Project Report on Photoelectric Effect

Introduction to the Project Report :

Comparing the mass of the electron with the mass of ionised hydrogen
atom (proton) we see that it is lighter by a factor of 1836. This
indicates that electrons are easier to accelarate than ions.
Availability of loosely bound electrons (are actually unbound) in atoms
of metals is responsible for their high electrical conductivity. Within a
solid piece of substance like lithium, atoms are closely packed and,
therefore, the loosely bound electrons of each atom are easily moved
from the influence of their nucleus to that of their neighbour. Such
loosely bound electrons are called free electrons. Free electrons are
held inside the metals by attractive forces at their surface and require
a minimum amount of energy, called the work function of the metal,
for their escape. This minimum energy can be supplied to the free
electrons in the metal for their release from the metal surface by
anyone of the following physical processes :
(a) Thermo ionic emission : by heating the metal sufficient thermal
energy can be given to free electrons to overcome the attractive pull of
the metal surface.
(b) Field emission : electrons can be extracted from metals by
applying an electric field.
(c) Photoelectric emission : by shining light of high frequency
(ultraviolet) on clean metal surfaces electrons from inside the metal
can be released.
We shall next study the photoelectric effect. Einstein explained it on
the basis of Max Planck’s Quantam idea. This laid the foundation of
the Quantam theory. Therefore, the photoelectric effect is of special
interest.
Photoelectric Effect
Hallwach discovered that an insulated zinc plate connected to a gold
leaf electroscope and charged negatively losts its charge, when a beam
of ultraviolet light was directed on the plate. Hallwach suggested that
the metal surface loses negative charge due to ejection of electrons
from its surface by the ultraviolet light. The effect was termed as
Photoelectric effect. The electrons so emitted were called
Photoelectrons. J.J.Thomson showed that the Photoelectrons were not
different from the ordinary electrons.
Thus, the phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a metal surface,
when light of sufficiently high frequency falls upon it is known as the
photoelectric effect.
Experimental Study
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect is studied by using an
experimental arrangement shown in figure 1.
Monochromatic light of known frequency is focussed on the anode of
an evacuated quartz tube. The anode is made out of the metal whose
behaviour under exposure to light is being investigated. Flow of
current in the external circuit indicates the flow of electrons emitted
from the anode surface inside the tube. This is possible if the electrons
are emitted with energy large enough to overcome the retarding
potential between the anode and the cathode.
Explanation 1 : Free electrons in the metallic anode can absorb energy
from the electromagnetic waves impinging on them. After sufficient
energy has been absorbed free electrons inside the metal should be
able to overcome the combined potential barrier offered by the metal
surface and the retarding potential across the phototube.
Now, when the photocurrent is measured by varying (a) the intensity of
light, (b) its frequency and (c) the retarding potential between the
anode and the cathode, effects are observed which cannot be
reconciled with the classical wave properties of light and its absorption
by electrons.
Hence explanation 1 is not accepted.
The maximum kinetic energy with which the electrons leave the anode
can be measured by adjusting the retarding potential till the
photocurrent in the external circuit is reduced to zero. Then electrons
are not able to reach the anode. If V is the cut-off voltage, the
maximum kinetic energy of electrons in the phototube is eV.
When a careful study is made of photoemission by varying the above
mentioned parameters in the experiment, the following important
conclusions are reached :
(i) The energy distribution of the emitted electrons is independent of
the intensity of the light. That is, more photoelectrons are emitted if
the intensity of the light is increased but the maximum kinetic energy
with which the electrons leave the metal remains unchanged. Infact,
even with light of very low intensity some electrons with the same
kinetic energy are emitted.
(ii) With in the limit of experimental accuracy it is observed that there
is no time lag between the arrival of light at the metal and the
emission of photoelectrons. The delay has been experimentally
measured. The delay time has been found less than 10-9s.
(iii) For a given metal, photoelectrons are not emitted if the incident
light is of frequency less than a critical value, called the threshold
frequency, no matter how high its intensity.
(iv) The maximum kinetic energy with which photoelectrons are
emitted from a particular metal and the frequency of the incident light
are related linearly. The relation can be expressed as :
KEmax = h (-o) ---------- (1)
As the kinetic energy of electrons cannot be negative, photoemission
does not takes place when the frequency of the incident light is less
than o. Although the threshold frequency ochanges from metal to
metal, the slope of the straight line.
eV = h (-o), ------------ (2)
Where  is the magnitude of the cut-off voltage, is the same.
Millikan also has the credit of making the first accurate measurement
of cut-off voltages for sodium metal by using monochromatic light of
known frequencies. He published the graph of photocurrent versus
voltage and the graph of cut-off voltage versus frequency of light. We

can estimate the slope of the straight line. It is

By multiplying it with the charge of an electron, which is the
fundamental charge (of an electron), e=1.602 x 10-19 C;
We get,
h = 4.124 x 1.602 x 10-15 x 10-19
= 6.6 x 10-34 Js.
The Photon :
Einstein took Planck’s idea of the quantam of energy seriously and
proposed that a monochromatic electromagnetic wave of frequency
consists of discrete quanta each having energy
E = h ---- (3)
Where h is the Planck constant. The quanta of light were appropriately
called photons. Each photon travels with the velocity of light.
According to Einstein’s special theory of relativity energy, E and
momentum, p of particles moving with the speed of light are related
E = pc ---- (4).
Where c is the speed of light.
Comparing eqs (3) and (4), the momentum of the photon is seen to be
related to the wavelength of light as

----- (5)
Where is the wavelength of the light.
Quantum Interpretation :
Explanation 2 : Einstein suggested that absorption of energy from a
photon by a free electron inside the metal is a single event and
involves transfer of energy in one lump instead of continuous
absorption of energy as in the wave model of light. Energy is
conserved in the process. It can be expressed by the relation.
Energy of the incident photon = maximum.
Kinetic energy of the electron + work
Function of the metal. ------ (6).
The kinetic energy of the emitted electron will be maximum if the free
electron, which is released from the atom belongs to the group which
has the maximum energy inside the metal. By using the Einstein
relation for the energy of photons of frequency , we can write the
photoelectric emission equation, eq (6) as
-------- (7)
Let the work function be expressed in units of frequency such that
Work function = o -------- (8)
Then the Einstein photoelectric equation, eq (7), can be re-expressed
as
KEmax = h (-o) -------- (9)
This equation is identical to the experimentally observed relationship
given by eq. (1).
Hence, explanation 2 is accepted and Einstein received the Nobel Prize
in physics in the year 1921 for the quantam theory of the photoelectric
effect. This lead to the particle behaviour of light.
Particle Nature of Light :
Arthur Holly Compton investigated the scattering of monochromatic X-
rays from electrons. He observed that the scattered X-rays had longer
wavelength. The change in wavelength was found to be independent of
the matter used for scattering but varies with the angle between the
incident and the scattered rays. Compton could explained the effect
observed by him by assigning momentum of magnitude h/c to
photons of energy h. The elastic scattering of a photon from an
electron at rest can be worked out by involving the principles of
conservation of energy and conservation of momentum. The formula
giving the change of wavelength of the X-ray photon is

Where  is the angle of scattering of the X-rays photon and m is the

mass of electron.
The elastic process is shown diagrammatically. The recoil electrons
were observed in Wilson’s cloud chamber. Wilson shared the 1927
Nobel prize in physics with Compton.
Photocell - A Technological Application :
The design of a photocell makes use of photo-emission from a metal
surface for measuring the intensity of light. The photoelectrons
emitted from the cathode of the photocell are drawn to the collector by
an electric field. The resultant electric current is measured by a
sensitive meter in the external circuit. The current obtainable from a
typical photocell is of the order of a microampere.
The fundamental use of a photocell is to convert a change in the
intensity of illumination into a change in electric current. This change
in electric current may be used to operate controls and in light
measuring devices. For example, a person approaching a door way
may interrupt a light beam which is incident upon a photo cell. The
abrupt change in photocurrent may be used to start a motor which
opens the door or rings an alarm. Light meters in cameras work on
this principle.
Conclusion
As we appreciated the simplicity and elegance of Einstein’s explanation
of photoelectric effect we came to know about the particle behaviour
of light. He introduced revolutionary ideas which were contrary to the
scientific opinion of the time. The photon hypothesis disturbed the
scientific community much more than the seventeenth century Newton
- Huygens heated debate on the corpuscular and the wave nature of
light. But the new theory gave a better description of the physical
nature than the comfortable old classical ideas.
Hence, the world came to know about the dual nature of light. That is,
a monochromatic beam of light of frequency , hence possessing wave
attributes, manifests in some experiments as though it is a stream of
quanta called photons.