Electromagnetic Theory

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Electronics & Communication Engineering

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 Syllabus

Syllabus for Electromagnetic Theory

Elements of Vector Calculus, Divergence and Curl, Gauss and Stoke’s Theorems, Maxwell’s
Equations, Differential and Integral Forms. Wave Equation, Poynting Vector. Plane Waves,
Propagation Through Various Media, Reflection and Refraction, Phase and group Velocity, Skin
Depth. Transmission Lines, Characteristic Impedance, Impedance Transformation, Smith Chart,
Impedance Matching, S Parameters, Pulse Excitation. Waveguides, Modes in Rectangular
Waveguides, Boundary Conditions, Cut-Off Frequencies, Dispersion Relations. Basics of Propagation
in Dielectric Waveguide and Optical Fibers. Basics of Antennas, Dipole Antennas, Radiation Pattern,
Antenna Gain.

Analysis of GATE Papers

Year Percentage of Marks Overall Percentage

2015 8.70
2014 8.25
2013 5.00
2012 12.00
2011 9.00 8.862%
2010 7.00
2009 8.00
2008 8.00
2007 10.67
2006 12.00

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 Contents

Contents

Chapters Page No.

#1. Electromagnetic Field 1 – 43
 Introduction 1
 Operators 2–7
 Material and Physical Constants 7–8
 Electromagnetic (EM Field) 8–9
 Electric Field Intensity 9 – 12
 Electric Dipole 12 – 17
 Divergence of Current Density and Relaxation 18
 Boundary Conditions 19 – 21
 The Magnetic Vector Potential 21 – 25
 Faraday’s Law 25 – 27
 Maxwell’s Equation’s 27 – 28
 Solved Examples 28 – 34
 Assignment 1 35 – 37
 Assignment 2 37 – 38
 Answer Keys & Explanations 39 – 43

#2. EM Wave Propagation 44 – 71

 Introduction 44
 General Wave Equations 44 – 45
 Plane Wave in a Dielectric Medium 45 – 49
 Loss Tangent 49 – 54
 Wave Polarization 54 – 61
 Assignment 1 62 – 64
 Assignment 2 64 – 66
 Answer Keys & Explanations 67 – 71

#3. Transmission Lines 72 – 103

 Introduction 72 – 73
 Classification of Transmission Lines 73 – 77
 Transients on Transmission Lines 77 – 78
 Bounce Diagram 78 – 81
 Transmission & Reflection of Waves on a Transmission Line 81 – 82
 Impedance of a Transmission Line 83 – 88
 The Smith Chart 88 – 90
 Scattering Parameters 90 – 91

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 Contents

 Strip Line 91 – 93
 Balun 93 – 94
 Assignment 1 95 – 96
 Assignment 2 97 – 98
 Answer Keys & Explanations 99 – 103

#4. Guided E.M Waves 104 – 133

 Introduction 104
 Wave Guide 104
 Rectangular Wave Guide 105 – 107
 Transverse Magnetic (TM) Mode: (Hz = 0) 107 – 110
 Transverse Electric (TE) Mode: (Ez = 0) 110 – 115
 Non-Existence of TEM Waves in Wave Guides 116
 Circuter Wave Guide 116 – 117
 Cavity Resonators 117 – 119
 Optical Fiber 120 – 121
 Stub Matching Technique 121 – 122
 Solved Examples 122 – 127
 Assignment 1 128 – 129
 Assignment 2 129 – 130
 Answer Keys & Explanations 131 – 133

#5. Antennas 134 – 166

 Inroduction 134
 Hertzian Dipole 135 – 137
 Field Regions 137
 Antenna Characteristics 138 – 141
 Radiation Pattern 141 – 142
 Antenna Arrays 142 – 147
 Solved Examples 148 – 159
 Assignment 1 160 – 161
 Assignment 2 162 – 163
 Answer Keys & Explanations 163 – 166

Module Test 167 – 177

 Test Questions 167 – 172
 Answer Keys & Explanations 172 – 177

Reference Books 178

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 “Picture yourself vividly as winning and that
alone will contribute immeasurably to success."
…Harry Fosdick

Electromagnetic
1
CHAPTER

Field
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Elements of Vector Calculus
2. Operators, Curl, Divergence
3. Electromagnetic Coulombs’ law, Electric Field Intensity, Electric Dipole, Electric Flux Density
4. Gauss's Law, Electric Potential
5. Divergence of Current Density and Relaxation
6. Boundary Conditions
7. Biot-Savart’s Law, Ampere Circuit Law, Continuity Equation
8. Magnetic Vector Potential, Energy Density of Electric & Magnetic Fields, Stored Energy in
Inductance
9. Faraday’s Law, Motional EMF, Induced EMF Approach
10. Maxwell’s Equations

Introduction
Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), −∞ < x < ∞, −∞ < y < ∞, −∞ < z < ∞
Cylindrical coordinates (ρ , ϕ, z), 0 ≤ ρ < ∞, 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π, −∞ < z < ∞
Spherical coordinates (r, θ, ϕ ) , 0 ≤ r < ∞, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π
Other valid alternative range of θ and ϕ are-----
(i) 0 ≤ θ < 2π, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π
(ii) −π ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π
π
(iii) − ≤ θ ≤ π⁄2 , 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π
2
(iv) 0 < θ ≤ π, −π ≤ ϕ < π

Vector Calculus Formula

SL. No Cartesian Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates Spherical Coordinates

(a) Differential Displacement dl = dρaρ + ρdϕaϕ +dzaz dl = drar + rdθaθ + r sin
dl = dx ax + dy ay + dz az θdϕaϕ
(b) Differential Area dS = ρ dϕ dz aρ ds = r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ ar
dS = dy dz ax = d ρ dz aϕ = r sin θ dr dϕ aθ
= dx dz ay = ρdρd ϕ az = r dr dθ aϕ
= dx dy az
(c) Differential Volume dv = ρ dρ dϕ dz dv = r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ dr
dv = dx dy dz

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 Electromagnetic Field

Operators
1) ∇ V – Gradient, of a Scalar V
2) ∇ V – Divergence, of a Vector V
3) ∇ × V – Curl, of a Vector V
4) ∇2 V – Laplacian, of a Scalar V

DEL Operator:
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = ax + ay + a (Cartesian)
∂x ∂y ∂z z
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
= aρ + aϕ + a (Cylindrical)
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z z
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
= ar + aθ + a (Spherical)
∂r r ∂θ rsi n θ ∂ϕ ϕ

Gradient of a Scalar field

V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of maximum space rate of
increase of V.
∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = ax + ay + a For Cartisian Coordinates
∂x ∂y ∂z z
∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
= a + a + a For Spherical Coordinates
∂ρ ρ ρ ∂ϕ ϕ ∂z z
∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
= ar + aθ + a For Cylindrical Coordinates
∂r r ∂θ rsi n θ ∂ϕ ϕ
The following are the fundamental properties of the gradient of a scalar field V
1. The magnitude of ∇V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit distance.
2. ∇V points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V.
3. ∇V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that passes through that point.
4. If A = ∇V, V is said to be the scalar potential of A.
5. The projection of ∇V in the direction of a unit vector a is ∇V. a and is called the directional
derivative of V along a. This is the rate of change of V in direction of a.

Example: Find the Gradient of the following scalar fields:

(a) V = e−z sin 2x cosh y
(b) U = ρ2 z cos 2ϕ
(c) W = 10r sin2 θ cos ϕ
Solution:
∂V ∂V ∂V
(a) ∇V = ax + a + az
∂x ∂y y ∂z
= 2e−z cos 2x cosh y ax + e−z sin 2x sinh y ay − e−z sin 2x cosh y az
∂U 1 ∂U ∂U
(b) ∇U = a + a + az
∂ρ ρ ρ ∂ϕ ϕ ∂z
= 2ρz cos 2ϕ aρ − 2ρz sin 2ϕ aϕ + ρ2 cos 2 ϕ az
∂W 1 ∂W 1 ∂W
(c) ∇W = ar + aθ + aϕ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
= 10 sin2 θ cos ϕ ar + 10 sin 2θ cos ϕ aθ − 10 sin θ sinϕ aϕ

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 Electromagnetic Field

Divergence of a Vector
Statement: Divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume
shrinks about P.
Hence,
∮ A . ds
DivA = ∇. A = lim S … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
∆v→0 ∆v
Where, ∆v is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in which P is located. Physically, we may
regard the divergence of the vector field A at a given point as a measure of how much the field
diverges or emanates from that point.
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
∇. A = + Cartisian System
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ ∂Az P
= (ρAρ ) + + Cylindrical System
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ
= 2 (r Ar ) + (Aθ sin θ) + Sphearical System
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
From equation (1),

∮ A . dS = ∫ ∇ . A dv
S V
This is called divergence theorem which states that the total outward flux of the vector field A
through a closed surface S is same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.

Example: Determine the divergence of these vector field

(a) P = x 2 yzax + xzaz
(b) Q = ρ sin ϕ aρ + ρ2 zaϕ + z cos ϕ az
1
(c) T = cos θ ar + r sin θ cos ϕ aθ + cos θ aϕ
r2
Solution:
∂ ∂ ∂
(a) ∇. P = P + P + P
∂x x ∂y y ∂z z
∂ 2 ∂ ∂
= (x yz) + (0) + (xz)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2xyz + x
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
(b) ∇ . Q = (ρQ ρ ) + Qϕ + Qz
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 2 ∂
= (ρ sin ϕ) + (ρ z) + (z cos ϕ)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
= 2 sin ϕ + cos ϕ
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
(c) ∇. T = (r 2 Tr ) + (Tθ sin θ) + (Tϕ )
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
= 2
(cos θ) + (r sin 2 θ cos ϕ) + (cos θ)
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
1
=0+ 2r sin θ cos θ cos ϕ + 0
r sin θ
= 2 cos θ cos ϕ

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 Electromagnetic Field

Curl of a Vector
Curl of a Vector field provides the maximum value of the circulation of the field per unit area and
indicates the direction along which this maximum value occurs.
That is,
∮ A . dl
Curl A = ∇ × A = lim ( L ) an … … … … … … … . . (2)
ΔS→0 ∆S max
ax ay az
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×A= | |
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az
aρ ρaϕ az
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
= | |
ρ ∂ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
Aρ ρAϕ Az
aρ raθ r sin θ aϕ
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
= 2 || |
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ |
Ar rAθ r sin θ Aϕ
From equation (2) we may expect that

∮ A dl = ∫(∇ × A) . ds
L
S
This is called stoke’s theorem, which states that the circulation of a vector field A around a (closed)
path L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L, Provided
A and Δ × A are continuous no s.

Example: Determine the curl of each of the vector fields.

(a) P = x 2 yz ax + xzaz
(b) Q = ρ sin ϕaρ + ρ2 zaϕ + z cos ϕaz
1
(c) T = cos θ ar + r sinθ cos ϕaθ + cos ϕ aϕ
r2
Solution:
∂Pz ∂Py ∂Px ∂Pz ∂Py ∂Px
(a) ∇ × P = ( − ) ax + ( − ) ay + ( − )a
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y z
= (0 − 0)ax + (x 2 y − z)ay + (0 − x 2 z)az
= (x 2 y − z)ay − x 2 zaz

1 ∂Q z ∂Q ϕ ∂Q ρ ∂Q z 1 ∂ ∂Q ρ
(b) ∇ × Q = [ − ] aρ + [ − ] aϕ + [ (ρQ ϕ ) − ]a
ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ∂z ∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ∂ϕ z
−z 1
= ( sin ϕ − ρ2 ) aρ + (0 − 0)aϕ + (3ρ2 z − ρ cos ϕ)az
ρ ρ
1
= − (z sin ϕ + ρ3 )aρ + (3ρz − cos ϕ)az
ρ

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 Electromagnetic Field

1 ∂ ∂
(c) ∇ × T = [ (Tϕ sin θ) − T ]a
r sin θ ∂θ ∂ϕ θ r
1 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
+ [ Tr − (rTϕ )] aθ + [ (rTθ ) − Tr ] aϕ
r sin θ ∂ϕ ∂r r ∂r ∂θ
1 ∂ ∂
= [ (cos θ sin θ) − (r sin θ cos ϕ)] ar
r sin θ ∂θ ∂ϕ
1 1 ∂ (cos θ) ∂
+ [ − (r cos θ)] aθ
r sin θ ∂ϕ r 2 ∂r
1 ∂ 2 ∂ (cos θ)
+ [ (r sin θ cos ϕ) − ] aϕ
r ∂r ∂θ r 2
1 1
= (cos 2θ + r sin θ sin ϕ)ar + (0 − cos θ)aθ
r sin θ r
1 sin θ
+ (2r sin θ cos ϕ + 2 ) aϕ
r r
cos 2θ cos θ 1
=( + sin ϕ) ar − aθ + (2 cos ϕ + 3 ) sin θ aϕ
r sin θ r r

Laplacian
(a) Laplacian of a scalar field V, is the divergence of the gradient of V and is written as ∇2 V.
2
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇ V = 2 + 2 + 2 → For Cartisian Coordinates
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇2 V = (ρ ) + 2 2 + 2 → For Cylindrical Coordinates
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂2 V
= 2 (r 2 ) + 2 (sin θ ) + 2 → For Spherical Coordinates
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ2
If ∇2 V = 0, V is said to be harmonic in the region.
A vector field is solenoid if ∇.A = 0; it is irrotational or conservative if ∇ × A = 0
∇. (∇ × A) = 0
∇ × (∇V) = 0

̅
(b) Laplacian of Vector A
2⃗
∇ A = ⋯ is always a vector quantity
⃗ = (∇2 Ax )âx + (∇2 Ay )ây + (∇2 Az )âz
∇2 A
∇2 Ax → Scalar quantity
∇2 Ay → Scalar quantity
∇2 Az → Scalar quantity
−p
∇2 V = ........Poission’s E.q.
ϵ
∇2 V = 0 ........Laplace E.q.
∂E ⃗ ∂2 E
∇2 E = μσ + μE 2 . . . . . . . wave E. q.
∂t ∂t

Example: The potential (scalar) distribution in free space is given as V = 10y 4 + 20x 3 .
If ε0 : permittivity of free space what is the charge density ρ at the point (2,0)?

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 Electromagnetic Field

ρ
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: Poission’s Equation ∇2 V = −
ε
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 −ρ
( 2
+ 2
+ 2
) (10 y 4 + 20x 3 ) =
∂x ∂y ∂z ε0
∵ ε = εr ε0 [ε = ε0 as εr = 1]
−ρ
20 × 3 × 2x + 10 × 4 × 3y 2 =
ε0
−ρ
At pt(2, 10) ⇒ 20 × 3 × 2 × 2 = ρ = −240ε0
ε0

Example: Find the Laplacian of the following scalar fields

(a) V = e−z sin 2x cosh y
(b) U = ρ2 z cos 2ϕ
(c) W = 10r sin2 θ cos ϕ
Solution: The Laplacian in the Cartesian system can be found by taking the first derivative and later
the second derivative.
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
(a) ∇2 V = 2 + 2 + 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (2e−z cos 2x cosh y) + (e−z sin 2x sinh y) + (−e−z sin 2x cosh y)
∂x ∂y ∂z
−z −z −z
= −4e sin 2x cosh y + e sin 2x cosh y + e sin 2x cosh y
= −2e−z sin 2x cosh y
1 ∂ ∂U 1 ∂ 2 U ∂2 U
(b) ∇2 U = (ρ ) + 2 2 + 2
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ 1
= (2ρ2 z cos 2ϕ) − 2 4ρ2 z cos 2ϕ + 0
ρ ∂ρ ρ
= 4z cos 2ϕ − 4z cos 2ϕ
=0
1 ∂ ∂W 1 ∂ ∂W 1 ∂2 W
(c) ∇2 W = 2 (r 2 )+ 2 (sin θ )+ 2
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin2 θ ∂ϕ2
1 ∂ 2 2
1 ∂ 10r sin2 θ cos ϕ
= 2 (10 r sin θ cos ϕ) + 2 (10r sin 2θ sin θ cos ϕ) −
r ∂r r sinθ ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ
2
20 sin θ cos ϕ 20r cos 2θ sin θ cos ϕ 10r sin 2θ cos θ cos ϕ 10 cos ϕ
= + + −
r r 2 sin θ r 2 sin θ r
10 cos ϕ
= (2 sin2 θ + 2 cos 2θ + 2 cos 2 θ − 1)
r
10 cos ϕ
= (1 + 2 cos 2θ)
r

Stoke’s Theorem
Statement: Closed line integral of any vector ⃗A integrated over any closed curve C is always equal to
the surface integral of curl of vector ⃗A integrated over the surface area ‘s’ which is enclosed by the
closed curve ‘c’.

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