NUTRITIONAL STRATEGIES,

SUPPLEMENTATION AND RECOVERY

Scientific Director: Enrico Arcelli

 CONTENTS

Equipe Enervit: science and research for sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Glycemic index and glycemic load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Pre-exercise: nutritional strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Nutrition and supplementation during exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Muscle work and protein turnover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Omega-3 fatty acids and sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41


Equipe Enervit:
science and research
for sport
Equipe Enervit is a company active in the area
of scientific research applied to sport, developed
with the co-operation of researchers and experts
and with the support of Italian and foreign
universities.
For over thirty years Equipe Enervit has been
instrumental in developing diets and supple-
ments for athletes. The experience collected
“on the field” has stimulated a thorough
investigation of the problems of protein
and energy supplementation, thirst, free
radicals and recovery.
Equipe Enervit has divulged the scientific
knowledge resulting from the work of its
researchers, teaching many generation
of athletes how to have a correct diet
and providing useful guidance to all those who
4 5
cient to understand what really happens during and nutrient requirements of athletes can be
training or competitions, and this is why the met and they can achieve and maintain a perfect
constant contact with athletes is mandatory. physical condition. In addition, a rational diet
must restore the correct amount of substances
With this approach the frequently high energy whose lack could impair performance.
practice sport or simply have an active lifestyle.
The experts of Equipe Enervit are also actively
providing information on the most updated
dietary strategies to the benefit of all those
who wish to improve their health through
correct eating habits.
The purpose of this publication by Equipe
Enervit is to popularize information on the most
recent research findings in the fields of athletes’
nutrition and help those who practice sport
with guidelines for the most rational use
of food and supplements.
Nutrition applied to sport is a relatively recent
field of research and is rapidly growing
and evolving. New scientific investigation
is shedding light on how the bodies of athletes
react during or after physical exercise.
However, laboratory data are not always suffi-
 Table 1 grapes 48
-1- GLYCEMIC INDEX RANKING peas 49
Glycemic index and glycemic load chocolate 51
Very low: lower than 40 orange juice 54
Low: between 40 and 55 bananas 56
Medium: between 56 and 69 pasta 57
High: higher than 70 tea biscuits 58
boiled potatoes 59
white rice 60
It has been known for many years that carbohydrates the food being tested produces a blood sugar level Table 2 ice cream 63
can be classified based on their ability to determine elevation which is half the elevation produced GLYCEMIC INDEX VALUES short pastry biscuits 66
more or less marked blood glucose and insulin by glucose. (REFERENCE FOOD GLUCOSE) sugar 67
responses. Several scientific studies were published gnocchi 69
which introduced the concept of glycemic index (GI). broccoli, courgettes, fennels, salad, wheat white bread 73
This concept has many useful practical applications spinaches 15 honey 76
and its use in the classification of foods (in particular soybean 18 fried potatoes 78
those containing carbohydrates) is supported white yogurt 19 cream wafer cookies 80
by increasing scientific evidence. fructose 23 roast potatoes 88
Glycemic response
3 cherries 23 glucose 100
Glucose

GLICEMIC INDEX 2,5

5 S
Sucrose
pearl barley 23
Glycemic response

Fructose
2
The glycemic index is an expression of the power legumes 30 The glycemic index of a food is affected by
1,5
5

of a food to raise blood sugar levels after being 1

apricots 32 the type of carbohydrate it contains and also by
eaten. In a diagram showing blood sugar values 0,5
5 skimmed milk 34 other factors:
in the two hours following the ingestion of 50 g 0 pears 38
30 60 90
-0,5
5
of a test food, the area exceeding basal values Time (min) apples 39 • Cooking method (puffed rice has a higher
is calculated and compared with the area of ravioli 41 glycemic index than boiled rice, raw carrots
a standard food (usually glucose). See figure 1. Figure 1 - The diagram shows the increase of blood sugar levels peaches 44 have a lower glycemic index than cooked
(mmol/L) in time (minutes), after taking 50 g of glucose (blue
A glycemic index of 50, for instance, means that line), sucrose (red line) and fructose (green line) oranges 46 carrots);
6 7
 • Meal composition (presence of fats and
proteins in a food slows down digestion; as a
consequence carbohydrates contained in that
food are absorbed more slowly);
• Presence of fibres (water soluble fibres slow
down glucose absorption in the gut and can
maintain stable blood sugar levels for longer
periods).
Based on this evidence, people started
to realize the importance of glycemic index in
the nutrition of athletes, not only to produce
beneficial effects on weight and body composi-
tion, but also to achieve a better modulation
of energy metabolism during performance.
Low glycemic index foods, in particular before
competitions or training sessions, can promo-
te the burning of fats during physical exercise
thereby inducing glycogen saving.
The glycemic index alone is not enough
in calculating the blood sugar response.
Another parameter is even more important:
the glycemic load. The glycemic load (GL) does
not just take into account the quality
of carbohydrates (which is what glycemic
8 9
index does), it also includes their quantity.
GLICEMIC LOAD
The higher the density of carbohydrates in a
food, the stronger the blood sugar response
and the subsequent release of insulin.
Scientific investigations showed that
the glycemic index by itself does not allow us
to maintain optimal blood sugar levels after
meals. To meet this goal the overall quantity
of carbohydrates has to be taken into account.
The glycemic load is obtained multiplying
the quantity of carbohydrates in a food
by its glycemic index and dividing by 100:
GI x grams of carbohydrates in a food
GL = ---------------------------------------------
100
Anyway, the quantity, and not just the quality
of a given food item is defined, which in turn
identifies quantity and quality of carbohydrates
in each meal: glycemic load must be about 30.
A high glycemic load meal stimulates high
blood sugar levels after meals and subsequent
increase of blood insulin levels. For example
100 grams of pasta give a glycemic load
Glycemic index (GI): qualitative indicator of the effect that a certain amount of carbohydrate-
containing food has on blood sugar levels. In other words it identifies the extent of the blood
sugar response following the ingestion of a certain amount of food containing 50 g of available
carbohydrates.
Glycemic load (GL): quantitative indicator that can be obtained multiplying the glycemic index
by the quantity of carbohydrates in a food and dividing by 100. As a consequence the quantity,
and not just the quality of a given food item is defined, which in turn identifies quantity and
quality of carbohydrates in each meal (ideal value 30).
of 45,6; it is obtained multiplying pasta sugar derived from sugar beet and sugar cane.
glycemic index (57) by the quantity of carbohy- Similarly fructose is found in fruits, honey,
drates in 100 g of pasta (80 g) and dividing onions and chicory.
the result by 100. If you want to eat in Fructose is extremely soluble and has excep-
the same meal also 300 g of broccoli - GL 1,35 tional organoleptic properties. Its sweetening
(GI 15 x 9 g of carbohydrates / 100) and power is higher than sucrose and it also
an apple of 120 g -GL 4,7 (GI 39 x 12 grams enhances other flavours. Fructose is thought
of carbohydrates / 100), we must eat non more to be insulin-dependent. It promotes burning
of 40-45 g of pasta. of fats by muscle during exercise.
After ingestion, fructose empties from the
CARBOHYDRATES IN SPORTS stomach quickly but it is absorbed more slowly
Each carbohydrate used by athletes has its own in the gut compared with glucose and sucrose.
specificities. Fructose has a markedly lower glycemic
response than other simple sugars. Actually,
Fructose its glycemic index, 23, is the lowest among
Fructose is a natural product. Sucrose is the all simple sugars.
 Once it gets to the liver it is transformed into
glucose and stored in the form of liver glycogen,
an energy reserve that can be used during
physical exercise.
PROPERTIES OF FRUCTOSE
• Rapid gastric emptying
• Slow intestinal absorption and subsequently
more efficient use
• Low insulin response and subsequently better
use of free fatty acids (FFA) and, potentially,
muscle glycogen saving
• No “reactive hypoglycemia”
• Effective in liver glycogen resynthesis
• Low glycemic index (23).
Maltodextrins
Maltodextrins are glucose polymers. In other
words, they are variable length molecules
made up of a variable number of glucose mole-
cules: maltose (two glucose molecules),
trisaccharides (three molecules), tetrasaccha-
rides (four molecules) and polysaccharides
(higher molecular weight, made up of a higher
number of glucose molecules).
An important property associated with the
specific chemical structure of these nutrients
10
is the ability to exert a lower osmotic pressure
compared similar glucose solutions or simple
sugars. This means that when maltodextrins
are dissolved in water, the resulting drink
is less “thick” than what is obtained with other
sugars. Several scientific studies have shown
how this property is translated into a more
efficient use by the body.
PROPERTIES OF MALTODEXTRINS
• Low osmotic pressure
• Useful in maintaining adequate blood sugar
levels during exercise
• Can extend exhaustion time in prolonged
physical exercise
• Can induce saving of muscle glycogen
• High glycemic index (100, like glucose) thereby
promoting recovery after exercise. If mixed with
fructose, the glycemic index is lower.
• After physical exercise, faster replenishment
of muscle glycogen reserve compared with
other carbohydrates.
Glucose
Glucose is made of a single molecule (mono-
saccharide). It is by far the most common form
of simple carbohydrate which goes from bowel
to blood after digestion and it’s one of the most
important energy sources for the human body
and cells. Glucose is useful also in protein
synthesis and fat metabolism. Since cells
of the central nervous system are not able
to metabolize lipids, glucose is their main
source of energy.
After absorption in the gut, glucose enters
blood and part of it is immediately sent to brain
cells, whereas most of the remainder is stored
in the liver and in muscles. The stored form of
glucose resembles starch and is denominated
glycogen.
Glycogen is a fundamental energy source for
the body, in particular during physical exercise.
Because of its rapid absorption, glucose is one
of the simple sugars with the highest glycemic
index. Its value is normally set as 100 and it is
the standard against which all other carbohy-
drates are measured. The level of glucose
in tissues and blood is regulated by a few hor-
mones, in particular insulin and glucagon.
Other monosaccharides can be found in nature:
fructose (which has already been dealt with)
and galactose (which can be found in milk
sugar, i.e. lactose – a disaccharide made
of one molecule of glucose and one of galactose).
After gut absorption, fructose and galactose
reach the liver where they are converted into
glucose. The processing of these sugars
is such that the resulting glucose is released
by the liver very slowly. Their glycemic index,
therefore, is much lower than glucose.
Within cells the metabolic pathway to convert
glucose into simpler molecules to produce
energy in the form of adenosintriphosphate
(ATP) is called glycolysis. It is a chemical pro-
cess which leads to the transformation of each
single glucose molecule into two molecules
of pyruvic acid.
Sucrose
Sucrose is a disaccharide. This means that it is made
of two molecules: glucose and fructose. It is the
sugar normally used at home or in cafeterias and is
usually denominated simply sugar. In European
countries it is produced from sugar beet, in the rest
of the world from cane sugar. Its glycemic index
is medium-high (67).
Isomaltulose
Isomaltulose is a natural sugar, similar to
sucrose but less sweet and it is a natural
constituent of honey and cane sugar. Like
sucrose, isomaltulose is made of one molecule
11
 of fructose and one of glucose; but they are
joined by a different bond. The linkage in
isomaltulose is more resistant to digestion
and, consequently, its absorption is 20-25%
slower than glucose and fructose.
Isomaltulose has a low glycemic index and a
REFERENCES
Arcelli E., Mondazzi L.: New perspectives in the management
of athletic performance: the glycemic index . Science in Nutrition ,
First Int. Congress Proceedings, Rome, 2008.
Chen Y., Wong S.H., Xu X., Hao X., Wong C.K., Lam C.W.: Effect of
CHO loading patterns on running performance. Int J Sports Med.
29(7):598-606, 2008.
Halson S.L., Lancaster G.I., Achten J., Gleeson M., Jeukendrup A.E.:
Effects of carbohydrate supplementation on performance and car-
bohydrate oxidation after intensified cycling training performance.
J Appl Physiol 97:1245-1253, 2004.
Jentjens R., Underwood K., Achten, J., Jeukendrup A.E.: Exogenous
carbohydrates oxidation rates are elevated after combined ingestion
12
low osmolarity index compared with glucose
and fructose.
As shown by some scientific investigations,
during prolonged effort, isomaltulose supplies
energy for a longer period and promotes more
fat burning than sucrose.
of glucose and fructose during exercise in the heat. J Appl Physiol
100: 807-816, 2006.
Monro J.A., Shaw M.: Glycemic impact, glycemic glucose equivalents,
glycemic index, and glycemic load: definitions, distinctions,
and implications. Am J Clin Nutr. 87(1):237S-243S, 2008.
Trenell M.I., Stevenson E., Stockmann K., Brand-Miller J.: Effect of
high and low glycaemic index recovery diets on intramuscular lipid
oxidation during aerobic exercise. Br J Nutr. 99(2):326-32, 2008.
Wu C.L., Williams C.: A low glycemic index meal before exercise
improves endurance running capacity in men. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc
Metab.16(5):510-27, 2006.
-2-
Pre-exercise
nutritional strategies
The purpose of nutritional strategies prior to any
sport activity is to optimise the availability
of carbohydrates and water reserves.
The ingestion of carbohydrates 3-4 hours before
physical exercise can result in an increase in
the levels of glycogen in the liver and muscles,
and it is associated with an improvement
of endurance exercise performance.
However, the increased insulin plasma levels
resulting from the ingestion of carbohydrates, particu-
larly those with a high glycemic index, in the last hour
before beginning to exercise inhibit lipolysis and the
release of glucose into the bloodstream by the liver.
As regards body hydration, it is difficult for many
athletes to start physical exercise with the proper
amount of water in their bodies.
ENERGY INTAKE
The ingestion of food with low glycemic index
(GI), or preferably the exclusion of food with
high GI from the meals taken just prior to a
sport activity can enhance the oxidation of fatty
acids during exercise.
The use of fatty acids by muscles seems to
induce a sparing of glycogen which will the-
refore be available for a longer period during
exercise, increasing the athlete’s resistance or
his/her performance intensity in the final
phase. In addition, a careful intake of carbohy-
drates with low glycemic index in the hours
preceding exercise can reduce the risk
of reactive hypoglycemia during the initial
period of exercise.
All these events are driven by the modulation
of insulin release, which is increased by the
ingestion of food with high GI and inhibits the
release of free fatty acids by adipose tissue
with a consequent shortage of them for muscle
13
 energy metabolism. Experiments have provi-
ded large evidence suggesting an association
of low glycemic index carbohydrates in the
diet, higher plasma concentration of free fatty
acids and their greater degree of oxidation
in muscles during physical exercise.
A pre-competition nutritional strategy based
on a low glycemic index diet and a limitation
of insulin release can be useful only in sport
disciplines involving a depletion of muscle
glycogen, with the intensity of exercise being,
at least during part of the exercise, compatible
with the use of fats for energy purposes
and therefore implying heart rates below
the anaerobic threshold.
When the threshold is exceeded the rate
of lipids use for energy production drops
rapidly leaving no alternative to the consumption
of carbohydrates, and particularly glycogen.
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
There is a large amount of scientific literature
providing evidence of the advantage of a diet
involving the ingestion of low glycemic index
meals or carbohydrates before starting
a prolonged exercise.
14
A study by De Marco et al. (1999) published
by the Department of Nutrition of the University
of San Josè, California, showed that the meal
taken by 10 highly-trained cyclists 30 minutes
before a training session (2 hours at 70%
of maximum oxygen consumption and then
at 100% until exhaustion) can improve the top
performance in a demanding exercise session.
At the end of the session, plasma glucose levels
were higher and effort perception was signifi-
cantly lower with low glycemic index than with
high glycemic index meals. Time to exhaustion
was also significantly longer (59% longer) with
the low glycemic index meal (206.5 ±43.5 s vs.
129.5 ±22.8 s).
Research by the Department of Sport, Health
and Exercise Science of the University of Hull
(Moore et al., 2009) evaluated the effects of high
and low glycemic index meals ingested 45
minutes prior to a 40 km training session on the
metabolism and subsequent performance in
endurance exercise of 10 cyclists. Both meals
included 1 gram of carbohydrates per kg of body
weight. Time to complete the exercise was
significantly shorter for the low glycemic index
carbohydrates group (93±8 min) than for the high
glycemic index carbohydrates group (96±7 min).
Similarly, the former group of athletes
also showed a higher level of carbohydrates
oxidation.
Thus, a low GI meal may increase both the avai-
lability and oxidation of carbohydrates and the
amount of energy produced throughout the
exercise session. An improvement of time
performance during the trial was also reported.
PROTEIN INGESTION BEFORE
PHYSICAL EXERCISE
Prior to a training session aimed at increasing
muscle strength and/or mass a different diet
is advisable.
In general, the growth of muscle fibers
is enhanced by intensive resistance training
associated with availability of essential amino
acids. This is due to two constant parallel
processes: protein synthesis and degradation.
The balance of these two processes can
enhance muscle growth only if the rate
of synthesis exceeds that of degradation.
In addition, the two processes are stimulated
by different dietary components. Resistance
training stimulates the release of hormones
with anabolic effects, such as IGF-1, and
enhances the signaling of mTOR, a protein that
stimulates protein synthesis. Especially during
exercise, the concomitant ingestion of amino
acids has a synergistic effect since they also
act on IGF-1 and mTOR.
Both protein synthesis and degradation
are influenced by essential amino acids plasma
concentration but not by the presence of non
essential amino acids. The key factor, however,
is the timing of essential amino acid availabi-
lity. Protein synthesis is enhanced by a high
level of essential amino acids in plasma, that is
by a sharp increase in their concentration.
Such peak has a low capacity to inhibit degra-
dation (Boirie et al., 1997). Conversely,
a moderate but prolonged concentration rise
inhibits protein degradation with no impact
on synthesis (Dangin et al., 2001). Obviously,
both rapid absorption and slow release amino
acid sources are useful in different moments.
Evidence from scientific research on protein
ingestion before exercise seems to suggest
that exercise-induced muscle hypertrophy may
be facilitated by the pre-exercise ingestion of a
supplement with the following characteristics:
- high content of essential amino acids;
- high content of leucine;
- fast absorption rate.
15
 Research by the University of Texas (Tipton
et al., 2001) showed that a combination
of carbohydrates and a relatively low dose
(6 g) of pure essential amino acids in a rapid
assimilation vehicle led to a more significant
increase of protein synthesis when they were
ingested just prior to muscle exercise
than immediately after the end of the training
session.
Tipton et al. (2001) suggested the following
explanation: the significant increase of blood
flow to the muscle during exercise might induce
a temporary increase in the use of essential
amino acids for protein synthesis if they become
available to muscle fibers with the right timing.
Tipton’s experiment showed that what matters
is not only the presence of amino acids
in blood but also the pattern of transfer
of essential amino acids from blood to muscle
fibers, which is transiently improved during
exercise.
HOW CAN PROTEINS BECOME AVAILABLE
IN SUCH A SHORT TIME
As protein digestion leads to their breakdown,
followed by absorption of the resulting “frag-
ments”, protein hydrolisation, i.e. their “pre-
digestion”, through an industrial process
16
mimicking the natural one results in a source
of proteins with a faster assimilation rate.
Theoretically, absorption rate should be
increased by the administration of free amino
acids, i.e. the equivalent of proteins that have
already been fully broken down into amino
acids, but some scientific investigations have
documented that this does not happen. The
natural protein digestion process is not com-
plete, and a mixture of free amino acids, dipep-
tides and tripeptides are found in the intestine
(Silk et al., 2008). These three elements can be
entirely absorbed as such, whereas peptides
composed of 4 or more amino acids can only
cross the intestinal epithelium in very specific
conditions. Research has shown that mixtures
of tripeptides, peptides and single amino acids
are absorbed more efficiently than mixtures
of free amino acids only. (Silk et al., 2008 ;
Matthews, 1972)
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS ARE NOT ALL ALIKE.
THE SPECIAL ROLE OF LEUCINE
Being a component of muscle tissue, each
essential amino acid has a role in protein
synthesis. However, leucine seems to play
other roles in addition to being one “building
block” of muscle protein. Recent research sug-
Protein synthesis in muscles
25
21
percentage %
20
15
11
10
8
5
0
before after after 1 h
Figure 1 - rate of protein synthesis in muscles after ingestion
of 6 grams of essential amino acids together with a solution of
35 grams of sucrose in 500 ml of water, before and after exercise.
From: Tipton et al., (2001), modified.
gested that in conjunction with other factors
leucine could play a key role in triggering off
protein synthesis, thus initiating an intracellular
biochemical process which then involves
other essential amino acids as “building
blocks” of muscle protein. Apparently, leucine
can stimulate protein synthesis by acting
on mTOR (Koopman et al., 2008). We could
say that leucine is not only a building block
but acts as a real “master-builder” (Garlick,
2005; Dreyer et al., 2008).
PRE-EXERCISE NUTRIENTS INGESTION
We need to remember the following:
1. The amount of glycogen available in the body
is limited and is influenced by nutritional
state and by exercise level and intensity.
Endogenous glycogen stores during moderate
to high intensity exercise (65 - 85%
17 of maximum oxygen consumption) can
last from 90 to 180 minutes (Tarnopolsky
et al., 2005).
after 3 h
2. Exercise intensity, rate and amount decrease
with glycogen depletion (Coyle et al., 1985)
which is associated with the increased
catabolism of muscle tissue and the decreased
activity of the immune system (Gleeson
et al., 2004).
3. When exercise is performed to increase
muscle mass and/or strength, pre-exercise
ingestion of essential amino acids alone
or proteins alone increases protein synthesis
in muscle tissue. In addition, pre-exercise inge-
stion of proteins and carbohydrates has been
shown to induce a significantly higher degree
of muscle protein synthesis. (Tipton et al., 2001).
4. In comparison with carbohydrates alone,
regular intake of different protein sources
in combination with carbohydrates promotes
a greater increase of strength and improves
body composition (Cribb et al., 2006).
17
 GLOSSARY
IGF-1: IGF stands for insulin-like growth factor,
a hormone with anabolic effects.
mTOR: acronym for mammalian Target Of
Rapamycin. It is an enzyme activated by exercise
18
and amino acids, particularly leucine
Leucine: essential amino acid, that must necessarily
be provided as such with the diet. Together with
isoleucine and valine it makes up the group
of branched-chain amino acids.
REFERENCES
Boirie Y., Dangin M. et al.: Slow and fast dietary proteins differently
modulate postprandial protein accretion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
Vol. 94, pp. 14930–14935, December 1997.
Coyle E.F., Coggan A.R., Hemmert M.K., Lowe R.C., Walters T.J.:
Substrate usage during prolonged exercise following a preexercise
meal. J Appl Physiol 59:429-433, 1985.
Cribb P.J., Hayes A.: Effects of supplement timing and resistance
exercise on skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Med Sci Sports Exerc
38:1918-1925, 2006.
Dangin M., Boirie Y. et al.: The digestion rate of protein is an inde-
pendent regulating factor of postprandial protein retention. Am J
Physiol Endocrinol Metab 280: E340–E348, 2001.
Dreyer H.C., Drummond M.J., Pennings B., Fujita S., Glynn E.L.,
Chinkes D.L., Dhanani S., Volpi E., Rasmussen B.B.: Leucine-enriched
essential amino acid and carbohydrate ingestion following resistance
exercise enhances mTOR signaling and protein synthesis in human
muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 294(2): E392-400, 2008.
Drummond M.J., Rasmussen B.B.: Leucine-enriched nutrients and
the regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin signalling and
human skeletal muscle protein synthesis. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab
Care 11(3): 222-226, 2008.
Garlick P.J.: The role of leucine in the regulation of protein metabo-
lism. J Nutr 135: 1553S–1556S, 2005.
Gleeson M, Nieman DC, Pedersen BK: Exercise, nutrition and immu-
ne function. J Sports Sci. 22:115-125, 2004.
Hargreaves M., Hawley J.A., Jeukendrup A.: Pre-exercise carbohy-
drate and fat ingestion: effects on metabolism and performance.
J Sport Sci. 22(1):31-8, 2004.
Hargreaves M.: Pre-exercise nutritional strategies: effects on
metabolism and performance.
Can J Appl Physiol 26 Suppl:S64-70, 2001.
Koopman R., Wagenmakers A.J., Manders R.J., Zorenc A.H., Senden
J.M., Gorselink M., Keizer H.A., van Loon L.J.: Combined ingestion of
protein and free leucine with carbohydrate increases postexercise
muscle protein synthesis in vivo in male subjects. Am J Physiol
Endocrinol Metab, 288(4): E645-653, 2008.
Matthews D.M.: Intestinal absorption of amino acids and peptides.
Proc Nutr Soc,3 1, 171, 1972.
Moore L.J., Midgley A.W., Thurlow S., Thomas G., Mc Naughton L.R.:
Effect of the glycaemic index of a pre-exercise meal on metabolism
and cycling time trial performance. J Sci Med Sport. Feb 19, 2009.
Rasmussen B.B., Tipton K.D., Miller S.L., Wolf S.E., Wolfe R.R.: An
oral essential amino acid-carbohydrate supplement enhances
muscle protein anabolism after resistance exercise. J. Appl.
Physiol., 88(2): 386-392, 2000.
Silk B.A., Clark M.L. et al.: Jejunal absorption of an amino acid
mixture simulating casein and an enzymic hydrolysate of casein
prepared for oral administration to normal adults. Br J Nutr, 33, 95,
2008.
Tarnopolsky M.A., Gibala M., Jeukendrup A.E., Phillips S.M.:
Nutritional needs of elite endurance athletes. Part I: Carbohydrate
and fluid requirements. Eur J Sport Sci 5:3-14, 2005.
Tipton K.D., Rasmussen B.B., Miller S.L., Wolf S.E., Owens-Stovall
S.K., Petrini B.E., Wolfe R.R.: Timing of amino acid-carbohydrate
ingestion alters anabolic response of muscle to resistance exercise.
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 281:E197-E206, 2001.
19

-3-
Nutrition and supplementation
during exercise
During exercise, muscles can draw energy mostly
from three sources:
(a) glycogen, especially the amount contained
in muscles;
(b) endogenous fats, present in muscles or
conveyed by adipocytes through the blood flow;
(c) exogenous carbohydrate provided by supple-
mentation during exercise.
Since in many sport disciplines of medium-long
duration (especially cyclic disciplines but also
team sports) performance worsens when muscle
glycogen stores become depleted (Costill, 1971;
Kustrup et al., 2006), exercise must be started
when muscles are storing much glycogen while
maximising the utilisation of endogenous fat and
carbohydrates ingested during exercise.
20
HOW TO SPARE MUSCLE GLYCOGEN
The glycemic index (GI) of carbohydrates inge-
sted in the pre-exercise phase influences
the utilisation of endogenous fat by muscles
during exercise. High GI carbohydrates result
in an increase of blood glucose and insulin
levels (Wu and Williams, 2006; Febbraio et al.,
2000) with the consequent increase in blood
glucose consumption leading to a state
of hypoglycemia and especially limiting
the consumption of fat by muscles. Conversely,
the intake of low GI carbohydrates prior
to exercise will result in increased endogenous
fat consumption and consequent sparing
of muscle glycogen (Mondazzi and Arcelli,
2009); this is particularly significant in the
initial phase of exercise and when its intensity
is below the anaerobic threshold.
In order to spare glycogen in high-intensity
exercise, and particularly during competition
when some amount of it must be available
in its final phase, the utilisation of the carbohy-
drates ingested during exercise must be maxi-
mised. Unlike at rest, during exercise carbohy-
drate feeding does not increase blood insulin
levels (Coyle et al., 1986; Hargreaves et al., 1984;
Jeukendrup, 2004) Consequently, the ingestion
of high glycemic index carbohydrates (which
have a rapid absorption rate) has no unfavou-
rable impact in terms of fat utilisation. This is
a major advantage considering that during
cycling exogenous carbohydrate oxidation rate
is not influenced by the time of their perma-
nence in the stomach or by the muscle capacity
to extract carbohydrates from blood, but
is mostly limited by their absorption in the
intestine (Jeukendrup and Jentjens, 2000).
It must be noted that during exercise there
is a reduction of the intestinal blood flow and
consequent capacity to assimilate nutrients,
including carbohydrates.
THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF CARBOHYDRATES
TO TAKE DURING EXERCISE
As noted above, during exercise high GI carbohy-
drates are the first choice. They can be either glu-
cose or its polymers, i.e. maltodextrins, which
originate glucose molecules during digestion.
Jeukendrup (2008) claims that during exercise
the ingestion of these carbohydrates can lead
to an oxidation rate of up to 1 g of exogenous
carbohydrates per minute. This level cannot
be exceeded as this is the maximum amount of
glucose that can be absorbed. In fact, this molecule
crosses the intestinal wall via carriers that are
saturated when the amount of carbohydrates
ingested reaches 1g/min.
However, fructose uses a different carrier
(Ferraris e Diamond, 1997) and this can be turned
to our advantage. When the glucose carrier
is saturated the fructose carrier can still be active
and working, leading to the absorption of
a certain amount of this monosaccharide. The
amount is somewhat lower than that transported
by the other carrier but it is, at any rate, added
to the previous value. Therefore, simultaneous
ingestion of glucose (or maltodextrins) and
fructose can increase oxidation of exogenous
carbohydrates to a maximum of 1.75 g/min.
(Jeukendrup, 2008).
The quantity of and ratio between these two
carbohydrates must be carefully selected. Their
21

Absorption of carbohydrates
intestine intestinal
blood
wall
Glucose Fructose
Figure 1 - Monosaccharide transit across the intestinal wall via
carriers. Glucose molecule carriers (represented as small hexa-
gons in the figure above) account for a maximum transit of 1
g/min; fructose carriers (represented as small pentagons) are
slightly less powerful, but the two types of carriers can jointly
allow the blood to receive more sugar than it would receive with
the ingestion of glucose alone or of such molecules as malto-
dextrins which originate glucose through digestion.
quantity must reach (or preferably slightly
exceed) the maximum absorbable amount.
In fact, a high amount of carbohydrates, espe-
cially fructose, remaining in the digestive tract
could cause gastro-intestinal complaints to ath-
letes. A review of scientific literature (Jentjens and
Jeukendrup, 2005; Jeukendrup, 2008) suggests
that intake should not exceed 1.2 g/min for
glucose and approx. 0.9 g/min for fructose,
totalling 2.1 g/min total carbohydrates. Through
a proper combination of fructose and glucose
(or maltodextrins) a 1.7 g/min carbohydrate
oxidation can be achieved.
22
Taking such a high amount of carbohydrates
is a rather demanding practice requiring a com-
bination of beverages and/or gel and/or syrups
and/or tablets.
For a number of reasons, such polymers
as maltodextrins are preferable to glucose
as such. They are less sweet and therefore more
palatable for athletes who have to ingest high
amounts of them during long-lasting competi-
tions. In addition, weight and caloric intake
being the same, beverages containing malto-
dextrins have lower osmolarity.
Finally, the research that has provided the data
reported was made on subjects who were
cycling, either in a laboratory (using a cycle
ergometer) or on a road (using a racing bicycle).
Practice suggests that the same levels of
carbohydrates cannot be taken in by those who
run. Each individual runner must select, during
training sessions, the correct quantity and
quality of products that their bodies can tolerate
CONCLUSIONS
The final message is that in order to spare muscle
glycogen and guarantee that a larger amount of it
is available in the final stage of competition, for
the same intensity of effort made in the initial of different carbohydrates ingested must be well
stage, low glycemic index carbohydrates must be balanced. Considering their maximum absorp-
ingested prior to exercise to favour consumption tion capacity the ideal quantities should be 0.9
of endogenous fat, especially in the first phase g/min. for fructose and 1.2 g/min for glucose
of the competition. (or maltodextrins);
During exercise the right mixture of carbohydra- • In order to maximise intestinal absorption and
tes must be chosen to optimise their oxidation by the resulting use of exogenous carbohydrates
muscles. Research made in recent years has by muscles without the side effects of intestinal
shown that: complaints, the amount of carbohydrates inge-
sted should not exceed 2.1 g/min.;
• The amount of carbohydrates used by muscles
depends essentially on the amount absorbed • Maltodextrins may be preferable to glucose as
in the intestine; they are less sweet and guarantee lower osmo-
larity of beverages.
• After the ingestion of glucose or carbohydrates
such as maltodextrins which supply glucose
molecules after digestion, the maximum rate
of carbohydrate oxidation by muscles is
1 g/min.;
• Since fructose and glucose use different carriers
in the intestine, a joint ingestion of fructose
and glucose (or maltodextrins) can increase
carbohydrate absorption and their rate of
oxidation by muscles to 1.7 g/min.;
• In order to maximise this advantage the amount
23
 REFERENCES
Coyle E.F., Coggan A.R., Hemmert M.K., Ivy J.L.: Muscle glycogen
utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohy-
drate. J. Appl. Physiol., 61: 165-172, 1986.
-4-
Wallis G.A., Rowlands D.S., Shaw C., Jentjens R.L., Jeukendrup A.E.:
Oxidation of combined ingestion of maltodextrins and fructose
Recovery
during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc.37(3):426-32, 2005.

Costill D.L., Bowers R., Branam G., Sparks K.: Muscle glycogen uti- Jentjens R.L., Shaw C., Birtles T., Waring R.H., Harding L.K.,
lization during prolonged exercise on successive days. J. Appl. Jeukendrup A.E.: Oxidation of combined ingestion of glucose and
Physiol., 31: 834-838, 1971. sucrose during exercise. Metabolism. 54(5):610-8, 2005.

Febbraio M.A., Keenan J., Angus D.J., Campbell S.E., Garnham A.P.:
Pre-exercise carbohydrate ingestion, glucose kinetics, and muscle
glycogen use: effect of the glycaemic index. J. Appl. Physiol., 89:
1845-1851, 2000.
Ferraris R.P., Diamond J.: Regulation of sugar transport. Physiol.
Rev., 77: 257-302, 1997.
Hargreaves M., Costil D.L., Coggan A., Fink W.J., Nishibata I.: Effect
of carbohydrate feeding on muscle glycogen utilization and exercise
performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 16: 219-222, 1984.
Jentjens R.L., Moseley L., Waring R.H., Harding L.K., Jeukendrup
A.E.: Oxidation of combined ingestion of glucose and fructose during
exercise. J Appl Physiol.;96(4):1277-84, 2004.
Jentjens R.L., Venables M.C., Jeukendrup A.E.: Oxidation of exoge-
nous glucose, sucrose and maltose during prolonged cycling exerci-
se. J Appl Physiol. 96(4):1285-91, 2004.
Jentjens R.L., Achten J., Jeukendrup A.E.: High oxidation rates from
combined carbohydrates ingested during exercise. Med Sci Sports
Exerc. 36(9):1551-8, 2004.
24
Jentjens R., Jeukendrup A.E.: High rates of exogenous carbohydra-
te oxidation from a mixture of glucose and fructose ingested during
prolonged cycling exercise. Br. J. Nutr.: 93(4): 485-492, 2005.
Jeukendrup A.E.: Carbohydrate intake during exercise and perfor-
mance. Nutrition, 20: 669-677, 2004.
Jeukendrup A.E., Jentjens R.: Oxidation of carbohydrate feedings
during prolonged exercise: current thoughts, guidelines and direc-
tions for future research. Sports Med., 29(6): 407-424, 2000.
Krustrup P., Mohr M., Steensberg A., Bencke J., Kjaer M., Bangsbo
J.: Muscle and blood metabolites during a soccer game: implications
for sprint performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 38(6): 1165-1174,
2006.
Mondazzi L., Arcelli E.: Glycaemic index in sport nutrition. J. Am.
Coll. Nutr., in press, 2009.
Wu C.L., Williams C.: A low glycaemic index meal before exercise
improves endurance running capacity in men. Int. J. Sport Nutr.
Exer. Metab., 16: 510-527, 2006.
Can a proper nutritional strategy promote
athletes’ recovery?
There are various reasons to believe that this
can be the case. Before dealing with this issue,
however, attention should be given to the term
“recovery” because it can have different mea-
nings (Table 1). It can mean that heart rate
returns to rest values immediately after exer-
tion. Alternatively, “recovery” can refer to paying
back oxygen debt. In the case of physical activity,
two examples can be made:
• the case of a runner engaged in repetitions,
such as 8 times 200 m at high intensity;
• the case of a soccer player who, during the
match, is engaged in repeated short interval
sprints.
In these examples athletes incur an oxygen debt
which must be paid back as soon as possible
and has two components: (a) alactacid oxygen
debt; in this case phosphocreatine must be
resinthesized as soon as possible; (b) lactacid
oxygen debt, during which La- and H+ ions must
be removed as soon as possible from blood and
muscles.
In the examples made so far - heart rate going
back to basal values and paying back oxygen
debt, which make up what according
to Ziegenfuss et al. (2008) can be denominated
the fast recovery phase – nutrition cannot
speed up recovery, unless the subject has
specific shortcomings. Training is what really
matters in this case.
The term “recovery” however can also be used
when referring to processes that occur after
25
 exertion and that, overall, make up the slow
recovery phase (Ziegenfuss et al., 2008): resto-
ring water and mineral levels in the body, reple-
nishing energy stores, repairing damaged
tissue and so on (Table 1). Most importantly,
this recovery must take place rapidly if the athlete
has to engage in a new effort just a few hours
after a competition or intense training.
Optimal recovery allows athletes to be in the
best possible condition for a new training session
even if they have engaged in a competition
or heavy exercise the day before. Examples can
be found in soccer, when players must play two
matches in just 2 or 3 days, and cycling events
like Giro d’Italia or Tour de France which are
broken into multiple daily stages.
In these cases proper nutrition can certainly
speed up recovery. This article will focus above
all on replenishment of glycogen stores in the
body and on protein synthesis and the role
it plays in repairing those microscopic muscular
lesions caused by exercise.
REPLENISHMENT OF GLYCOGEN STORES
In several disciplines (long distance cycling
events, marathon, soccer …) performance
is compromised (Costill et al., 1971) if before
starting the activity the amount of glycogen
in muscle stores is limited, all the more so
if the athlete was earlier engaged in an effort
that led to its depletion. A “normal” diet does
not lead to glycogen replenishment in less than
48 hours; whereas a low-carbohydrate diet
can take even more than 3 or 4 days (Costill
et al., 1971).
Glycogen replenishment in muscle fibers goes
through two different stages, the first one
is insulin-independent, while the second
is insulin-dependent (Price et al., 1994).
In the dozens of minutes following exercise
and produce glycogen in the period following
exercise. After one hour, in fact, it goes down
to one fifth, after two hours it is just one ninth.
What type of carbohydrates are athletes
recommended to take at this stage? The
answer to this question must take into account
the fact that nowadays carbohydrate-contai-
ning foods are divided into “high glycemic
index” and “low glycemic index”. After eating
the former, the body experiences a rapid
increase in blood sugar levels and, conse-
quently, in blood insulin as well. High glycemic
foods are rich in starches and poor in fibers.
Bread, rice, sweets, potatoes, breakfast

Table 1 (first stage) glycogen replenishment in the cereals, soda drinks (cola, orange, bottled
MEANINGS OF THE TERM “RECOVERY”
fibers that have worked is faster. This happens iced teas…) and so on fall into this group

TYPE OF RECOVERY
FAST RECOVERY PHASE
• Restoring heart rate
to basal values
• Paying back oxygen debt
(alactacid and lactacid)
SLOW RECOVERY PHASE
• Restoring water and mineral
levels after exertion; restoring
energy stores; repairing
damaged tissue….
26
RECOVERY TIME IMPORTANCE because a molecule denominated GLUT4
OF NUTRITION (Glucose Transporter Carrier Protein 4) is
shifted to the surface of these fibers. Thanks to
minutes no importance GLUT4 glucose in the blood is carried to the
fibers without producing elevated blood insulin
minutes of dozens no importance
of minutes levels. That same molecule also promotes gly-
cogen synthesis in fibers, and it does so through
stimulation of the most important enzyme
hours or dozens of hours essential
in this process, glycogen synthase. According
to Price et al. (1994), muscle fibers show
a decrease in the ability to absorb glucose
of foods. See article at page 6.
Low glycemic index foods produce only a limi-
ted elevation in glucose and insulin in blood.
Most fruit and vegetables are low G.I. foods.
Among carbohydrates normally taken by
athletes, glucose, maltodextrins and sucrose
have a high glycemic index. Fructose on the
other hand has a low GI.
27
 When the second phase of recovery starts, the
Muscle glycogen replenishment
stimulus provided by physical exercise is now
120
over and no GLUT4 is present on the surface
percentage %
100
85
80 of muscle fibers. To promote the transit of glu-
60
cose molecules into the fibres and stimulate
40
20
15 11
glycogen synthesis, high level of blood insulin
20
0 are required which trigger GLUT4 translocation
0 30 60 90 120
time (min) towards the surface of fibers. This requirement
can be met through the ingestion of high glyce-
Figure 1 - Muscle glycogen replenishment is particularly rapid mic index carbohydrates such as glucose,
in the dozens of minutes following exercise (insulin-independent
phase), because a molecule called GLUT4 is present on the maltodextrins or sucrose.
surface of muscle fibers. This process slows down gradually.
To make resynthesis of muscle glycogen possible, however,
carbohydrates must be taken. From Price et al. (1994), modified. If proteins and/or amino acids (in particular
glutamine) are taken at the same time, glyco-
THE TWO PHASES OF MUSCLE GLYCOGEN gen synthesis is enhanced (Zawadzki et al.,
REPLENISHMENT 1992; Ivy, 1998; Ivy et al., 2002; Berardi et al.,
Theoretically, during the first phase of glycogen 2006), above all when carbohydrate intake
recovery (because of its being insulin-indepen- is lower than 1.2 g per kg of body weight
dent) low glycemic index carbohydrates could per hour (Jentjens and Jeukendrup, 2003).
also be utilized because glucose molecules,
in particular thanks to GLUT4, can get into PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AFTER TRAINING.
fibers without requiring high insulin levels. Several authors showed that after intense
In practice, however, it is advisable to choose exercise, recovery can be enhanced, with fewer
high glycemic index foods in this phase too, muscle problems (pain and numbness),
because with them glucose reaches blood more if immediately after exercise proteins and/or
rapidly and this involves earlier involvement specific amino acids or amino-acid derived
of GLUT4 which carries glucose to muscle molecules are taken. The reason behind this
fibers and promotes glycogen synthesis. can be better understood if one thinks that
28
at any time of the day both protein synthesis
and break-down take place in the human body
(Phillips, 2004). These two processes occur
simultaneously, even though one can prevail
over the other, depending on the moment.
Nutrition and training are extremely important
from this point of view. In sedentary people
the body protein store remains just about constant.
However, after several hours of fasting, protein
break-down prevails, whereas the opposite
is true in the dozens of minutes following inge-
stion of proteins through food (Phillips, 2004).
With reference to athletes, catabolism prevails
in muscles during training, i.e. loss of protein
because of protein break-down (Adlercreutz,
1986). After training (either immediately or
some time later), on the other hand, anabolism
prevails, which means that protein synthesis
is more marked than break-down (Adlercreutz,
1986; Gibala, 2007). Therefore, body protein
level tends to go up, provided the building
blocks for synthesis are available, i.e. amino
acids derived from the digestion of protein-
containing food (Tipton et al., 2004). It is highly
recommended that, thanks to appropriate
nutrition, protein synthesis (making up for the
protein demolition that occurred during trai-
ning, and stimulating production of new protein
material) is promoted as soon as demanding
physical exercise is completed. According to
Phillips et al. (1997), after each training session
this trend to produce proteins lasts for dozens
of hours, but it reaches its maximum value
in the three hours following training. After 24
hours it is down to half the peak value, and one
third after 48 hours. (Chesley et al., 1992;
MacDougall et al., 1995; Phillps et al.,1997).
BRANCHED CHAIN AMINO ACIDS
AND GLUTAMINE
Protein intake is certainly very important,
but equally important are branched chain amino
acids (Rasmussen et al., 2000; Dreyer et al.,
2008; Drummond et al. 2008). There are three
branched chain amino acids: leucine, valine
and isoleucine. They are all essential amino
acids, which means that they are indispensable
for life and good health, but the body cannot
produce them. It is therefore necessary that
they are taken orally. They can be found in dif-
ferent percentages in several food proteins.
For example, they make up 20% of beef pro-
teins, and since proteins account for 20% of the
meat, in 100 g beef there are approximately 4
grams of these amino acids. Supplementation
29
 with branched chain amino acids can reduce
excess catabolic hormones in athletes and
restore anabolic hormones to basal values
immediately after training (Carli et al., 1992).
Among this group of branched amino acids,
much importance is today attached to leucine,
because it was shown to act on two molecules
that promote protein syntheis: an enzyme –
mTOR (mammalian Target Of Rapamycin) and
an anabolic hormone – IGF-1 (Insulin-like
Growth Factor) (Rasmussen et al., 2000;
Dreyer et al., 2008; Drummond et al. 2008). See
glossary at page 18. As a result of this leucine
is able to enhance muscle recovery immedia-
tely at the end of intense exercise.
According to Rowbotton et al. (1996), competi-
tions and heavy training sessions can reduce
the body production of glutamine, which is
normally not essential but becomes essential
in these circumstances. Glutamine is especially
useful for fast growing tissues, such as
intestinal and hematopoietic epithelium.
When its blood level goes down, the immune
system loses its efficiency and resistance
against infection can be negatively affected
(Castell e Newsholme, 2001; Castell, 2003).
30
of exercise. With a concomitant intake muscle tissue repair after exercise and stimu-
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AFTER EXERCISE
of proteins glycogen recovery is enhanced and, late the synthesis of new muscle proteins.
120
100
at the same time, protein synthesis is promoted. Glutamine promotes glycogen synthesis and
percentage %
80 More specifically, the negative effects caused reduces the risk of infection and overtraining,
60
by the anabolic process during physical exercise two possible consequences of intense and
50
40
are corrected more promptly. Branched chain repeated efforts.
20
0 amino acids, in particular leucine, promote
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
time in hours (h)
Figure 2 - Immediately after training or some time later Table 2
(depending on the speed of the transition, from a hormonal THE NUTRITIONAL FACTORS THAT SPEED UP RECOVERY
point of view, from a catabolic to an anabolic process) pro-
AFTER INTENSE TRAINING OR A COMPETITION
tein synthesis starts with the aim of making up for protein
break-down occurred during exertion and stimulating the
production of new proteins. This trend in favour of protein WATER AND MINERAL REPLENISHMENT Beverages containing minerals
synthesis (induced by training) lasts for dozens of hours, but
after 24 hours it goes down to 50% of its peak value and one GLYCOGEN RESYNTHESIS High glycemic index carbohydrates
third after 48 hours. For synthesis to take place, however, it + proteins or amino acids
is necessary that muscle fibers can rely on appropriate (glutamine in particular)
“building blocks”, i.e. the amino acids resulting from protein
digestion.
REPAIR OF DAMAGED TISSUE Proteins + leucine
AND SYNTHESIS OF NEW PROTEINS
Furthermore, the drop in this amino acid is
considered a biochemical indicator of overtrai-
ning (Rowbotton et al., 1996).
CONCLUSIONS
In order to achieve a rapid muscle glycogen
replenishment after its depletion caused
by physical exercise, athletes are recommended
to take high glycemic index carbohydrates
as soon as possible after the completion
31
 REFERENCES
Adlercreutz H., Härkönen M., Kuoppasalmi K., Näveri H., Huhtaniemi I.,
Tikkanen H., Remes K., Dessypris A., Karvonen J.: Effect of training on
plasma anabolic and catabolic steroid hormones and their response
during physical exercise. Int. J. Sports Med.: 7, suppl 1, 27-28, 1986 .
Berardi J.M., Price T.B., Noreen E.E., Lemon P.W.: Postexercise muscle
glycogen recovery enhanced with a carbohydrate-protein supplement.
Med. Sci. Sports Exerc : 38:1106-1113, 2006.
Carli G., Bonifazi M., Lodi L., Lupo C., Martelli G., Viti A.: Changes in the
exercise-induced hormone response to branched chain amino acid
administration. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol.: 64(3):272-7,1992.
Castell L.M.: Glutamine supplementation in vitro and in vivo, in exercise
and in immunodepression. Sports Med., 16: 323-345, 2003
Castell L.M., Newsholme E.A.: The relation between glutamine and the
immunodepression observed in exercise. Amino Acids, 20-49, 2001.
Chesley A., MacDougall J.D., Tarnopolsky M.A., Atkinson S.A., Smith K.:
Changes in human muscle protein synthesis after resistance exercise.
Journal of Applied Physiology, 73(4):1383-1388, 1992.
Costill D.L., Bowers R., Branam G., Sparks K.: Muscle glycogen utiliza-
tion during prolonged exercise on successive days. J. Appl. Physiol., 31:
834-838, 1971.
Dreyer H.C., Drummond M.J., Pennings B., Fujita S., Glynn E.L., Chinkes
D.L., Dhanani S., Volpi E., Rasmussen B.B.: Leucine-enriched essential
amino acid and carbohydrate ingestion following resistance exercise
enhances mTOR signaling and protein synthesis in human muscle. Am
J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 294(2): E392-400, 2008.
Drummond M.J., Rasmussen B.B.: Leucine-enriched nutrients and the
regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin signalling and human
skeletal muscle protein synthesis. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 11(3):
222-226, 2008.
Gibala M.J.: Protein metabolism and endurance exercise. Sports
Medicine: 337: 337-340, 2007.
Ivy J.L.: Glycogen resynthesis after exercise: Effect of carbohydrate
intake. Int. J. Sports Med.: 19: S142-S145, 1998.
Ivy J.L., Goforth H.W. Jr, Damon B.M., McCauley T.R., Parsons E.C., Price
T.B.: Early postexercise muscle glycogen recovery is enhanced with a
carbohydrate-protein supplement. J. Appl. Physiol. : 93:1337-1344,
2002.
Ivy J.L., Kuo C.H.: Regulation of GLUT4 protein and glycogen synthase
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during muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise. Acta Physiol Scand. :
Mar;162(3):295-304, 1998. Muscle work
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Jentjens R., Jeukendrup A.E.: Determinants of post-exercise glycogen
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MacDougall J.D., Gibala M.J., Tarnopolsky M.A., MacDonald J.R.,
Interisano S.A., Yarasheski K.E.: The time course for elevated muscle
protein synthesis following heavy resistance exercise. Canadian Journal
of Applied Physiology: 20(4): 480-486, 1995.
Mondazzi L., Arcelli E.: Glycemic index in sport nutrition. In corso di
stampa, 2009.
Phillips S.M., Tipton K.D., Aarsland A., Wolf S.E., Wolfe R.R.: Mixed
MUSCLE WORK AND PROTEIN TURNOVER titative point of view this issue is certainly
muscle protein synthesis and breakdown after resistance exercise in
humans. American Journal of Physiology: 273: E99-E107, 1997. Hypertrophy – that is the increase in the size more important in those who practice sports
Phillips S.M.: Protein requirements and supplementation in strength of muscle fibres – is the consequence of intense with a high muscular involvement. The net
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resistance training (especially in the gym with balance between these two parallel processes
Phillips S.M., Tipton K.D., Aarsland A., Wolf S.E., Wolfe R.R.: Mixed
muscle protein synthesis and breakdown after resistance exercise in weights and machines) associated with availa- is positive (thus leading to growth in muscle
humans. American Journal of Physiology: 273: E99-E107, 1997.
bility of essential amino acids (they are called mass) only if the rate of protein synthesis is
Price T.B, Trothman D.L., Taylor R., Avison M.J., Shulman G.I.: Human
muscle glycogen resyntesis after exercise: insulin-dependent and –inde- essential because the body is not capable higher than the rate of protein degradation.
pendent phases. J. Appl. Phisiol., 76: 104-111, 1994.
to produce them; since they are required for the The dietary factors supporting either process
Rasmussen B.B., Tipton K.D., Miller S.L., Wolf S.E., Wolfe R.R.: An oral
synthesis of new protein molecules, they must are different. Yet, from a nutritional point
essential amino acid-carbohydrate supplement enhances muscle pro-
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2000.
however, that a turnover mechanism is always concentration of essential amino acids. What
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processes occur at the same time: protein availability.
Tipton K.D., Elliott T.A., Cree M.G., Wolf S.E., Sanford A.P., Wolfe R.R.:
Ingestion of casein and whey proteins result in muscle anabolism after degradation, or break-down, and protein
resistance exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise: 36(12):
synthesis. In other words, proteins in the body Protein synthesis is triggered by a peak
2073-2081, 2004.
are uninterruptedly degraded and resynthesized. of essential amino acids in plasma, i.e. by
Zawadzki K.M., Yaspelkis B.B., Ivy J.L.: Carbohydrate-protein complex
increase the rate of muscle glycogen storage after exercise. J. Appl. Not all amino acids that originate from protein a marked increase in concentration in a short
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break-down can be recovered. This means that period of time. Such a peak, however, has only
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33
Totowa (USA), 2008.
 On the other hand, a moderate increase in the
concentration for a long period of time has the
ability to inhibit protein degradation but has
no effect on their synthesis. Needless to say
that, generally speaking, the body requires
both slow release amino acid sources
and rapid absorption ones, depending on
the moment.
ALL THE PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS
Physically active individuals have higher nutri-
tional requirements than sedentary people.
Because of the higher energy expenditure
involved, more macronutrients are required
and often, owing to abundant sweating, water
and minerals are also needed in larger
amounts. In particular, the protein require-
ment is higher.
More proteins in case of physical exercise
Higher quantities of proteins are needed:
• to promote optimal muscle mass increase,
which takes place mostly in specific phases
of training;
• because in athletes (who usually exhibit
more lean body mass and less fat) both the
amount of body proteins and protein turnover
are higher;
34
• because, apart from carbohydrates and fats,
proteins can be a source of energy; in endu-
rance sports proteins provide up to 15%
of the energy requirement in activities lasting
more than 1 hour (Gibala, 1987; Paul, 1989).
Benefits connected with protein intake
• increased satiety - The satiating power of
a food is affected by several factors. Some
of these are subjective factors, like presen-
tation and palatability, while others
are objective, like the macronutrients
break-down (fats, proteins, carbohydrates),
water and fibre content. Proteins usually
induce more satiety than carbohydrates
and fats because they promote the production
of hormones like CCK and PYY which can
delay the onset of hunger
• increased thermogenesis – High protein
diets are associated with an increase
in thermogenesis that affects and promotes
energy expenditure (in studies carried out
for long periods of time, the increase
in thermogenesis contributes to the relatively
low energy efficiency of proteins). The energy
spent on physiological and metabolic
processes connected with digestion, absorp-
tion and procession of nutrients accounts for
30% of the calorie intake supplied by pro-
teins taken with food.
• maintenance or growth of lean body mass
In some people a moderately high-protein
diet may have a stimulating effect on muscle
anabolism thus promoting maintenance of
lean body mass and improving the metabolic
profile. The potential benefits connected
with a moderate rise in the protein intake,
however, must be assessed in the
framework of the usual diet followed by
the subject and of the single individual needs.
PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS :
THE NEEDS OF ATHLETES
In normal, not overweight, people proteins
account for almost 15% of the body weight
(20% or even more in muscular athletes and
with a very low percentage of fats) and they are
structural components of tissues (muscles,
internal organs, skin, blood…). The processes
regulating body metabolism are controlled
by proteins (hormones and enzymes). Even
antibodies, the sentinels that counteract
the attacks by foreign agents, are protein
structures.
All proteins must be first digested by specific
enzymes, called protease, which break them
down into their constituents – amino acids,
which are then absorbed through the gut walls.
Later on they enter blood vessel and through
blood they are taken to the liver and to the
tissues to create, replace and repair body
structures. Most importantly, in the absence
of available fats and carbohydrates, proteins
can be employed for energy purposes.
Proteins can be found in a highly available
form in various types of animal and vegetable
foods (they are especially abundant in meat,
eggs, milk, soybean and legumes). Protein
molecules are made up of approximately
20 different amino acids. As stated at the
beginning of this article, essential amino acids
are those that cannot be synthesized
by the human body. Nine of them are essential
for adults and 10 for children: lysine,
tryptophan, valine, histidine, leucine, isoleuci-
ne, phenylalanine, threonine, methionine; also
arginine for children.
MUSCLE ANABOLISM AND CATABOLISM
In a sedentary individual, there is a balance
between muscle protein synthesis (anabolism)
and degradation. When this subject has been
35
 fasting for several hours, however, protein
destruction (catabolism) prevails and muscle
mass is eroded. This situation is reversed and
the balance is restored when a meal is taken
that includes some proteins (Phillips, 2004).
In people regularly engaged in resistance trai-
ning (to enhance strength) who follow a proper
diet, anabolism prevails over catabolism with
subsequent elevation in muscle proteins.
During a single session, however, even though
both synthesis and degradation take place, the
latter is predominant, in particular in endurance
disciplines (Gibala, 2007).
At the end of physical work, protein synthesis
exceeds degradation, provided that amino
acids are available for muscles. Resistance
training promotes protein synthesis for at least
two days. It peaks in the three hours following
(Biolo et al., 1997; Tipton et al., 2004).
TIMING OF PROTEIN INTAKE
If the goal is making use of the protein synthesis
promoted by training as much as possible,
taking an excessive amount of proteins in
a single meal would be a mistake (Layman 2009),
because intake of a large amount of proteins
all at once has a detrimental effect on absorp-
tion. Since the body does not store amino
acids, they must be used to produce proteins
within a short time after being absorbed and
transported into the blood. Otherwise, amino
acids are transformed into other types
of molecules. Actually, if proteins are not taken
in for several hours, the body breaks down the
proteins found in muscles and uses the resul-
ting amino acids to produce enzymes, hormo-
not be concentrated in just one or two meals.
In an article published in the March 2009 issue
of the journal Nutrition and Metabolism,
Professor Donald Layman of the University
of Illinois stated that, to maximize protein
synthesis, an adult individual must take
approximately 90 g of protein per day, distribu-
ted evenly at the three main meals. Today, on
the contrary, protein intake is not uniform: 10 g
of protein at breakfast, 20 g at lunch, and 60 g
at dinner, all of which implies obvious pro-
blems for the effective use of proteins.
Additionally, because of the nutritional habits
in Italy, the amount of protein consumed
at breakfast is just about zero.
25
For those who follow the criteria of the Zone
nutrition, proteins are distributed as in figure 1.
Of course, in case of lots of training and very
much lean body mass the daily amounts
of protein can be higher, but they must always
be evenly distributed among meals and snacks.
Taking proteins in the period just before or just
after strength training is equally or even more
important. Protein synthesis is greater (Biolo
et al., 1997; Phillips et al., 1997) if in the time
after training amino acids are easily available
to the body. Furthermore, blood circulation
in muscle is more intense immediately
after training and, therefore, the availability
35

training, and then it halves after 24 hours and nes and other proteins that are necessary for 30

Grams of protein

Grams of protein
20
25
is still active after 48 hours, though it only one survival. Hence, strictly speaking, the body 15 20

third of the peak value (Chesley et al., 1992; does have a protein store: it is, however, made 15
15

10

MacDougall et al., 1995; Phillips et al.,1997). up of muscles. In athletes that aim at increa- 5
5

See figure 2, page 30. When both conditions sing muscle mass, this is certainly a drawback.
0 0

breakfast
b kf t snackk lunch
l h snackk dinner
di breakfast snack lunch snack dinner

(exercise and amino acid availability) are met,

levels of protein synthesis are higher than
those achieved with exercise alone and
no access to amino acid or with availability
of these molecules and no resistance training
36
If strength training sessions are to promote
the greatest possible production of muscle
proteins, a process that goes on for many
hours after the session, protein intake should
Daily protein intake: 90 grams Daily protein intake: 120 grams
Figure 1 - recommended protein distribution at meals (three main meals and two snacks; the first snack can be shifted
to the previous night, just before going to bed) with the goal of promoting protein synthesis as much as possible. On the left, protein
distribution when recommended total intake is 90 g; on the right protein distribution when total intake is 120 g. High daily quantities
of proteins can be taken only after discussing the issue with a sports physician.
37
 of amino acids is even higher (Biolo et al.,
1997; Phillips et al., 1997).
In deciding the most appropriate moment
to take proteins, one should remember that they
have different digestion and gut absorption
rates. As a consequence, the peak of individual
amino acids in blood occurs at different times,
based on their absorption and their permanen-
ce in blood. Boirie et al. (1997), Dangin et al.
(2001), Lacroix et al. (2006) and Farnfield et al.
(2008), for instance, found that blood levels
of amino acids reach a peak two hours after
taking milk whey proteins (fast-digesting
proteins) followed by a rapid decrease and return
to basal values after three hours. If, on the
other hand, casein is taken (slow-digesting
protein), the peak (equivalent to half the peak
of whey proteins) is reached after four hours
and this value remains constant until at least
seven hours after intake.
SOYBEAN PROTEINS IN SPORTS
People tend to think that soybean proteins are
not as good as milk whey proteins in promoting
muscle mass growth. This mistake is due
to the fact that proteins are usually classified
based on their biological value and not their
38
actual ability to promote protein synthesis. the goal of increasing muscle mass, proteins have the same digestion and absorption rates.
A recent study (Kalman et al, 2007) published derived from soybean are as efficient as whey It should also be highlighted that soybean
in the Journal of the International Society proteins (Kalman et al., 2007; Candow et al., proteins are rich in arginine. Scientific investi-
of Sports Nutrition showed that in two groups 2006). Scientific studies clearly demonstrate gations showed that this amino acid has
of subjects engaged in 12 weeks of training that consumption of a mixture of fast- and favourable effects on growth hormone,
for the development of muscle mass there was slow-digesting proteins (with different absorp- on the immune system and on glycogen
no difference in terms of body composition tion rates) causes a greater increase in muscle resynthesis after physical exercise in case
and free testosterone values between those mass than a single protein or proteins that carbohydrate intake is limited.
who had taken 50 g of soybean proteins
(Supro®) and those who had taken equal
amounts of whey proteins. The Protein
Efficiency Ratio (PER) is the method usually
employed to assess protein quality. However,
it reflects the requirement of amino acids
in young rats and not in human bodies.
The method which is nowadays considered
most reliable is denominated Protein
Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score
(PDCAAS), an indicator of protein quality based
on various parameters, such as amino acid
content of a food protein, digestibility
and ability to supply essential amino acids
in the amount required to meet the real needs
of the human body. According to this method
soybean-derived Supro® proteins were given
the highest obtainable score (1.0) exactly like
milk whey proteins.
Several investigations showed that with
39
 REFERENCES
Anthony T.G., McDaniel B.J., Knoll P., Bunpo P., Paul G.L., McNurlan
M.A.: Feedings meals containing soy or whey protein after exercise
stimulates protein synthesis and translation initiation in the skeletal
muscle of male rats. J Nutr. 137(2):357-62, 2007.
Biolo G., Tipton K.D., Klein S., Wolfe R.R.: An abundant supply of
amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle
protein American Journal of Physiology: 273: E122-129, 1997.
-6-
protein source and resistance training on body composition and sex
ormones. J Int Soc Sports Nutr : 23 4:4, 2007 OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS
Lacroix M., Bos C., Léonil J., Airinei G., Luengo C., Daré S., Benamouzig
R., Fouillet H., Fauquant J., Tomé D., Gaudichon C.: Compared with AND SPORTS
casein or total milk protein, digestion of milk soluble proteins is too rapid
to sustain the anabolic postprandial amino acid requirement. American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition: 84(5): 1070-1079, 2006.

Boirie Y., Dangin M., Gachon P., Vasson M.P., Maubois J.L., Beaufrère
B: Slow and fast dietary proteins differently modulate postprandial
protein accretion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA: 94(26): 14930-14935, 1997.
Candow DG, Burke NC, Smith-Palmer T, Burke DG.: Effect of
whey and soy protein supplementation combined with resistance
training in young adults. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 16(3):233-
244, 2006.
Chesley A., MacDougall J.D., Tarnopolsky M.A., Atkinson S.A., Smith
K.: Changes in human muscle protein synthesis after resistance
exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 73(4):1383-1388, 1992.
Dangin M., Boirie Y., Garcia-Rodenas C., Gachon P., Fauquant
J., Callier P., Ballèvre O., Beaufrère B.: The digestion rate of
protein is an independent regulation factor of postprandial pro-
tein retention. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab.: 280(2): E340-
348, 2001.
Farnfield M.M., Trenerry C., Carey K.A., Cameron-Smith D.: Plasma
amino acid response after ingestion of different whey protein frac-
tions. Int J Food Sci Nutr: 8:1-11, 2008.
Gibala M.J.: Protein metabolism and endurance exercise. Sports
Medicine: 337: 337-340, 2007.
Kalman D., Feldman S., Martinez M., Krieger D.R., Tallon M.J.: Effect of
40
Layman D.K.: Dietary Guidelines should reflect new understandings
about adult protein needs. Nutr Metab (Lond). : Mar 13;6:12, 2009.
MacDougall J.D., Gibala M.J., Tarnopolsky M.A., MacDonald J.R.,
Interisano S.A., Yarasheski K.E.: The time course for elevated muscle
protein synthesis following heavy resistance exercise. Canadian Journal
of Applied Physiology: 20(4): 480-486, 1995.
Paul G.L.: Use of protein blends in sports nutrition. Science in Nutrition,
First Int. Congress Proceedings, Rome, 2008.
Paul G.L.: Dietary protein requirements of physically active individuals.
Sports Med. 8(3):154-76. Review, 1989.
Phillips S.M.: Protein requirements and supplementation in strength
sports. Nutrition, 20: 689-695, 2004.
Phillips S.M., Tipton K.D., Aarsland A., Wolf S.E., Wolfe R.R.: Mixed
muscle protein synthesis and breakdown after resistance exercise in
humans. American Journal of Physiology: 273: E99-E107, 1997.
Tipton K.D., Elliott T.A., Cree M.G., Wolf S.E., Sanford A.P., Wolfe R.R.:
Ingestion of casein and whey proteins result in muscle anabolism after
resistance exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise: 36(12):
2073-2081, 2004.
The purpose of this article is to set out the rea-
sons why athletes can benefit from a regular
intake of Omega-3 essential fatty acids. In this
context, reference can be made to several scien-
tific investigations published in the last few years.
Before focusing on this issue, however, the role of
hormones in sport performance must be highlited.
Hormones act as information carriers. They are
messengers that make communication between
different organs possible. Ultimately they control
all the elements that affect athletic performance.
For example, they play a role in the “adjustments”
that take place during physical exercise with
the goal of maximizing efficiency, or in the
“adaptations” that follow each specific type
of training.
A lot of the hormones produced in our body can
be modulated by nutrition, in particular by
the Zone nutritional strategy and/or by the use
of long-chain Omega-3 fatty acids, such as
EPA and DHA.
OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS AND INFLAMMATION
Nowadays athletes must engage in intense
training if they want to achieve top level results
and maintain excellence for a long period of time.
Marathon runners, for example, engage in two
(or even three) training sessions per day and overall
they run an average of more than 30 km daily,
in some cases more than 40. Equally demanding
is the training of cyclists, triathletes, walkers,
cross-country skiers and athletes practicing
other sports too. This involves a higher risk of
injuries, in particular repeated microtraumas,
which may lead to forced rest for periods of variable
length and an inevitable loss of efficiency.
41
 According to some authors (Ekstrand e Gillquist,
1982; Lysens et al., 1984) the higher risk of inju-
ries in case of increased training is due to excess
stress. In these circumstances higher levels
of the so-called stress hormone, cortisol, are
released into the blood. Furthermore, the rise in this
hormone is often associated with a worsening
of performance.
At the same time pro-inflammatory hormones
are produced in larger amounts. According
Ostrowski et al. (1998), for example, intense
physical exercise induces muscle to produce
a higher quantity of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
According to Pedersen et al. (2000), an intense
training session causes a 100-fold rise in the level
of interleukin-6, a typical pro-inflammatory eico-
sanoid. Since interleukin-6 values are related
with muscle damage, one can easily realize what
happens in an athlete when this rise in pro-
inflammatory eicosanoids takes place two
or three times a day and when the time devoted
to recovery between sessions is very short.
Intense training sessions also promote a drop
in the production of series 1 prostaglandins that
play an anti-inflammatory role. The time needed
for recovery after each session (or competition)
42
is affected by the extent of the pro- and anti-
inflammatory response. Consequently higher
levels of pro-inflammatory hormones and lower
levels of anti-inflammatory hormones imply that
recovery time is necessarily longer. Additionally,
the work the athlete is engaged in must be
lighter, if the risk of injuries is to be lowered.
What can athletes do reduce this inflammatory
state of the body?
It can be dramatically reduced by following
anti-inflammatory diet (like the Zone nutritional
strategy) because it leads to lower levels of ara-
chidonic acid, i.e. the main driver of pro-inflam-
matory eicosanoid production, which is at the
basis of inflammation (Sears, 2005). The inflam-
matory state of the body can be further decreased
with an adequate supplementation of fish oil rich
in EPA and DHA (Sears, 2005). These long chain
Omega-3 fatty acids can, among other things,
replace part of arachidonic acid molecules in cell
membranes. This step promotes both a decrease
in the production of pro-inflammatory eicosa-
noids (like interleukin-6) and a higher level
of series 1 prostaglandins that have an anti-
inflammatory effect (Bagga, 2003; Burns
et al., 2007; Grimble, 1998).
This means that Omega-3 supplementation
can be considered as a means to decrease the risk
of injuries, above all in those athletes engaged sports (soccer, basketball, rugby, hockey…),
in intense, repeated training sessions. individual sports (tennis…) and fight sports
(boxing, karate, judo…). Reaction times were
Smith (2000) proposed that an excess production further improved if polycosanols are associated
of cytokines may be the cause of overtraining. to Omega-3 fatty acids.
This is another consequence of intense training
which athletes fear as much as they fear injuries. Fontani et al. (2005a) also studied mood states
by means of the POMS test (Profile of Mood
OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS AND EFFICIENCY State). This test generates numerical values
an OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM about one positive feeling (vigour) and five
Regular use of Omega-3 fatty acids was shown negative ones (anger, tension/anxiety,
to be effective also in improving efficiency of the confusion, depression, fatigue). The authors
central nervous system, especially in enhancing showed that, after Omega-3 fatty acids
some features (like reaction time and mood) that administration, a significant increase in vigour
can be very beneficial to the performance of is recorded, while negative feeling values
athletes practicing different types of sports. become lower, in particular regarding anxiety,
Fontani et al. (2005b), for instance, followed two POMS
groups of healthy subjects in a double blind 65
60
study. One group was given Omega-3 supple-
Before n-3
55
Mean values
mentation while the other received placebo After n-3
50
(olive oil). The subjects underwent tests that
45
required different types of attention. In some of 40
these tests, significant improvements were 35
Vigour Anger Anxiety Fatigue Depression Confusion
recorded after administration of Omega-3 fatty
acids. Reaction times were shorter, in particular
Figure 1 - Average POMS (Profile Of Mood State) values. After
with the involvement of complex cortical proces- intake of Omega-3 fatty acids a significant increase in vigour is
recorded whereas negative feeling values decrease, in particular
ses which are so important in many sports: team anger, anxiety and depression (Fontani et al., 2005a).
43
 depression and anger (see figure 1).
ADDITIONAL BENEFITS TO ATHLETIC
PERFORMANCE ASSOCIATED
WITH OMEGA-3 FATTY ACID INTAKE
Athletes may derive additional benefits from
long chain Omega-3 fatty acid supplementa-
tion. These favourable effects however have
not yet been confirmed “on the field”, at least
not in high-level professional athletes (table 1)
According to Sears (2005), for example, asso-
ciating the Zone nutritional strategy and fish oil
supplementation, thereby optimizing eicosa-
noid production, promotes an increase in the
diameter of capillaries. Consequently, oxygen
transfer to muscles is faster and this, in turn,
increases the aerobic production of ATP, the
fuel that muscles need. However, no final con-
clusion has been reached as yet on an additio-
nal improvement in high-level athletes practi-
cing aerobic sports, perhaps because in these
athletes aerobic efficiency has already achieved
its maximum level.
Another potential effect of Omega-3 fatty acid
supplementation is the increase in muscle
mass, which is so important for athletes invol-
44
ved in sports where strength and muscle power
are essential. Not only throwing sports in track
and field, weight lifting and body building,
but also sprint sport disciplines, jumps and so on.
During resistance training sessions (when
athletes train to increase muscle mass
and power) microscopic damage is produced.
These microscopic lesions act as a biological
trigger for protein synthesis, a fundamental
prerequisite for the improvement of these
features. The transition from the catabolic
to the anabolic phase which occurs in the
subsequent stage of training is achieved
earlier if the inflammation of the body is lower.
The natural process of release of anabolic hor-
monal factors (especially growth hormone, GH)
is certainly enhanced when athletes follow the
Zone nutritional strategy and, perhaps, also
when Omega-3 fatty acids are taken regularly.
This is how protein synthesis by muscles
can be promoted. The Zone nutritional
strategy, however, seems to be more effective
in boosting protein synthesis than Omega-3
fatty acids.
The association of the Zone and Omega-3 fatty
acids is very beneficial also in terms of weight
loss. Some sports require that athletes be divi-
ded into categories based on their body weight plex reaction times. Additional effects can be
(weight lifting, boxing, other fight sports, achieved that may favourably affect athletic
lightweight rowing). In these cases losing body performance (see table 1).
fat without at the same time losing muscle
mass can be essential. In almost all other
sports (with very few exceptions, like sumo and
the heaviest categories of weight lifting and
fight sports) an excessive amount of body fat
can jeopardise performance. Clinical studies
showed that associating the Zone nutritional
strategy with Omega-3 fatty acids involves
a more efficient weight loss than the usually
recommended diets.
CONCLUSIONS
Long chain Omega-3 fatty acid (EPA and DHA)
supplementation is certainly effective in redu-
cing body inflammation, improving mood state
and attention levels by means of shorter com-
Table 1
EFFECTS OF OMEGA-3 SUPPLEMENTATION IN ATHLETES
PROVEN EFFECTS:
A. Anti-inflammatory effects: B. Effects on the central nervous system
• lower risk of injuries; • improvement of attention
• shorter recovery times; and complex reaction times;
• lower risk of overtraining. • improvement in mood state.
POSSIBLE EFFECTS:
C. Effects on oxygen transfer to muscles. D. Effects on muscle mass. E. Effects on weight loss.
45
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