2019

me elective 3
compilation of reports

(mwf 2:30 – 3:30)