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Proceedings of the
European Veterinary Conference
Voorjaarsdagen
Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Apr. 22-24, 2010

Next Meeting:

Apr. 27 – 29, 2011 - Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of the Conference Organizers

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 Scientific proceedings: companion animals programme
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of the Organizers
U r o g e n i ta l C Y to lo g Y: P r o S tat i C
DiSeaSeS
Erik Teske
PhD, Dip ECVIM-CA [Int Med][Oncol], Assoc Memb
ECVCP
Dept.Clin.Scie.Comp.Anim., Veterinary Faculty,
Utrecht University
The Netherlands
e.teske@uu.nl
Prostatic disease is frequently seen
in the dog. The clinical signs may be
diverse and non-specific. Although
prostatic enlargement may be easy
to diagnose, both by rectal palpa-
tion and by ultrasound or radio-
graphs, the nature of the disease is
often difficult to assess. Histologic
examination for a definitive diagno-
sis requires either excision biopsies obtained by
laparotomy or large-bore needle biopsies, the latter
with the risk of sepsis or haemorrhage.
Compared to histology, cytology in the diagnosis of
prostatic disease may have several advantages. The
collection of material for cytologic evaluation is less
invasive than with histological biopsies. It entails a sig-
nificantly lower risk of septic complications and of
seeding tumour cells. Another advantage is the speed
of the method with results available within one hour
after biopsy. Both flush techniques and transrectal or
transabdominal biopsies techniques have been used
to obtain material for cytological examination.
With the transabdominal Fine needle aspiration
Biopsy (FNAB) technique specimens for cytology can
be obtained by ultrasound-guided fine needle aspira-
tion, using e.g. a 10 cm 21 gauge modified Menghini
aspiration biopsy needle (Surecut®) with a 10 cc
syringe1,2. The biopsy site in the parapreputial, prepu-
bic area is first prepared surgically and infiltrated with
a local anaesthetic. A small skin incision is than made
to facilitate entry of the needle. The needle is directed
to areas of lucency in the prostatic tissue, avoiding
cysts or calcifications. In the author’s experience there
is no need for preFNAB coagulation testing.
In addition, cytologic specimens can be obtained by
the catheter biopsy technique as described by Mehl-
hoff and Osborne3 under ultrasound guidance, because
guidance via the rectum cannot always be achieved. A
urinary catheter is introduced into the urethra and the
opening of the catheter is positioned in the prostatic
area of the urethra after which cells are aspirated. No
Proceedings of the European Veterinary Conference - Voorjaarsdagen, 2010 - Amsterdam, Netherlands
Abstracts European Veterinary Conference Voorjaarsdagen 2010
CHAPTER 2
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fluid is flushed during this procedure. Successful results
have been reported for this method in the dog4.
The biopsy specimens are smeared on glass slides, air-
dried, and stained by the May-Grünwald Giemsa tech-
nique or one of the Wright stain based quick stains.
Cy Tology
In a study of 77 dogs with prostatic disease, the clinical
signs appeared to be diverse and non-specific for the
different causes of prostatic disease1. Both FNAB and
catheter biopsy technique had a moderate sensitivity
for detecting prostatic carcinoma (67% each). However,
both techniques had a very high specificity for detect-
ing prostate cancer (98%). By combining the two tech-
niques the sensitivity can be enlarged. Both methods
combined only failed to obtain sufficient material in 3
dogs (3.9%). No side effects were noticed due to the
biopsy method in any of the 77 dogs.
Benign prostatic hyperplasia is cytologically charac-
terized by large groups of epithelial cells, frequently in
monolayers, with a cell morphology comparable to
normal prostatic epithelial cells. The amount of cyto-
plasm may be enlarged giving the cells the typical
columnar or polygonal appearance. The nuclei are uni-
form of size, round, often with a prominent small
nucleolus, and with fine granular chromatin pattern.
The nuclear/cytoplasm (N/C) ratio is usually low.
In prostatitis very often there is quite a degeneration
of the epithelial cells, intermixed with many neutrophils
with or without intracellular bacteria. Macrophages
and other round nuclear inflammatory cells may also
be present.
Squamous metaplasia, associated with estrogen pro-
duction of Sertoli cell tumours or iatrogenic causes,
can be present in both benign prostatic hyperplasia
and prostatitis. Several large squamous cells with a
large amount of basophilic cytoplasm, without a
nucleus or with a small condensed nucleus, can be
seen. The amount of cells that can be seen in fluid from
prostatic cysts can vary enormously. Usually only small
numbers of prostatic epithelial cells with some inflam-
matory cells can be seen against a protein rich back-
ground pattern. Several types of neoplasia can be
diagnosed in the prostate. However, most of them like
the malignant lymphoma and sarcomas occur very
infrequently.
The most common prostatic neoplasia is the pros-
tatic carcinoma. Especially in FNABs these tumours are
easy to differentiate from benign prostatic hyperpla-
sia. The majority of carcinoma are poorly differentiated
carcinomas, sometimes transitional call carcinomas
and rarely adenocarcinomas can be diagnosed. Small
69
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to large clusters of very basophilic epithelial cells, with
many malignancy criteria are present like anisocytosis,
anisokaryosis, prominent and multiple nucleoli, varia-
ble N/C ratio, abnormal mitotic figures, and irregular
and clumped chromatin pattern. Occasionally the
cytoplasm of the tumour cells may contain small to
large vacuoles, filled with a granular magenta material,
presumably of mucoid origin.
When collecting material for cytology one should try
to avoid the use of gel, for the ultrasound guidance or
for the introduction of the catheter in the urethra, as
this may result in excessive amount of granular, often
dark red coloured material.
references
1. Teske E, Nickel RF. Zur Aussagekraft der Zytologie bei der
Diagnostik des Prostata-karzinoms beim Hund. Kleintierpraxis
1996 ; 41 : 239-247.
2. Barr F. Percutaneous biopsy of abdominal organs under ultra-
sound guidance. J Small Anim Pract. 1995; 36: 105-113.
3. Melhoff T, Osborne, CA. Catheter biopsy of the urethra, urinary
bladder and prostate gland. In: Current Veterinary Therapy VI,
Kirk RW ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1977; 1173.
4. Powe JR, Canfield PJ, Martin PA. Evaluation of the cytologic
diagnosis of canine prostatic disorders. Vet Clin Pathol 2004;
33: 150-154.
C Y to lo g Y o F t H e r e S P i r ato r Y t r aC t
Erik Teske
PhD, Dip ECVIM-CA [Int Med][Oncol], Assoc Memb
ECVCP
Dept.Clin.Scie.Comp.Anim., Veterinary Faculty,
Utrecht University
The Netherlands
e.teske@uu.nl
In the diagnosis of respiratory dis-
eases the clinician has a limited
choice of diagnostic instruments.
The history and physical examina-
tion may give some valuable
information but they are seldom
conclusive. Most blood chemistry is
not useful in respiratory diseases.
Laboratory tests may reveal changes
characteristic of inflammation, but this does not
discriminate between primary and secondary inflam-
mation. In addition, peripheral blood eosinophilia does
not always accompany allergic lung diseases and when
present may instead be due to a parasitic infestation.
Even radiographic techniques can only visualize and
Proceedings of the European Veterinary Conference - Voorjaarsdagen, 2010 - Amsterdam, Netherlands
70
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localize the abnormalities, but cannot show the etiolo-
gic factor. Therefore additional diagnostic techniques
are necessary.
As histological biopsies are difficult to obtain in
respiratory tract disease, cytological evaluation, with
or without culture techniques, is usually the most
important diagnostic tool in veterinary practice. Cyto-
logical specimens can be obtained from the respira-
tory tract by tracheal washing, bronchial brushing,
bronchoalveolar lavage, or biopsy, either bronchial
biopsy or percutaneous aspiration biopsy. The tech-
nique used depends on the localization of the disease,
the performance of the patient, and the equipment
available to the clinician.
tracheal washings can be obtained by the transtra-
cheal technique or through an endotracheal tube.
However, when the animal is already anaesthetized, a
thorough tracheoscopy and bronchoscopy is prefera-
ble, combined with the collection of material for cyto-
logical examination. In our view, the transtracheal
technique should be reserved for bad performance
patients in whom anaesthesia is too high a risk.
Bronchial brushing is indicated for sampling of the
main bronchi. If the lesion is located deeper in the res-
piratory tract, bronchoalveolar lavage should be per-
formed. Lesions outside the bronchial tree, in the lung
parenchyma, are indications for percutaneous aspir-
ation biopsies. Aspiration biopsy under ultrasound
guidance can be used to sample large localized lesions.
However, in diffuse or disseminated parenchymal lung
disease a blind percutaneous aspiration biopsy using a
modified Menghini needle (10 cm long, 18 to 21 gauge
diameter) is the diagnostic technique of choice.
The normal cellular components encountered in cyto-
logical specimens obtained from the respiratory tract
may vary with the source of the sample. In the trachea
and main bronchi large columnar ciliated epithelial
cells are most frequently seen. These cells usually occur
single but may also be arranged in rows or even in
groups with a honeycomb appearance. The nucleus is
located at the basal end of the cell. At the broad oppo-
site end of the cell is a large, thick terminal bar from
which the long, thin, eosinophilic cilia emerge. Occa-
sionally some mucus-secreting, or ‘goblet’ cells are
present. The mucus within the cytoplasm of these cells
may distort the columnar shape and may cause flatten-
ing of the nucleus. Goblet cells have neither a terminal
bar nor cilia. Squamous epithelial cells are usually only
found in small numbers in samples originating from
the upper respiratory tract, buccal and nasal cavities,
pharynx, and larynx. If samples from the lower respira-
tory tract yield squamous cells, contamination from
Abstracts European Veterinary Conference Voorjaarsdagen 2010
 Scientific proceedings: companion animals programme
Reprinted in IVIS with the permission of the Organizers
the mouth or from the pharyngeal-laryngeal region
should be suspected. The presence of the very large
Simonsiella spp. bacteria, which originate in the mouth,
also confirms such contamination.
In the smaller airways the epithelial cells become more
cubical and the number of goblet cells decreases. Mac-
rophages can be found in all samples, but are more
often seen in samples obtained from the smaller bron-
chioles and alveoli. Occasional granulocytes and lym-
phocytes are also found in variable numbers, even in
the absence of symptomatic inflammation.
The cellular content of samples obtained from animals
with lung disease depends on the cause and duration
of the disease. An increase in numbers of goblet cells
can be caused by any chronic pulmonary irritant and at
the same time the well differentiated columnar or cubi-
cal ciliated epithelial cells can be replaced by more
undifferentiated basal cells. Although normally small
amounts of mucus will be found, in inflammation/irri-
tation increased production of mucus will lead to a
greater amount of mucus present. This mucus can be
recognized as amorphous sheets pink or blue in color.
Sometimes casts of mucus can be seen which appear
as spiral forms, the so-called Curschmann’s spirals.
Many neutrophils indicate inflammation and a thor-
ough search should be made for an etiologic factor.
Specimens should be taken for bacterial culture, or
fungal culture if indicated. The presence of large num-
bers of eosinophils is an indication of immune-medi-
ated disease. The presence of parasites should be ruled
out. The presence of eosinophils in tracheal or bron-
chial washings in cats is a matter of much debate lately.
Some investigators believe that large numbers of eosi-
nophils may be retrieved from the bronchoalveolar
lavage fluid of healthy cats. We believe, however, that
this finding is abnormal. Sometimes the tracheal or
bronchoalveolar lavage may demonstrate the pres-
ence of parasitic, mycotic, protozoal or bacterial
infection.
Cells found in neoplastic lung disease differ according
to their origin. Lung tumors may be primary or meta-
static. Primary tumors are usually of epithelial origin,
and adenocarcinomas are the most frequently occur-
ring lung tumors. However, they are usually difficult to
distinguish from metastatic carcinomas. It is beyond
the scope of this abstract to give a detailed description
of the cytology of all different types of tumors that can
occur in the lung.
Proceedings of the European Veterinary Conference - Voorjaarsdagen, 2010 - Amsterdam, Netherlands
Abstracts European Veterinary Conference Voorjaarsdagen 2010
CHAPTER 2
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literature
- Rebar AH, DeNicola DB. The cytologic examination of the res-
piratory tract. Sem Vet Med & Surg (Small Animals) 1988; 3:109-
121.
- Roudebush P. Diagnostics for respiratory diseases. In: Kirk RW
(ed), Current Veterinary Therapy VIII, WB Saunders Co, Phila-
Cy Tology
delphia, 1983, pp 225-230.
- Teske E, Stokhof AA, van den Ingh TSGAM, et al. Transthoracic
needle aspiration biopsy of the lung in dogs with pulmonic
diseases. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 1991; 27:289-294.
- Venker-van Haagen AJ. Bronchoscopy of the normal and
abnormal canine. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 1979;15:397-410.
- Zinkl JG. Cytology of respiratory tract disease. Sem Vet Med &
Surg (Small Animals) 1986;1:302-317.
C Y to lo g Y o F t H e lYm P H n o D e
Erik Teske
PhD, Dip ECVIM-CA [Int Med][Oncol], Assoc Memb
ECVCP
Dept.Clin.Scie.Comp.Anim., Veterinary Faculty,
Utrecht University,
The Netherlands
e.teske@uu.nl
the cytological appearance of
the normal lymph node
Although the normal lymph node is
seldom aspirated, familiarity with
the normal cytological appearance
is necessary in order to recognize
abnormalities. Mild antigenic stimu-
lation also takes place in the normal
lymph node and in principle all of
the stages of B- and T-lymphocytes can be found. How-
ever, the majority (85-95%) of the cells are small B- and
T-lymphocytes. These cells are characterized by little
cytoplasm, round nuclei without nucleoli, and often
slightly rough chromatin structure. The size of these
cells (about 10µm) lies between that of erythrocytes
and polymorphonuclear granulocytes. The cytoplasm
of lymphocytes is rather fragile and can be found in
loose fragments throughout the smear, the so-called
lymphoglandular bodies. A normal lymph node also
contains other developing stages of the lymphoid
series but never more than 5-10% of the total number
of cells. Other, nonlymphoid cells occurring in a normal
lymph node include polymorphonuclear neutrophilic
and eosinophilic granulocytes, macrophages, histio-
cytes, mast cells, erythrocytes, and monocytes. These
cells are only present sporadically.
71
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Benign Changes
Reactive hyperplasia
The most frequent cause of a generalized lymphaden-
opathy is reactive hyperplasia, via which the lymph
node reacts to an antigenic stimulus. Reactive hyper-
plasia is characterized cytologically by an increase in
the number of large blast cells, such as immunoblasts
and centroblasts, in relation to the number of small,
normal lymphocytes. There are also more mitoses and
the number of lymphoplasmacytoid cells (intermedi-
ate stage between immunoblast and plasma cell) and
plasma cells is increased. Sometimes “Russell’s bodies”
are seen in the cytoplasm of plasma cells. These are
vacuoles filled with immunoglobulins.
Depending on the cause of the stimulation there can
also be increased numbers of other types of cells, such
as macrophages, polymorphonuclear granulocytes
and, especially in skin disorders, eosinophilic granulo-
cytes and mast cells.
Lymphadenitis
The presence of many inflammatory cells in the lymph
node is referred to as lymphadenitis. Differentiation
into purulent and granulomatous lymphadenitis is
made according to the types of inflammatory cells.
Purulent lymphadenitis is characterized by the occur-
rence of many polymorphonuclear granulocytes, usu-
ally combined with a light reactive lymphoid popula-
tion and a few macrophages. The difference from a
reactive hyperplasia is sometimes difficult to confirm,
but can also be quite clear, as in bacterial lymphadeni-
tis. In the latter case there are many polymorphonu-
clear granulocytes, necrosis, and sometimes bacteria.
Lymphoid cells can even be completely absent. An
increase in eosinophilic granulocytes is seen mainly in
allergic dermatitis and such parasitic infections as
leishmaniasis. If bacteria are present they will be found
in granulocytes, while parasites will mainly be found in
macrophages.
Granulomatous lymphadenitis is also usually charac-
terized by a slight reactive lymphoid picture and in
addition an increase in macrophages, epithelioid cells,
and multinucleated giant cells. Epithelioid cells are
reticulum cells with an elongated oval nucleus, which
is often indented and one end and which has a lightly
granular chromatin pattern. Epithelioid cells are often
missing cytoplasm in the preparation. Sometimes
these cells occur in clusters and can then resemble car-
cinoma metastases. Granulomatous lymphadenitis is
seen in toxoplasmosis, fungal and yeast infections, and
certain bacterial infections (e.g., infections with Myco-
bacterium spp).
Proceedings of the European Veterinary Conference - Voorjaarsdagen, 2010 - Amsterdam, Netherlands
72
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A dermatopathic lymphadenopathy is a granuloma-
tous lymphadenitis which occurs with skin disorders in
which pruritus, scaling of skin and skin damage are
prominent. The cellular picture is characterized by the
presence of many brown-black melanin granules and a
few eosinophilic granulocytes. Interdigitating cells are
also encountered. These are elongated histiocytes
with a reticular nucleus and a characteristic indenta-
tion of the nucleus.
malignant Changes
Metastatic malignancies
A complete survey of metastatic malignancies in the
lymph node is not worthwhile, for in principle all malig-
nant tumors can metastasize via the lymphatic system.
Some types of tumors do metastasize earlier than oth-
ers to the regional lymph node. Sarcomas generally
spread earlier by hematogenous than by lymphoge-
nous routes. Carcinomas, melanomas, and mast cells
tumors are often found to metastasize to the lymph
node, although this also depends upon the histologi-
cal subtypes. In principle every cytological preparation
from a lymph node in which there are cells that do not
belong in a lymph node is suspect for metastatic
malignancy.
Lymphoid malignancies
Primary malignant transformation of the lymph node
usually involves cells of the lymphoid system. Such
cells as epithelioid cells and histiocytes are seldom
involved. The cytological appearance of the malignant
lymphoma can vary from patient to patient. One
assumes that a lymphoid cell in each stage of its devel-
opment can become malignant, whether by a block-
age in further differentiation or by autonomous prolif-
eration of a certain cell type. The cell types which are
encountered in malignant lymphoma thus do not dif-
fer in appearance from normal lymphoid cells. The
cytological differentiation rests on the presence of a
monotonous cell population, while in a non-lymphom-
atous lymph node all different development stages of
the lymphoid series are visible.
Various classifications schemes have been developed
for non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas in man. The Kiel classifi-
cation (Lennert, 1974) is based entirely on the transfor-
mation scheme for normal lymphocytes and is very
suitable for cytological purposes (Table 1).
Abstracts European Veterinary Conference Voorjaarsdagen 2010
 Scientific proceedings: companion animals programme

CHAPTER 2
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Table 1. Kiel classification according to Lennert, 1974 inflammation

Some special types of inflammatory processes can be
Low grade Lymphocytic recognized on cytological evaluation:
Immunocytic - Plasmacytic pododermatitis
Plasmacytic Plasmacytic pododermatitis starts as a soft swelling
Centrocytic of one or multiple footpads. Aspirates demonstrate

Centroblastic/centrocytic
High Grade Centroblastic
pure centroblastic
centrocytoid
polymorphic centroblastic
Lymphoblastic
Immunoblastic
Other
histiocytic
‘multilobated’ cell
Mucosis Fungoides
If the aspirated cell population consists mainly of char-
acteristic blasts, the diagnosis of malignant lymphoma
is not so difficult to make. However, there are also
forms of lymphoma in which the tumor cells are diffi-
cult to differentiate from mature lymphocytes, espe-
cially for the less experienced cytologist. This can be
the case, for example, with the lymphocytic and cen-
trocytic lymphomas. Problems can also occur when
the lymphoma contains more than one cell type, as in
the immunocytic or centroblastic/centrocytic lym-
phoma. In many of these cases, the cell combination of
enlarged lymph node and nonreactive cellular appear-
ance is decisive, especially if the cell population is
monomorphic.
C Y to lo g Y o F ( S U B ) C U ta n e o U S l e S i o n S
i n t H e C at
Erik Teske
PhD, Dip ECVIM-CA [Int Med][Oncol], Assoc Memb
ECVCP
Dept.Clin.Scie.Comp.Anim., Veterinary Faculty,
Utrecht University
The Netherlands
e.teske@uu.nl
During this presentation an over-
view of cytological diagnoses of sub-
cutaneous and cutaneous lesions in
the cat will be given. In this abstract
some selected diagnoses will be dis-
cussed.
Cy Tology
large numbers of plasma cells. Some lymphocytes
and neutrophils may also be present. Most plasma
cells are well differentiated.
- Nodular panniculitis
In nodular panniculitis sterile subcutaneous inflam-
mation of fat tissue results in the formation of one
or more subcutaneous nodules, which may ulcer-
ate. A pyogranulomatous inflammation with non-
degenerated neutrophils, foamy macrophages and
multinucleated giant cells is characteristic for the
disease. A fatty background and lipocytes are
present. No microorganisms can be found.
- Eosinophilic inflammations
Biopsy samples contain large numbers of eosi-
nophilic granulocytes. This type of inflammation
occurs in the eosinophilic granuloma in the cat, the
lick granuloma in the dog, and also in parasitic
infections and allergic reactions. Eosinophilic gran-
ulocytic infiltrates are also a characteristic finding in
many mast cell tumours.
- (Lympho)plasmacytic gingivitis/stomatitis is a dis-
ease with an unclear etiology can present itself in
many different ways in cats of all ages. Cytologic
specimens can be obtained by brush methods and
might reveal a combination of plasma cells, lym-
phocytes and sometimes also neutrophils. The
morphology of the cells is normal. The ratios
between the different cell types can largely vary
among cases.
Injection-site sarcomas in the cat are located in the
hypodermis and have great cellular pleomorphism and
high mitotic rates. Many of these sarcomas are associ-
ated with inflammation. The inflammatory reaction is
characterized by frequent aggregates of lymphocytes
and smaller numbers of plasma cells. Large round mac-
rophages with blue-gray cytoplasm, presumably asso-
ciated with phagocytised adjuvant material, are com-
monly found within, around, or adjacent to these
sarcomas. Tumours are often contiguous with granula-
tion tissue that surrounds areas of necrosis at the vac-
cine site. Multinucleated giant cells are a common find-
ing in feline vaccine-associated fibrosarcoma.
tumours
In contrast to the dog the mammary tumours in the cat
are almost always of the simple type. Mixed tumours
are hardly ever found. Therefore, diagnoses like ade-
noma, adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and

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Abstracts European Veterinary Conference Voorjaarsdagen 2010 73
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undifferentiated carcinoma are the most common
diagnoses. A special lesion occurs due to hormonal
stimulation, especially in young cats, and is called
fibroadenomatous hyperplasia. This hormonally
induced proliferation affects primarily the intralobular
ducts. In aspirates of this lesions both uniform epithe-
lial cells and spindle mesenchymal cells can be found.
The epithelial cells are in sheets, have little cytoplasm,
and have dense round nuclei.
Melanomas are tumours composed of cells that pro-
duce melanin. In addition to round-oval cells there are
usually some spindle-shaped cells and sometimes
these dominate the picture. Very bizarre cell forms and
giant cells can also occur. The amount of pigment in
melanoma cells can vary markedly. Melanomas can be
malignant or benign. If the nucleus is visible it also may
show definite malignancy criteria. The melanomas that
hardly contain any pigment are almost always malig-
nant. Such amelanotic melanomas are difficult as such
to diagnose but a careful search of the preparation will
often still reveal a few melanin-containing cells. Macro-
phages with phagocytized melanin granules may give
an indication to the origin of the tumour.
Cutaneous malignant melanomas in cats can also be
melanotic or amelanotic. Five types of melanomas can
be distinguished: epithelioid, spindle, mixed, signet-
ring, and balloon cell. Whereas all epithelioid, spindle,
and mixed epithelioid/spindle cell types show pigmen-
tation, signet-ring and balloon cell types are often
amelanotic.
tumour a less differentiated appearance, basal cell
tumours are considered benign.
Squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) are quite common
tumours. Preparations from squamous cell carcinomas
are usually cell rich and contain loose tumour cells as
well as clusters. The characteristics of malignancy can
be very pronounced or not very obvious.
SCC easily become ulcerated and then contain many
inflammatory cells. Because aspirates from SCC usually
contain neoplastic a s well as normal, non-neoplastic
squamous cells in all stages of development, the malig-
nancy criteria of well-differentiated SCC can be less
obvious, the diagnosis of these tumours is sometimes
difficult. One of the characteristic features of SCC is the
discrepancy between maturation of the nucleus and
the cytoplasm. The tumour cells can contain a large
amount of vacuolated cytoplasm and at the same time
a completely intact, non-pyknotic nucleus having a
detailed structure that sometimes also has malignancy
criteria. Sometimes the vacuoles have become conflu-
ent into one large vacuole that causes a noticeable
clear space around the nucleus, so that the cell resem-
bles a bull’s-eye. This is a strong indication of malig-
nancy. Also, the occurrence side by side in a single clus-
ter of mature and immature cells, or cells of markedly
different basophilia, is very suspicious.

Basal cell tumours are infrequent epithelial tumours

that arise from the basal cell layer of the epidermis. His-
tologically, they can be divided into different varieties.
The cytological diagnosis can be difficult due to the
variable cytological features. Basal cells are round or
elongated cells with one nucleus in a central or basal
position and fine granular chromatin with a single and,
in most cases, poorly detectable nucleolus. The N/C
ratio is 1:1, with a uniform size of cells within cell aggre-
gates. The basal cells can be organized in fragments of
tissue, often with a typical linear or palisade-like
arrangement. In some cases well-differentiated fibro-
cytes and fibroblasts can be found, as well as pig-
mented basal cells or melanocytes. In addition, the
presence of some squamous cells in some basal cell
tumours with basosquamous areas can confuse the
examiner even further. In most tumours also some
inflammatory cells, such as neutrophils, can be
detected. Despite the fact that in several tumours a sig-
nificant proportion of the basal cells might reveal a few
malignancy criteria, such as anisokaryosis, anisonucle-
oliosis and clumped chromatin pattern, giving the

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74 Abstracts European Veterinary Conference Voorjaarsdagen 2010