Module II

Lecture 1
Some properties of the logical connectives in PL

1
 Let us choose and fix any tautology in the set F of all wffs of PL (over
some set P V of propositional variables) and denote it by >. So for every
tautology α, we have α ≡ >. Similarly, let us fix the notation ⊥ for a
contradiction.
Let us recall the following properties of the logical connectives ∧, ∨, ¬
that we mentioned in Section 4 of Lecture 3, Module I.

1. α ∧ β ≡ β ∧ α

2. α ∨ β ≡ β ∨ α

3. α ∧ (β ∧ γ) ≡ (α ∧ β) ∧ γ

4. α ∨ (β ∨ γ) ≡ (α ∨ β) ∨ γ

5. α ∧ (β ∨ γ) ≡ (α ∧ β) ∨ (α ∧ γ)

6. α ∨ (β ∧ γ) ≡ (α ∨ β) ∧ (α ∨ γ)

7. α ∧ > ≡ α

8. α ∨ > ≡ >

9. α ∧ ⊥ ≡ ⊥

10. α ∨ ⊥ ≡ α

11. ¬¬α ≡ α

12. ¬> ≡ ⊥

13. ¬⊥ ≡ >

14. ¬(α ∧ β) ≡ ¬α ∨ ¬β

15. ¬(α ∨ β) ≡ ¬α ∧ ¬β.

The above seem to indicate some familiar properties. For instance, 1-4
appear to refer to commutativity and associativity of the ‘operators’ ∧, ∨
in the set F, while 5-6 indicate distributivity of ∧, ∨ over each other. 11
indicates that ¬ has the property of involution, and the last pair says that
∧, ∨, ¬ satisfy the DeMorgan laws. The only catch is that the above are
not equations in F, but logical equivalences between wffs in F. Indeed, it
is incorrect to say, for example, that α ∧ β = β ∧ α, because that would
amount to asserting that, as strings, α ∧ β and β ∧ α are identical – which
is certainly not the case.
Can we turn all the above logical equivalences into equations in some
set? Indeed, we can.

2
1 Operators in the quotient set F/ ≡
Consider the quotient set F/ ≡ discussed in Section 4.1 of Lecture 3, Module
I. Define the following operators in F/ ≡. Let [α], [β] be any elements in
F/ ≡.

Definition 1.1.
(i) [α] ∧ [β] := [α ∧ β].
(ii) [α] ∨ [β] := [α ∨ β].
(iii) ¬[α] := [¬α].

Note. We have abused notation, using ∧, ∨, ¬ for the logical connectives as

well as the operators in F/ ≡. The context should make the usage clear.
Clearly, we need to ascertain that (i)-(iii) are well-defined. In other words,
we need to prove that

Exercise 1.1.
(i) [α] ∧ [β] = [α0 ] ∧ [β 0 ],
(ii) [α] ∨ [β] = [α0 ] ∨ [β 0 ],
(iii) ¬[α] = ¬[α0 ],
for any α0 ∈ [α], β 0 ∈ [β] (i.e. α ≡ α0 , β ≡ β 0 ).

We can now show that, all the logical equivalences listed at the beginning
of this section, translate into equations in the set F/ ≡. For instance,
[α] ∧ [β] = [β] ∧ [α], [α] ∧ [>] = [α], or ¬([α] ∧ [β]) = ¬[α] ∨ ¬[β]. This is left
as an exercise.
Moreover, as noted in Exercise 2.2 of Lecture 5, Module I, one can show
that (i) the equivalence class [>] is the set of exactly the tautologies, and
(ii) [⊥] is the set of exactly the contradictions.
Notation. We reserve the notation ‘1’ for [>], and ‘0’ for [⊥]. The reason
will be clear in the next lecture.

2 The equivalence relation ∼ on F

Recall the equivalence relation ∼ on F (cf. Lecture 12, Module I), defined
using the syntactical version of logical equivalence, viz.

α ∼ β if and only if ` α ↔ β,

for any wffs α, β in F. Observe that operators ∧, ∨, ¬ can be defined iden-

tically as in Definition 1.1, on the quotient set F/ ∼. That the operations
are well-defined, has to be proved here with the help of the properties of
`. Note that, here, the theorems of PL constitute an equivalence class in

3
F/ ∼. As observed in Corollary 0.5, Lecture 15, Module I, the quotient
sets F/ ≡ and F/ ∼ are identical, but nevertheless, ∼ allows us to take a
syntactic look at the equivalence classes of wffs, as opposed to the semantic
look imparted by ≡.
The above deliberations on F/ ≡ (or F/ ∼) appear to suggest an alge-
braic structure for the set. Let us investigate this now. We shall find that
F/ ≡ forms what is called a Boolean algebra, and we will finally be led to
an intimate connection between the class of all Boolean algebras, and PL.

4
 Module II
Lecture 2
Boolean algebras as lattices

1
 We begin with the definition of a Boolean algebra viewed as an ordered
structure. In the next lecture, we shall see that there is an alternate, equiv-
alent definition of a Boolean algebra, viewed as rings.
Recall that a partial order ≤ on a set B is a binary relation that is
reflexive (x ≤ x, x ∈ B), transitive (if x ≤ y and y ≤ z then x ≤ z,
x, y, z ∈ B) and antisymmetric (if x ≤ y and y ≤ x then x = y, x, y ∈ B).
(B, ≤) forms a lattice, provided
(a) (B, ≤) is a partially ordered set,
(b) any two elements x and y of B have a least upper bound x ∨ y and a
greatest lower bound x ∧ y.
We denote the lattice by the tuple (B, ≤, ∨, ∧).
If the operations ∧ and ∨ in the lattice distribute over each other, the lattice
is said to be distributive.
If there is a least element 0 and a greatest element 1 in a lattice, it is said
to be bounded, and moreover,
if every element x of a bounded lattice has a unique complement xc such
that x ∨ xc = 1 and x ∧ xc = 0, the lattice is called complemented.

Definition 0.1. (Boolean algebra) A Boolean algebra (B, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1)

is a complemented distributive lattice.

Example 0.1.

1. A prototypical example of a Boolean algebra (as will be substantiated

in the sequel), called the power set Boolean algebra, is provided by the
structure (P(U ), ∪, ∩,c , ∅, U ) on the power set P(U ) of any non-empty
set U . ∪ denotes the operation of union, ∩ that of intersection and c
that of complement in P(X).

2. Consider the set F/ ≡ with operations ∨, ∧, ¬ as in Definition 1.1, Lec-

ture 1, along with the distinguished elements 1 and 0 (cf. Notation at
the end of Section 1, Lecture 1). (F/ ≡, ∨, ∧, ¬, 0, 1) is a Boolean alge-
bra. Equivalently, we have the Boolean algebra (F/ ∼, ≤, ∨, ∧, ¬, 0, 1).
Observe that F/ ∼ forms a Boolean algebra with the operations ∧, ∨, ¬
as in Definition 1.1, Lecture 1, with theorems and contradictions of PL
constituting the classes 1 and 0 respectively, and all of this can be de-
rived directly – without any reference to logical equivalence, using the
properties of ` (cf. Section 2 of Lecture 1).
This algebra is called the Lindenbaum-Tarski algebra for PL.

3. We also have the Boolean algebra on the set 2:= {0, 1}, viz. the struc-
ture ({0, 1}, ≤, ∨, ∧, ¬, 0, 1), or equivalently, ({F, T }, ≤, ∨, ∧, ¬, F, T ),
where F, T are the two truth values in PL and ∨, ∧, ¬ are the opera-
tions defining the truth tables.

2
 In the last lecture of this module, we shall see that the Lindenbaum-
Tarski algebra and the Boolean algebra on 2 play an important role in
giving a close connection between PL and the class of all Boolean algebras.
Note. There is also the degenerate Boolean algebra over a singleton, but we
shall not consider it in this discourse.

Exercise 0.1. Prove that in each of the above examples, the structure
mentioned is indeed a Boolean algebra.

Some simple properties:

Exercise 0.2.
(i) The glb operation (∧) and lub operation (∨) are associative and
commutative.
(ii) x ∨ 0 = x, x ∧ 0 = 0, x ∨ 1 = 1, and x ∧ 1 = x.
(iii) Any non-empty finite subset {x1 , . . . , xk } of B has a glb and a
lub in B.
(iv) x ≤ y, u ≤ v imply x ∨ u ≤ y ∨ v as well as x ∧ u ≤ y ∧ v.

We now list some properties of the complement of any element in a

Boolean algebra.

Proposition 0.1.
(i) De Morgan’s laws: (x ∧ y)c = xc ∨ y c ; (x ∨ y)c = xc ∧ y c .
(ii) x ≤ y if and only if y c ≤ xc .
(iii) x ≤ y c if and only if x ∧ y = 0.

Proof. Proof is left as an exercise.

3
 Module II
Lecture 3
Boolean algebras as rings

1
 Let us give an alternative definition of a Boolean algebra, viewed as
rings.

Definition 0.1. A Boolean algebra is a structure (B, +, ∗, 0, 1) such that

(i) (B, +, 0) is a commutative group,
(ii) ∗ is an associative binary operation on B with 1 as identity ele-
ment, i.e. (B, ∗, 1) is a monoid,
(iii) ∗ distributes over +: x ∗ (y + z) = x ∗ y + x ∗ z, x, y, z ∈ B, and
(iv) x ∗ x = x, for all x ∈ B.

In other words, a Boolean algebra (B, +, ∗, 0, 1) is a ring with unity in which

the operation ∗ is idempotent.

Example 0.1.

1. Consider the set F/ ≡ again, with operation ∧ as in Definition 1.1,

Lecture 1, along with the distinguished elements 1 and 0 (cf. Notation
at the end of Section 1, Lecture 1). Define + on F/ ≡ as follows.

Definition 0.2. [α] + [β] := [¬(α ↔ β)] = [(α ∧ ¬β) ∨ (¬α ∧ β)].

(F/ ≡, +, ∧, 0, 1) is a Boolean algebra.

2. The power set P(U ) of any non-empty set U forms a Boolean alge-
bra in the above sense: consider (P(U ), ∆, ∩, ∅, U ), where ∩ denotes
intersection in P(X), while ∆ is the operation of symmetric difference:

X∆Y := (X ∩ Y c ) ∪ (X c ∩ Y ), X, Y ⊆ U.

3. An easy example again is the trivial Boolean algebra on 2, viz.

({0, 1}, +, ∧, 0, 1), where ∧ is the ‘minimum’ operation, and + is de-
fined as: 1 + 1 = 0 = 0 + 0, 1 + 0 = 1 = 0 + 1.

4. A related example is the ring of integers modulo 2, viz. the structure

(Z/2Z, +, ∗, 0, 1).

Exercise 0.1. Prove that in each of the above examples, the structure
mentioned is indeed a Boolean algebra.

With this definition, we obtain some immediate special properties of any

Boolean algebra (B, +, ∗, 0, 1).
Notation. To simplify notation, we shall write xy for x ∗ y, x2 for x ∗ x etc.

2
Proposition 0.1.
(i) Each element is its own additive inverse: x + x = 0, for any x ∈ B.
(ii) The operation ∗ is commutative: x ∗ y = y ∗ x, for any x, y ∈ B.
Proof. Using idempotence of ∗ and group properties, we get the following.
For any x, y ∈ B, (x + y)2 = x2 + xy + yx + y 2 . So x + y = x + xy + yx + y,
which means xy + yx = 0. Now putting y = 1 we get x + x = 0, giving (i).
But then for the element xy of B we have (xy) + (xy) = 0. Uniqueness of
inverse in a group gives xy = yx.

1 An order relation
We now define a binary relation ≤ on any Boolean algebra (B, +, ∗, 0, 1)
that turns out to be a partial order on B.
Definition 1.1. For any x and y in B, x ≤ y if and only if xy = x.
Exercise 1.1. ≤ is a partial order.
Observe that in the Boolean algebra (F/ ≡, +, ∧, 0, 1), ≤ means the
following relation:
[α] ≤ [β] if and only if [α ∧ β] = [α], which is if and only if |= α → β.
Proposition 1.1.
(i) 0 is the least element and 1 is the greatest element in B with
respect to the partial order ≤, i.e. 0 ≤ x, x ≤ 1, for all x ∈ B.
(ii) Any two elements x and y of B have a glb (greatest lower bound)
in B, viz. the element xy. The glb is denoted x ∧ y.
(iii) Any two elements x and y of B also have a lub (least upper
bound) in B, viz. x + y + xy. It is denoted x ∨ y.
Exercise 1.2.
(i) ∧ and ∨ distribute over each other.
(ii) x ≤ y, u ≤ v imply xu ≤ yv. However, this property does not
hold for +, i.e. there may be x, y, u, v (not necessarily distinct!) in a
Boolean algebra (B, +, ∗, 0, 1) such that x ≤ y, u ≤ v, but x+u 6≤ y+v.
Proposition 1.2. Every element x in a Boolean algebra (B, +, ∗, 0, 1) has
a unique complement in B, viz. an element xc such that x ∨ xc = 1 and
x ∧ xc = 0.
Proof. We check which element y in B satisfies the two properties of a
complement, and then prove its uniqueness.
So assume x ∨ y = x + y + xy = 1 and xy = 0. This gives x + y = 1, so that
y = 1 + x. It is also easy to see that x ∨ (1 + x) = 1 and x(1 + x) = 0.
Thus y = 1 + x is unique, and denoted xc .

3
2 Equivalence of the two definitions of a Boolean
algebra
We now observe that the lattice-based definition of a Boolean algebra given
in the previous lecture and the ring-based definition presented here are, in
fact, equivalent.

Theorem 2.1. Any Boolean algebra (B, +, ∗, 0, 1) as given by Definition

0.1 is a complemented distributive lattice.

Proof. We get the result from ≤ of Definition 1.1, Proposition 1.1, Exercise
1.2 and Proposition 1.2.

It is important to note that the converse of Theorem 2.1 also holds.

Theorem 2.2. Any complemented distributive lattice (B, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1)

forms a Boolean algebra (B, +, ∗, 0, 1) as given by Definition 0.1, such that
≤ coincides with the order relation as given by Definition 1.1 in the previous
section.

Proof. + and ∗ on the given lattice are defined for any x, y ∈ B as

x ∗ y := x ∧ y, and x + y := (x ∧ y c ) ∨ (xc ∧ y).

Verifications are left as an exercise.

In the following lectures, we may use either of the two definitions to

illustrate notions.

4
Module II
Lecture 4
Atoms

1
 We now proceed towards proving a representation theorem for the class of
Boolean algebras. For this, let us go through the basic notion and properties
of atoms in these structures.

Definition 0.1. (Atom) An element a in a Boolean algebra (B, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1)

is called an atom if and only if a 6= 0, and for all b ∈ B, if b ≤ a, then either
b = a or b = 0.
The Boolean algebra is said to be atomic if and only if for every a(6= 0) ∈ B,
there exists an atom b(∈ B) such that b ≤ a.
The algebra is atomless, if there are no atoms in it.

Example 0.1.

1. In the power set Boolean algebra of a set U , viz. (P(U ), ∪, ∩,c , ∅, U ),

the atoms are exactly the singletons. The algebra is clearly atomic.

2. Consider the Boolean algebra (F/ ≡, ≤, ∨, ∧, ¬, 0, 1), where P V :=

{p1 , . . . , pn }.
(a) For each n-tuple (ε1 , ε2 , ..., εn ) in {0, 1}n , [ 1≤i≤n εi pi ] is an
V
atom.
(b) Moreover, every atom in the algebra must be of this form.
So, for instance, if P V := {p1 , p2 }, the atoms of the correspond-
ing Boolean algebra (F/ ≡, ≤, ∨, ∧, ¬, 0, 1) are exactly the four
elements [p1 ∧ p2 ], [p1 ∧ ¬p2 ], [¬p1 ∧ p2 ], [¬p1 ∧ ¬p2 ].
(c) The algebra is atomic.

3. The Boolean algebra (F/ ≡, ≤, ∨, ∧, ¬, 0, 1), where P V is infinite, is

atomless.

Proof. 1 is obvious. For 2, note that we need to prove the following.

(a) For any (ε1 , ε2 , ..., εn ) ∈ {0, 1}n ,
V
(i) 1≤i≤n εi pi 6≡ ⊥;
V V
(ii) if α 6≡ ⊥ and |= α → 1≤i≤n εi pi then α ≡ 1≤i≤n εi pi .
These are left as exercises.
W V
(b) For any α 6≡ ⊥, we know that α ≡ (ε1 ,ε2 ,...,εn )∈X ( 1≤i≤n εi pi ),
the VCDNF of α (X is a non-empty subset of {0, 1}n ). Then
|= ( 1≤i≤n εi pi ) → α V
for each (ε1 , ε2 , ..., εn ) ∈ X. So if [α] is an atom,
it is clear that α ≡ 1≤i≤n εi pi , for each (ε1 , ε2 , ..., εn ) ∈ X. This
means that X must be a singleton.

W (b): any α 6≡V⊥ is logically equivalent to its CDNF,

(c) Similar to
of the form (εV 1 ,ε2 ,...,εn )∈X
( 1≤i≤n εi pi ), X a non-empty subset of
{0, 1}n . Then [ 1≤i≤n εi pi ], for each (ε1 , ε2 , ..., εn ) ∈ X, serves as
an atom below [α].

2
3 requires the following to be proved. For each wff α 6≡ ⊥, there is a wff β
such that (a) β 6≡ ⊥, (b) |= β → α, but (c) β 6≡ α. As α is a finite string,
it can only involve a finite number of propositional variables from P V . We
consider β := α ∧ p, where p ∈ P V does not occur in α. We have a choice
for p, as P V is infinite in this case. It is straightforward to verify (a)-(c) for
such a β.

Proposition 0.1. Every finite Boolean algebra is atomic.

Proof. Let a(6= 0) in a finite Boolean algebra (B, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1). If a is an

atom, we are done. Suppose a is not an atom. Then there is at least one
non-zero element of B strictly below a. This means that the set L(a) :=
{x ∈ B : 0 6= x ≤ a and x 6= a} is non-empty. But then finiteness of B
(and hence of L(a)) guarantees the existence of a minimal element, say m,
in L(a). m would serve as an atom below a.

Observe that we could use Proposition 0.1 to conclude that the algebra in
Example 0.1(2) above is atomic: we know that for finite P V , the quotient
set F/ ≡ is finite.
The following gives a special property of any atom in a Boolean algebra
(B, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1), and we shall use it in the next lecture, in the proof of the
representation theorem.

Exercise 0.1. If a is an atom, then for all x ∈ B, either a ≤ x or a ≤ xc .

3
 Module II
Lecture 5
Homomorphisms and
Representation Theorem for finite Boolean algebras

1
1 Homomorphisms
We now move to structure-preserving maps between Boolean algebras.
Definition 1.1. (Homomorphism) Consider the Boolean algebras B :=
(B, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1) and B 0 := (B 0 , ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1) and a map h from B to B 0 .
h is a homomorphism from B to B 0 if and only if for all x, y in B,
(i) h(x ∧ y) = h(x) ∧ h(y) and
(ii) h(xc ) = (h(x))c .
A homomorphism h is an isomorphism, if it is a bijection.
Note. We have used the same notation for the operations in B and B 0 . The
context should make the domain of the operations clear.
Exercise 1.1. For any homomorphism h from B to B 0 , prove that
h(x ∨ y) = h(x) ∨ h(y), h(0) = 0 and h(1) = 1.
Now suppose we begin with the ring-based definition of Boolean algebras
instead. What would be a characterization of homomorphisms?
Proposition 1.1. Consider a map h from B to B 0 , where B := (B, +, ∗, 0, 1)
and B 0 := (B 0 , +, ∗, 0, 1) are Boolean algebras. h is a homomorphism from
B to B 0 if and only if, for all elements x, y in B,
(i) h(x + y) = h(x) + h(y),
(ii) h(x ∗ y) = h(x) ∗ h(y), and
(iii) h(1) = 1.
Corollary 1.2. Prove that h(0) = 0.
It may be interesting to note that, in contrast, h(1) = 1 cannot be derived
from just (i) and (ii) of Proposition 1.1. Consider the power set Boolean
algebras of the sets N and Z of natural numbers and integers respectively,
and the inclusion map h from P(N ) into P(Z). h satisfies (i) and (ii), but
clearly not (iii).
Note. If we begin with the ring-based definition of Boolean algebras, a ho-
momorphism between two such Boolean algebras may be defined as a map
satisfying the conditions (i), (ii) and (iii) of Proposition 1.1.
Proposition 1.3. Let h be an onto map from B to B 0 , where B := (B, ≤,∨,
∧,c , 0, 1) and B 0 := (B 0 , ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1) are Boolean algebras.
h is an isomorphism from B to B 0 if and only if for all x, y ∈ B,

x ≤ y if and only if h(x) ≤ h(y). (∗)

The proofs of both the propositions are fairly routine.

Exercise 1.2. Let B and B 0 be isomorphic Boolean algebras. If one is
atomic, the other is also so; if one is atomless, the other is also so.

2
2 Representation theorem for finite Boolean alge-
bras
We now address representation results for Boolean algebras. These demon-
strate that the power set algebra is indeed a prototypical example of a
Boolean algebra. We prove the result for the finite case here.

Theorem 2.1. (Representation Theorem 1)

Every finite Boolean algebra is isomorphic to the power set Boolean algebra
of some set.

Proof. Let B := (B, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1) be a finite Boolean algebra. By Propo-

sition 0.1, Lecture 4, B is atomic. Let A be the set of its atoms. (A is non
empty...why?). We claim that B is isomorphic to the power set Boolean
algebra of A.
Define h : B −→ P(A) to map an element x of B to the set of atoms below
x. Formally, for each x ∈ B, h(x) := {a ∈ A : a ≤ x}.
By Proposition 1.3, it is enough to show that (i) h is onto, and (ii) h satisfies
the condition (∗) of the proposition.
(i) Observe that h(0) = ∅. Now consider (∅ = 6 )S := {a1 , a2 , ..., an } ⊆
A, and let x := a1 ∨ . . . ∨ an . Claim: h(x) = S.
S ⊆ h(x) follows from definition.
For proving h(x) ⊆ S, let a ∈ h(x), i.e. a ≤ a1 ∨ . . . ∨ an . We show
that a ≤ ai , for some i ∈ {1, . . . , n} (since a and ai are both atoms,
it would follow that a = ai ). Argue by contradiction: if a 6≤ ai for
all i ∈ {1, . . . , n}, then by Exercise 0.1, Lecture 4, a ≤ aci for all
i ∈ {1, . . . , n}. This would give a ≤ ac1 ∧ . . . ∧ acn = (a1 ∨ . . . ∨ an )c .
But then a = 0, a contradiction to the fact that a is an atom. Thus
a ∈ S.
(ii) For any x, y ∈ B, if x ≤ y, then it is clear that h(x) ⊆ h(y).
Conversely, let h(x) ⊆ h(y), x, y ∈ B. Suppose x 6≤ y. Then x∧y c 6= 0,
by Proposition 0.3 (iii), Lecture 3. As B is atomic, there is an atom
b ∈ A below x ∧ y c . b ≤ x implies that b ∈ h(x), while b ≤ y c implies
that b 6≤ y (as b 6= 0) – which means that b 6∈ h(y). So h(x) 6⊆ h(y).

Corollary 2.2. The cardinality of B, |B| = 2|A| . In other words, the

cardinality of any finite Boolean algebra is a power of 2.

So is every Boolean algebra isomorphic to some power set Boolean al-

gebra? A little thought will tell us that it cannot be the case: Exercise 1.2
would then entail that all Boolean algebras are atomic, as the power set
Boolean algebras are so. In the next lecture, we present the representation
theorem in the general case.

3
 Module II
Lecture 6
Stone’s Representation Theorem

1
 Before we address the representation theorem in the general case, let
us define a couple more of basic notions in Boolean algebras. Consider a
Boolean algebra B := (B, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1).
Definition 0.1. (Subalgebra) A subalgebra C := (C, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1) of B
consists of a subset C of B such that C forms a Boolean algebra with respect
to the same operations and least and top elements as in B.
Clearly, ({0, 1}, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1) and B itself, are trivial subalgebras of B. It
can be proved that a subset C of B forms a Boolean subalgebra of B, if and
only if C is closed under the operations c , ∧ and contains 0. An example
of a Boolean subalgebra of a power set Boolean algebra (P(U ), ∪, ∩,c , ∅, U )
with U infinite, is the one formed by the set of all finite and cofinite subsets
(i.e. those whose complements are finite) of U .
Definition 0.2. (Filter) Let F be a subset of B. F is a filter, if it satisfies
the following properties.
(i) F 6= ∅.
(ii) If a, b ∈ F then a ∧ b ∈ F .
(iii) If a ∈ F, a ≤ b then b ∈ F .
B is trivially a filter of itself. So we define F to be a proper filter, if it is a
proper subset of B or equivalently, if 0 does not belong to F .
F is a prime filter if it is proper and if a ∨ b ∈ F implies that either a or b
belongs to F .
By F (a), we denote the smallest filter in B that contains a, a ∈ B. It is
called the principal filter generated by a.
It can be shown that F (a) = {x ∈ B : a ≤ x}. If a 6= 0, F (a) is a proper
filter. Thus every element of a Boolean algebra gives rise to a (proper) filter.
Observe also that if F is a prime filter, then for any element a ∈ B, exactly
one of a and ac is in F .
We are now ready to present the Stone’s representation theorem – we
shall only give the main ideas of the proof. Two fundamental results about
filters in a Boolean algebra will be assumed.
(a) There is a prime filter containing any proper filter. In particular, there
is a prime filter containing F (a), for any a(6= 0) ∈ B.
(b) For any prime filter F , there is a homomorphism h : B −→ {0, 1} such
that F = {x ∈ B : h(x) = 1}.
Theorem 0.1. (Stone’s Representation Theorem) Every Boolean al-
gebra is isomorphic to a subalgebra of the power set Boolean algebra of some
set.
Proof. Consider the Boolean algebra 2 := ({0, 1}, ≤, ∨, ∧, ¬, 0, 1), and let
B := (B, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1) be any Boolean algebra. Let H(B) denote the set

2
of all homomorphisms from B to 2. Define a map H : B −→ P(H(B)) as
follows. For any b ∈ B,

H(b) := {h ∈ H(B) : h(b) = 1}.

Claim: For any a, b ∈ B, a ≤ b if and only if H(a) ⊆ H(b).
That H is one-one would follow from the claim, and using Proposition 1.2,
Lecture 5, it would also be established that H is an isomorphism between
the Boolean algebras B and H(B) (the latter a subalgebra of the power set
algebra of H(B)).
Proof of Claim: Let a ≤ b and h ∈ H(a). Then 1 = h(a) ≤ h(b), and so
h ∈ H(b).
Now suppose a 6≤ b. This means a ∧ bc 6= 0. Consider the filter F (a ∧ bc ) – it
is then a proper filter. Thus by result (a) assumed above, there is a prime
filter F0 containing F (a ∧ bc ). As a ∧ bc ∈ F0 , both a, bc ∈ F0 .
Now by result (b) assumed above, for F0 there is a homomorphism h0 :
B −→ {0, 1} such that F0 = {x ∈ B : h0 (x) = 1}. Finally, as a, bc ∈ F0 , we
have h0 (a) = 1, while h0 (b) = 0. Thus h0 ∈ H(a), but h0 6∈ H(b).

3
 Module II
Lecture 7
Completeness of PL with respect to the class of
Boolean algebras

1
 We have seen that 2 := ({0, 1}, ≤, ∨, ∧, ¬, 0, 1) or equivalently, ({F, T }, ≤
, ∨, ∧, ¬, F, T ), is an instance of a Boolean algebra. Moreover, for any set U ,
we know that the power set P(U ) is in bijection with the set 2U of all maps
from U to 2 := {0, 1}. One may extend the bijection to an isomorphism,
considering the power set Boolean algebra on U on the one hand, and on the
other, the Boolean algebra 2U := (2U , ≤, ∨, ∧, ¬, 0, 1). The operations in the
latter are induced by those in 2, e.g. for f, g : U −→ 2, f ∧ g is defined to
be a map in 2U such that (f ∧ g)(x) := f (x) ∧ g(x), x ∈ U , where ∧ on the
right hand side is the glb operation in 2. Given the representation theorems
presented in the previous lectures, 2 is therefore, a special Boolean algebra.
In this lecture, we shall see its importance from the standpoint of PL.
Recall the notion of semantic consequence |= in PL. A valuation is a
map from P V to 2 (equivalently, to {T, F }). 2 can now be replaced by any
Boolean algebra B, and we get the following generalized notion of semantic
consequence, with respect to the class B of all Boolean algebras.

Definition 0.1.
(i) A valuation in a Boolean algebra B := (B, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1) is a map
v : P V −→ B. We write v |=B α to mean v(α) = 1 in B, and say v is
a model for α in B.
(ii) A wff α is true in B if every valuation v in B is a model for α in
B. We write B |= α.
(iii) α is said to be valid in the class B of all Boolean algebras, if α is
true in every Boolean algebra B of B. We write |=B α.

Remark. 2 |= α simply asserts the validity of α in PL, i.e. |= α.

Now let us define another binary operation in a Boolean algebra B :=
(B, ≤, ∨, ∧,c , 0, 1).

Definition 0.2. For any x, y ∈ B, x → y := xc ∨ y.

Using this definition of →, one may easily verify the following for any a, b, c ∈
B.

Proposition 0.1.
(i) a → (b → a) = 1.
(ii) (a → (b → c)) → ((a → b) → (a → c)) = 1.
(iii) (bc → ac ) → (a → b) = 1.

Do the expressions on the left hand sides look familiar? Indeed, these look
like the axioms A1-A3 of PL. We have, in fact, arrived at one of the main
results of this lecture, viz. soundness of PL with respect to the class B of
all Boolean algebras.

2
Theorem 0.2. (Soundness) For any wff α, if ` α then |=B α.

Proof. The proof, strictly speaking, is by induction on the number of steps

of derivation of α. However, that essentially involves showing the following.
(a) The axioms A1-A3 are valid in B, and
(b) MP preserves validity in B, i.e. if |=B α, |=B α → β then |=B β.
(a) is proved by Proposition 0.1, and (b) is easy.

The converse of Theorem 0.2 also holds, and is a simple consequence of

the completeness theorem of PL.

Theorem 0.3. (Completeness) For any wff α, if |=B α then ` α.

Proof. Let |=B α. Then α is true in every Boolean algebra, and in particular,
in 2, i.e. 2 |= α. As observed in the remark after Definition 0.1, this simply
means |= α. By completeness of PL, we have ` α.

Can we get a direct completeness proof of PL with respect to B, without

the help of the completeness of PL with respect to 2? Yes, indeed. Recall the
Lindenbaum-Tarski algebra on the quotient set F/ ∼, discussed in Example
0.1(2) of Lecture 2. We use it to give the following alternative proof of
Theorem 0.3.

Proof. Alternative proof of Completeness :

Let |=B α. In particular, α is true in the Boolean algebra formed by F/ ∼,
i.e. all valuations v in F/ ∼ are models of α. Define the canonical valuation
v0 : P V −→ F/ ∼ as follows.

v0 (p) := [p],

for any p ∈ P V . One can then prove by induction on the number of con-
nectives in any wff β that
v0 (β) = [β].
As v0 is also a model of α, we thus get 1 = v0 (α) = [α], i.e. [α] is the class
of all PL theorems. In other words, ` α.