Module 2

Landforms
• A landform is a feature on the Earth's surface that is part of the
terrain.

• Mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains are the four major types of
landforms.

• Minor landforms include buttes, canyons, valleys, and basins

• Tectonic plate movement under the Earth can create landforms by
pushing up mountains and hills.

• Erosion by water and wind can wear down land and create landforms
like valleys and canyons.

• Both processes happen over a long period of time, sometimes

millions of years.
• In geology and physical geography, a plateau, also called a high
plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland, usually consisting of
relatively flat terrain, that is raised significantly above the surrounding
area

• a butte is an isolated hill with steep, often vertical sides and a small,
relatively flat top; buttes are smaller landforms than mesas, plateaus,
and tablelands
• A canyon or gorge is a deep cleft between escarpments or cliffs
resulting from weathering and the erosive activity of a river over
geologic timescales
• A valley is a low area between hills or mountains typically with a
river running through it. In geology, a valley or dale is a depression
that is longer than it is wide.
• A basin is a depression, or dip, in the Earth’s surface. Basins are
shaped like bowls, with sides higher than the bottom. They can be
oval or circular in shape, similar to a sink or tub you might have in
your own bathroom. Some are filled with water. Others are empty.
Platue
Butte
Dendritic drainage
Trellis drainage
Radial drainage
Superimposed drainage
antecedent drainage
 INDEX PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
Porosity
• Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids in a soil or rock to the
total volume. , If Vv = Volume of voids and V = Total volume

• It is expressed as a decimal fraction or as a percentage. In rocks 10%

is average, 5% is low, 15% or more is high. Not all voids in a rock are
interconnected and accessible to penetrating fluids.

• For example pumice is a very porous rock the pores of which are not
interconnected. Many igneous and high grade metamorphic rocks
have very tiny cracks or micro fractures which are not interconnected.
 Various factors that control the porosity of
sedimentary rocks
(a) The degree of cementation (i.e. to what extent pore space is
replaced by cement) and the extent of recrystallization at points where
grains touch. Both are influenced by the age and history of burial of the
rock.

(b) The grain size variation Since small grains can fill the voids among
larger grains a sediment with large variation in grain size (a well graded
sediment) has a lower porosity than a poorly graded sediment.

(c)The shape of the grains Since angular laths, such as in clay minerals
often form bridges between other grains holding them apart and
thereby increasing the porosity.
 Various factors that control the porosity of
sedimentary rocks
(d) The packing of the grains If the grains are spherical the packing can
give a range of porosities from 26% to 47%. The looser packing is a less
stable arrangement of grains and a change from this to a more stable
arrangement will reduce the porosity and may lead to expulsion of
water from the sediment.
 Density
• Density is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume, and is
highly variable in crustal rocks. Rock density is a physical characteristic
that is governed by the chemical composition (in situ minerals) and
pore spaces of a specific rock or rock type
• Bulk density includes both the grains and the interstitial spaces. The
grain density is the actual density of the particles, which might be a
mineral. The bulk density is less than the grain density of the
constituent mineral (or mineral assemblage), depending on the
porosity
• For rocks, the bulk density varies between 2.5 and 3.0 g/cm3. In
general, low density rocks are highly porous. If porosity were zero, the
bulk density would equal the grain density.
 Permeability
• Permeability, k (dimension L2) is a measure of the ease of flow
through a rock or soil, independent of the properties of the fluid. The
unit of permeability is the darcy which is approximately 10-8 cm2.
• The permeability’s of many common rocks are one or two orders of
magnitudes less than a darcy and are usually expressed in
millidarcies.
• The principal factor controlling permeability is the size of the voids,
since if the voids are smaller, the greater will be the surface area of
contact of water with solid mineral and greater are the capillary
forces restraining the flow.
 Durability
• Durability may be defined as resistance to destruction. If a rock mass
is more durable, it will last for a longer period when put to an use
• Durability of rock mass will depend on the nature of environment
against which it is going to be used. In other words, the durability
depends on climate and atmosphere and the amount of exposure of
rock mass.
• Agencies Which reduce the durability of rock mass are -Hydration,
Slaking, Solution, Oxidation, Abrasion etc. These may act alone and in
combination.
• Rock mass starts changing as soon as a fresh surface is exposed to the
atmosphere. The process of decay retards with time. Hence before
using a rock mass , its degree of decay or its durability , has to be
ascertained
 Selection of Rocks as Materials of
Construction
• Building Stones
• Strength Characteristics
• Compressive strength
• Transverse Strength
• Porosity
• Density
• Abrasive resistance
• Frost and fire resistance
• Geological Characteristics
• Mineralogical Composition
• Texture and Structure
• Resistance to weathering
• General Characters
• Cost
• Colour
• Building Stone
• Granites
• Sand Stones
• Limestone
• Road Metal
• Basalts
• Granites
• Site Construction
• Foundations
• Granites
• Sandstone
• Decorative
• Marble
• Limestone