Data Communication

CENG435 Data Communications and
Networking
2017-2018 Fall
Dr. Ertan Onur
WINS Lab
2017-2018 Fall
Courseware
Section 1
Courseware
Courseware
Logistics
I 2016-2017 Fall (3 Credits)

I Section 1
I Fridays (BMB4, 13:40 - 15:30)
I Wednesdays (BMB5, 11:40 - 12:30)
I Section 2
I Fridays (BMB4, 10:40 - 12:30)
I Wednesdays (BMB5, 12:40 - 13:30)
Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 1 / 487

Courseware
Lecturer
I Ertan Onur
I Room: Z019 (WINS Lab) or B211 (Dept. of Computer Eng.)
I Tel: +90 (312) 210 5534
I Email: eronur@metu.edu.tr
I Office Hours: (Fridays) 09:30-10:30 and by appointment

Courseware
Teaching Assistants
I Alperen Eroğlu, alperen@ceng.metu.edu.tr, 5535, B205

I M. Cagri Kaya, mckaya@ceng.metu.edu.tr, 5592, A402

Courseware
Communication
I Mainly MOODLE: http://odtuclass.metu.edu.tr/

I COW: http://cow.ceng.metu.edu.tr (Only for newsgroup)

Courseware
Textbook
Textbook
Kurose, J.F. and Ross, K.W., Computer
Networking: A Top-down Approach, 6th
Ed., Pearson, 2013
(http://www.pearsonhighered.com/
kurose-ross/)
Supplemental Book
Tanenbaum, A. S. and Wetherall, D.,
Computer Networks, 5th Ed., Prentice Hall,
2011 (http://computernetworks5e.org)

Courseware
Intended Audience
This textbook is for a first course on computer networking. It can be used in

both computer science and electrical engineering departments. In terms of
programming languages, the book assumes only that the student has
experience with C, C++, Java, or Python (and even then only in a few
places). Although this book is more precise and analytical than many other
introductory computer networking texts, it rarely uses any mathematical
concepts that are not taught in high school. We have made a deliberate
effort to avoid using any advanced calculus, probability, or stochastic process
concepts (although we’ve included some homework problems for students
with this advanced background). The book is therefore appropriate for
undergraduate courses and for first-year graduate courses. It should also
be useful to practitioners in the telecommunications industry. (Kurose and
Ross, 2013).

Courseware
Disclaimer
Some of these slides are identical to those published by

I Jim Kurose and Keith Ross (Kurose and Ross, 2013).
I Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall (Tanenbaum and
Wetherall, 2011).

Courseware
Course Objectives
At the end of this course, YOU will be able to:

1. Understand the basic principles of communication protocols in the context of the Internet.
2. Explain the operation and architecture of the Internet including the software and hardware
components to provide Internet services.
3. Compare and contrast various application layer protocols such as HTTP, SMTP, DNS;
connection-oriented communication protocols such as TCP and connectionless
communication protocols such as UDP at transport layer; virtual-circuit and packet
switching at network layer; link-state and distance-vector routing at network layer; and
multiple access techniques at link layer.
4. Devise protocols for reliable data transfer over unreliable channels, congestion control or
flow control either in the user or kernel space of operating systems at the transport layer.
5. Design and implement networking protocols at any layer of the OSI communication stack
above the physical layer using socket programming interface.

Courseware
Course Outline
Introduction and physical layer . . . . (Chapter 1) . . . . 9 hours

Application layer . . . . . . . . . . . (Chapter 2) . . . . . . . . . . . 6 hours
Transport layer . . . . . . . . . . . . (Chapter 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 hours
Network layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Chapter 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 hours
Link layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(Chapter 5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 hours

Courseware
Assessment and Grading
Assignments (×2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13+17%

Midterm exams (×2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17+20%
Final . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33%

Courseware
Rules
Academic Honesty: There will be no tolerance to cheating in the

exam, to plagiarism (copying someone else’s work as if it is yours) and
to taking advantage in group assignments and projects. The student
who cheats will fail the course and be punished according to METU
regulations.
Attendance Policy: Attendance may play a critical role in the exams.
Participation in the discussions is strongly encouraged.
NA Grade: Regardless of your overall grade at the end of the class,
you will get an NA grade if you have no valid assignment submissions
or if you have not attended at least one of the midterms. Empty/dummy
assignment submissions will not be considered as a valid submission.

Computer Networks and the Internet
Section 2

What is This?

Objectives of the Lecture
At the end of this lecture, you will be able to

define the context of this course and explain the introductory concepts
(protocol, packet- and circuit-switching, reference models and security)
in networking

Overview and Compulsory Reading
I Focus of the course

I What’s the Internet? What’s a protocol? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
I Network edge; hosts, access net, physical media . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2
I Network core: switching, Internet structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3
I Protocol layers, service models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
I Security (reading) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
I History (reading) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7

Ticket to Retention (TtR) Questions
1. Packet- versus circuit-switching: Suppose that all of the network

sources are bursty -that they only occasionally have data to send.
Would packet-switching or circuit switching be more desirable in
this case? Why?
2. Network of networks: Draw figures representing the evolution of
the structure of the Internet.
3. Protocol layers: Draw a figure showing the layers of the Internet
stack, associate each layer with the name of packets processed at
that layer and the task(s) of the layer.

Computer Networks and the Internet Focus of the Course
Focus of the Course

Focus of the Course
Distributed Systems Applications

Networking Packets
Communications Signals
Scope
We are focusing on networking that is in the middle. Networks enable
distributed applications by using and organizing the
communication technologies.

Focus of the Course

Why Do You Take This Course?
Your Objectives in this Course

What do you want to be able to do at the end of this course?

Focus of the Course

Why Do You Take This Course?
Your Objectives in this Course

What do you want to be able to do at the end of this course?
I We use the Internet a lot. Learning how it works.

I What is TCP/IP, ADSL, LTE, etc?
I As engineers, we may design new networks. Learning the
principles of a successful system, the Internet.
I Societal and economic impact of the Internet.
I Evolution/revolution?

Focus of the Course

What happens on the Internet in a minute. (Source: INTEL)

Focus of the Course

Why do we build networks?
What are the example uses of the networks?

I Work: email, file sharing, ...
I Home: listening to music, measuring temperature, ...
I Mobile: navigation, ...
Why do we build networks?

Human and/or computer communication, resource sharing, content
delivery, cyberphysical systems and connected digital world ...

Computer Networks and the Internet What is the Internet?
What is the Internet?

Elements of a Data Network
THINK PAIR SHARE

Plot figures illustrating relationships
among network elements


Elements of a Data Network
Example:


Network (Nuts and Bolts) View
I millions of connected
computing devices: hosts (end
systems) running network
applications
I communication links (fiber,
copper, radio, satellite) with a
transmission rate (bandwidth)
I Packet switches and routers:
forward packets (chunks of
data)


Network (Nuts and Bolts) View
I Internet: “network of
networks”: Interconnected
Internet Service Providers
(ISP)
I protocols control sending,
receiving of messages; e.g.,
TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.11
I Internet standards; RFC:
Request for comments, IETF:
Internet Engineering Task
Force


Turkey: ULAKNET (http://www.ulakbim.gov.tr/ulaknet)


Turkey: TeknoTel Satellite (http://www.teknotel.com)


Turkey: TTNET-PANTEL Fiber (http://www.turktelekomint.com)


Service View
I Infrastructure that provides

services to applications: Web,
VoIP, email, games,
e-commerce, social nets.
I Provides programming
interface to applications
I hooks that allow sending
and receiving application
programs to “connect” to
Internet
I provides service options,
analogous to postal service


Information-centric View (HOT RESEARCH TOPIC)
I Network of Information
I Main purpose is to acquire information

What is a Protocol?

What is a Protocol?
Definition of Protocol
A protocol defines the format and the order of messages exchanged
between two or more communicating entities, as well as the actions
taken on the transmission and/or receipt of a message or other event.
Mastering Computer Networking

Mastering the field of computer networking is equivalent to
understanding the what, why, and how of networking protocols

Practice What You Preach

Protocols: Brainstorm
In a lecture, there are many students. Sometimes

students want to ask a question to the teacher.
I What are the issues here?
I What kind of a protocol can you employ?
Why?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS


In a lecture, there are many students. Sometimes

students want to ask a question to the teacher.
Why?
Typical answer
I Collisions, two or more students talking
simultaneously; medium reservation for
avoiding collisions.
PAIR UP and
I Raise the hand, get permission from lecturer,
DISCUSS
ask, listen, ack.


Assume that you cannot directly talk to your
partner in a crowded party. You can only talk to
your neighbor(s). How can you send a message
to your partner (with the help of neighbors) when
your partner is far away from you?
Why?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS


Assume that you cannot directly talk to your
partner in a crowded party. You can only talk to
your neighbor(s). How can you send a message
to your partner (with the help of neighbors) when
your partner is far away from you?
Why?
Typical answer
PAIR UP and I Discovering neighbors, learning the topology,
DISCUSS routing decisions, ...
I Routing protocols

Computer Networks and the Internet Network Edge
Network Edge
End-system Interaction
Scenario: Assume you access

Google from your smartphone
connected to a mobile network.

Network Edge
Access Network
I Network edge: hosts: clients

and servers
I Access networks, physical
media: wired, wireless
communication links
I Network core: interconnected
routers, network of networks

Network Edge
Access Network
Access Network
The network that physically connects an end system to the first router
-also known as the “edge router”- on a path from the end system to
any other distant end system
Examples:
I Home Access: DSL, Cable, FTTH, Dial-Up, and Satellite
I Access in the Enterprise (and the Home): Ethernet and WiFi
I Wide-Area Wireless Access: 3G and LTE

Network Edge
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Internet Access
I Use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

I Data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
I Voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
Network Edge
A Hybrid Fiber Coaxial access Network
I Asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream transmission rate, 2 Mbps

upstream transmission rate
I Homes share access network to cable headend unlike DSL, which
Network Edge
Fiber to The Home (FTTH)
I Optical fiber path from central office to home

I Gigabits per second
Network Edge
Ethernet Internet Access
I Typically used in companies, universities, ...

I 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
IDr. Today, end Lab)
Ertan Onur (WINS systems typicallyCENG435
connect into Ethernet switch
2017-2018 Fall 40 / 487
Network Edge
A Typical Home Network

Network Edge
Wireless Access Networks
I provided by telco (cellular)

I within building (30-40 meters) operator, 10’s of kilometers
I 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54 Mbps I between 1 and 10 Mbps
transmission rate I 3G, 4G: LTE

Computer Networks and the Internet Network Core
Network Core
I mesh of interconnected
routers

Network Core
Packet- and Circuit-Switching
Packet switching
Hosts break application-layer Circuit Switching
messages into packets and End-to-end resources are allocated
packets are sent as soon as they to and reserved for the call
are available. No need to setup a between source and destination. A
dedicated path in advance. dedicated (physical) path is setup
Routers use store-and-forward in advance.
transmission.

Network Core
Packet-switching: Store-and-forward
I takes L/R seconds to transmit L-bit

packet into link at R bps
I store and forward: entire packet must
arrive at router before it can be
transmitted on next link
I end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming 0
propagation delay)
Network Core

Question
L = 7.5 Mbits R = 1.5 Mbps
What is the one-hop
transmission delay?
propagation delay)
Network Core

Question
L = 7.5 Mbits R = 1.5 Mbps
What is the one-hop
transmission delay? 5sec.
propagation delay)

Packet-switching: Brainstorm
Consider the general case of sending one packet

from source to destination over a path consisting
of N links each of rate R? What is the end-to-end
transmission delay?
Hint
There are N − 1 routers.
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS


Packet-switching: Brainstorm
Consider the general case of sending one packet

from source to destination over a path consisting
of N links each of rate R? What is the end-to-end
transmission delay?
Hint
There are N − 1 routers.
Answer
PAIR UP and L
NR
DISCUSS

Network Core
Queueing Delays and Packet Loss
I If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link for a
period of time:
I packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
I packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up

Network Core
Two Key Network Core Functions
Routing (control plane) Forwarding (data plane)

Determines source-destination Move packets from router’s input to
route taken by packets appropriate router output
IN-CLASS ACTIVITY
There are two steps:
1. Assume that you are connected to (i.e., can communicate
with) those friends of yours within 1 meter range.
Determine the shortest route to another random friend of
yours.
2. Send a piece of text message to the selected friend over
the shortest route.

Network Core
Alternative Core: Circuit Switching
I In diagram, each link has four

circuits
I call gets 2nd circuit in top link
and 1st circuit in right link
THINK PAIR
SHARE
What are the
advantages and
disadvantages of
circuit switching
compared to packet
switching?

Network Core
Packet- and Circuit-Switching
Packet switching Circuit Switching

End-end resources allocated to,
Hosts break application-layer
reserved for call between source
messages into packets
and destination.
I shared resources
I dedicated resources, no
I forward packets from one sharing
router to the next, across links
I circuit-like (guaranteed)
on path from source to
performance
destination
I circuit segment idle if not used
I each packet transmitted at full
by call (no sharing)
link capacity
I Commonly used in telephone
I no call setup
networks


Packet- versus Circuit-switching
Fill in the table? CS: Circuit switched, PS: Packet

Switched.
Item CS PS
Call setup required
Dedicated physical path
Packet follows the same route
Packets arrive in order?
Is a switch crash fatal?
Fixed bandwidth availability
PAIR UP and
Congestion at setup?
DISCUSS
Store and forward transmission?
Wasted bandwidth (potentially)

Network Core
Packet- and Circuit-Switching Comparison


Circuit-switching: Brainstorm
You have one cable but many circuits? How is

this possible?
Hint
How do you schedule classroom(s) for different
courses?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS


Circuit-switching: Brainstorm
You have one cable but many circuits? How is

this possible?
Hint
How do you schedule classroom(s) for different
courses?
Answer
I Two courses at the same time in different
classrooms.
PAIR UP and I Two courses at different times in the same
DISCUSS classroom.

Network Core
Circuit Switching: FDM versus TDM
I FDM: Frequency-division multiplexing

IDr. TDM:
Ertan OnurTime-division
multiplexing
(WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 54 / 487

Packet-switching versus Circuit-switching
Suppose N users share a 1 Mbps link. Also

suppose that each user alternates between
periods of activity, when a user generates data at
a constant rate of 100 kbps, and periods of
inactivity, when a user generates no data.
Suppose further that a user is active only 10 per
cent of the time (and is idly drinking coffee during
the remaining 90 per cent of the time). How
many simultaneous users, N can this system
PAIR UP and support when circuit- or packet-switching is
DISCUSS employed?


With circuit switching, 100 kbps must be

reserved for each user at all times. For example,
with circuit-switched TDM, if a one-second frame
is divided into 10 time slots of 100 ms each, then
each user would be allocated one time slot per
frame. Thus, the circuit-switched link can support
only 10 (= 1 Mbps/100 kbps) simultaneous
users.
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS


With packet switching, the probability that a

specific user is active is 0.1. If there are 35 users,
the probability that there are 11 or more
simultaneously active users is approximately
0.0004 (minuscule). When there are 10 or fewer
simultaneously active users, the aggregate arrival
rate of data is less than or equal to 1 Mbps, the
output rate of the link. Thus, when there are 10 or
fewer active users, users’ packets flow through
the link essentially without delay, as is the case
PAIR UP and with circuit switching. Packet switching allows for
DISCUSS more than three times (35) the number of users.

Network Core
Internet Structure I
I End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet Service

Providers)
I Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
THINK PAIR SHARE

How would you connect millions of
access ISPs to each other? Connecting
each ISP to each other directly does
not scale: O N 2 connections.

Network Core
Internet Structure II

Network Core
Internet Structure III
I At the center there are small number of well-connected large

networks
I “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT),
national & international coverage
I content provider network (e.g, Google): private network that
connects it data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1,
regional ISPs

Computer Networks and the Internet Layering
Layering
Modularity
The network does much for applications

I Make and break connections
I Find a path through the network
I Transfers information reliably
I Transfers arbitrary length information
I Send as fast as the network allows
I Shares bandwidth among users
I Secures information in transit
I Lets many new hosts be added
I ...

Layering
Modularity
Modularity
We need a form of modularity to manage complexity and facilitate
reusability
Protocols and layering is the main structuring method used to divide

up network functionality
I Each instance of a protocol talks virtually to its peer using the
protocol
I Each instance of a protocol uses only the services of the lower
layer

Layering
An Example: Taking an Airplane Trip

Layering
An Example: Taking an Airplane Trip

Layering
Protocols and Layers

Layering
Protocol Stack

Layering
Internet Protocol Stack and OSI Reference Model

Layering
Internet Protocol Stack
I application: supporting network applications, FTP, SMTP, HTTP

I transport: process-process data transfer, TCP, UDP
I network: routing of datagrams from source to destination, IP,
routing protocols
I link: data transfer between neighboring network elements,
Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), PPP
I physical: bits “on the wire”
link + physical = interface

Layering
Internet Protocol Stack

Layering
ISO/OSI reference model
Internet Protocol Stack +

I presentation: allow applications to interpret meaning of data,
e.g., encryption, compression, machine, specific conventions
I session: synchronization, checkpointing, recovery of data
exchange
On the Internet, these functionalities are implemented in the
application layer.


Protocol Stack
What is the protocol stack when a web browser

on a host is wireless connected to the Internet?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Layering
Encapsulation
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the mechanism used to effect protocol layering: lower
layer wraps higher layer content, adding its own information to make a
new message for delivery

Layering
Encapsulation

Layering
Encapsulation Example

Layering
Encapsulation Example


Which Protocol?
For an incoming packet, how do you identify the

protocol associated with the packet?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Layering
Demultiplexing
Incoming message must be passed to the protocols that it uses

Layering
Demultiplexing

Layering
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
Information hiding and reuse
Disadvantages
Information hiding and overhead

Computer Networks and the Internet Ticket to Retention
Ticket to Retention (TtR) Discussion

Summary - Main Learning Points
1. Packet- versus circuit-switching: Suppose that all of the network

sources are bursty -that they only occasionally have data to send.
Would packet-switching or circuit switching be more desirable in
this case? Why?
2. Network of networks: Draw figures representing the evolution of
the structure of the Internet.
3. Protocol layers: Draw a figure showing the layers of the Internet
stack, associate each layer with the name of packets processed at
that layer and the task(s) of the layer.

Physical Layer
Section 3
Physical Layer
Physical Layer

explain the elementary concepts in phsical layer such as signal
propagation, modulation, bit error rate and fundamental limits.

Physical Layer
I Performance: loss, delay, throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4

I Physical media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tanenbaum, 2.2
I Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tanenbaum, 2.1
I Fundamental limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tanenbaum, 2.1
I Modulation and multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tanenbaum, 2.5
OPTIONAL: For a broad discussion on the topic, refer to Part II of
Stallings, W., Data and Computer Communications, 9th Ed., Prentice
Hall, 2010 (Stallings, 2013).

Physical Layer
1. Fundamental limits: Why can we not transmit infinitely many bits

per second over a channel. What are the limits?
2. Signals over a wire: What happens to signals as they propagate
over a wire?
3. Base- and pass-band signals: How can we transmit baseband
signals over higher frequency carriers?

Physical Layer Introduction to Physical Layer
Physical Layer
Where Are We in the Course?
Physical layer
concerns how signals are used to
transfer bits over a link

Physical Layer
Simple Link Model
Abstraction of physical channel

I Rate (bandwidth, capacity, speed) in bits/sec
I Delay in seconds
I Broadcast or not?
I Error rate (related to the rate)

Physical Layer
Latency in Simple Link Model
I Transmission delay dt : time to put M bit frame on the wire

I Propagation delay dg : time for bits to propagate across the wire
I Latency D = dt + dg is the delay to send a message over a link

Physical Layer
Bandwidth-Delay Product
I Messages take space on the wire.

I The amount of data in flight is the bandwidth-delay product
BD = D × R (bits)
Example: Assume a cross country fiber: rate, R = 40 Mbps and
average delay, D = 50 ms. When fiber is broken, how much data do
you lose? BD = 40 × 106 × 50 × 10−3 = 2000 Kbits.
THINK PAIR SHARE

For store-and-forward switching, what
are the other types of delay?

Physical Layer Performance
Performance
How Do Loss and Delay Occur?
I packets queue in router buffers

I packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link capacity
I packets queue, wait for turn

Performance
How Do Loss and Delay Occur?
dn = dp + dq + dt + dg : total delay
I dp processing delay (checking bit errors, routing)
I dq queuing delay, time waiting at output links, depends on
congestion
I dt = L/R transmission delay where L is packet length and R is
link bandwidth
I dg = d/s propagation delay where d is length of physical link and s
Dr. is propagation
Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) speed in medium × 108 Fall
(in space it is c = 32017-2018
CENG435 m/s 87 / 487
Performance
Queueing Delay (Could be a course on its own)
I R link bandwidth (bps)

I L packet length (bits)
I a packet arrival rate
(packets/sec)
I When La/R ∼ 0, average
queueing delay is small
I When La/R ∼ 1, average
queueing delay is large
When La/R > 1, average
I
queueing delay is infinite
Use traceroute to measure end-to-end delay to routers.


Queueing Delay
What happens when La/R > 1 and the queue

size is finite?
Hint
In a restaurant, the arrival rate of the customers
is larger than the service rate?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS


Queueing Delay
What happens when La/R > 1 and the queue

size is finite?
Hint
In a restaurant, the arrival rate of the customers
is larger than the service rate?
Answer
Queue fills up and packets will be dropped.
PAIR UP and Instable system. Large packet loss.
DISCUSS

Performance
Throughput
Throughput
rate (bits per unit time) at which bits transferred between
sender/receiver.
I instantaneous: rate at a given point in time
I average: rate over longer period of time

Performance
Throughput

Physical Layer Physical Media
Physical Media
I bit: propagates between transmitter-receiver pairs
I physical link: what lies between transmitter & receiver
Guided media
signals propagate in solid media: twisted pair, optical fiber, coaxial
cable
Unguided media
signals propagate freely, e.g., radio (wireless)
I Simplex: in one direction

I Half-duplex: both ends may transmit, but only one at a time
I Full-duplex: both ends may transmit simultaneously

Physical Media
Coaxial cable
Fiber optic cable
I two concentric copper
I glass fiber carrying light
conductors
pulses, each pulse a bit
I bidirectional
I high-speed 10’s-100’s Gpbs
I broadband:multiple channels
I low error rate
on cable, HFC

Physical Media
Electromagnetic Spectrum for Telecommunications

Physical Media
Transmission Characteristics of Guided Media

Physical Media
Transmission Characteristics of Guided Media

Physical Media
Radio
Types
Radio I Terrestrial microwave: up to
45 Mbps channels
I signal carried in
electromagnetic spectrum I LAN: (e.g., WiFi) 11Mbps, 54
Mbps
I no physical “wire”
I Wide-area: (e.g., cellular) 3G
I bidirectional
cellular: few Mbps
I propagation environment
I Satellite: Kbps to 45Mbps
effects: reflection, obstruction
channel (or multiple smaller
by objects, interference
channels), 270 msec end-end
delay

Physical Layer Signals
Signals
Analog and Digital Waveforms

Signals
Periodic Signals
s(t + T ) = s(t), −∞ < t < +∞ where T is the period of the signal

(smallest T value satisfying the equation)
A generic sine wave (sinusoid) s(t) = A sin (2πf t + φ)

Signals
Sinusoid s(t) = A sin (2πf t + θ)
sin(0)
x
Signals
sin(30)
Signals
sin(45)
Signals
sin(60)
Signals
sin(90)
Signals
sin(135)
Signals
sin(180)
x
Signals
sin(225)
Signals
sin(270)
Signals
sin(315)
Signals
sin(330)
Signals
sin(360)
x
Signals
s(t) = A sin (2πf t + θ)
Plot the sinusoids where

A = 1, f = 1, φ = 0
A = 0.5, f = 1, φ = 0
A = 1, f = 2, φ = 0
A = 1, f = 1, φ = π/4
Signals
Signals
Example: Let’s construct a periodic square wave
I Fourier analysis: any signal is made up of components at various

frequencies
I By adding together enough sinusoids (with appropriate amplitude,
frequency and phase), any electromagnetic signal can be
constructed.
Signals
4 1

Example: s(t) = π
sin(2πf t) + 3
sin(2π(3f )t)
Signals
4 1

Spectrum - Example: s(t) = π
sin(2πf t) + 3
sin(2π(3f )t)
Signals
4 1

Example: s(t) = π
sin(2πf t) + 3
sin(2π(3f )t) + . . .
Signals
Example

4 1 1
s(t) = sin(2πf t) + sin(2π(3f )t) + sin(2π(5f )t)
π 3 5
When the fundamental frequency f = 106 Hz = 1 MHz, what is the
bandwidth?
Answer
Bandwidth = 5f − f = 4f = 4 MHz.
T = 1016 = 1µs. Treat the waveform a sequence of 0s and 1s, one bit
occurs every 0.5µs for a data rate of 2 × 106 bps.
Signals
Example

4 1 1
s(t) = sin(2πf t) + sin(2π(3f )t) + sin(2π(5f )t)
π 3 5
When the fundamental frequency f = 2 × 106 Hz = 2 MHz, what is the
bandwidth?
Answer
1
T = 2×10 6 = 0.5µs. Treat the waveform a sequence of 0s and 1s, one
bit occurs every 0.25µs for a data rate of 4 × 106 bps.
Signals
Example
Let’s filter out the 5f component.

4 1
s(t) = sin(2πf t) + sin(2π(3f )t)
π 3
When the fundamental frequency f = 2 × 106 Hz = 2 MHz, what is the
bandwidth?
Answer
1
T = 2×10 6 = 0.5µs. Treat the waveform a sequence of 0s and 1s, one
bit occurs every 0.25µs for a data rate of 4 × 106 bps.
Signals
Conclusions of the Example
I Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth.

I Larger bandwidth = higher cost
I Practical and economic reasons dictate us to limit the bandwidth
(e.g., filtering out the 5f component out.)
I Limiting the bandwidth distorts (corrupts) the signal, the task of
the receiver becomes more difficult.
Signals
Conclusions of the Example
Signals
Acoustic Spectrum
Signals
Noise
Physical Layer Fundamental Limits
Signals
Signals over a Wire: What happens to a signal?
I The signal is delayed (propagates at 2c/3)

I The signal is attenuated
I Frequencies above a cutoff are highly attenuated
I Noise is added to the signal
Bandwidth
EE: width of frequency band in Hz
CS: information carrying capacity
Signals
Channel Capacity
I Data rate: The rate, in bits per second (bps), at which data can be
communicated
I Bandwidth: The bandwidth of the transmitted signal as
constrained by the transmitter and the nature of the transmission
medium, expressed in Hertz
I Noise: The average level of noise over the communications path
I Error rate: The rate at which errors occur, where an error is the
reception of a 1 when a 0 was transmitted or the reception of a 0
when a 1 was transmitted
Signals
Channel Capacity
I the larger the bandwidth, the greater the cost.

I transmission channels are of limited bandwidth.
I physical properties of the transmission medium
I deliberate limitations to prevent interference
I make as efficient use as possible of a given bandwidth.
Design Objective
Get as high a data rate as possible at a particular limit of error rate for
a given bandwidth. The main constraint on achieving this efficiency is
noise.
Signals
Nyquist Bandwidth (Rate)
Nyquist Rate
Given a bandwidth of B Hz, the highest signal rate that can be carried
is 2B bps.
Nyquist Bandwidth
If the rate of signal transmission is 2B bps, then a signal with
frequencies no greater than B Hz is sufficient to carry the signal rate.
C = 2B log2 M,
where M is the number of signalling levels.
Signals
Shannon Capacity
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z7bVw7lMtUg
Signals
Shannon Capacity
I The higher the data rate, the more damage that unwanted noise
can do.
I Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, S/N): the ratio of the power in a signal
to the power contained in the noise that is present at a particular
point in the transmission.
I Let’s consider only thermal noise (white noise)
Shannon Capacity
C = B log2 (1 + SN R)
where C is the capacity of the channel in bps and B is the bandwidth
of the channel in Hz.

Capacity
Suppose that the spectrum of a channel is

between 3 MHz and 4 MHz and SNRdB = 24 dB.
What is the Shannon capacity? Based on
Nyquist’s formula how many signaling levels are
required to provide the Shannon capacity?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Capacity
Suppose that the spectrum of a channel is

between 3 MHz and 4 MHz and SNRdB = 24 dB.
What is the Shannon capacity? Based on
Nyquist’s formula how many signaling levels are
required to provide the Shannon capacity?
Answer
Bandwidth B = 4 − 3 = 1 MHz = 106 Hz
SNR (in linear scale) is 102.4 = 251.
⇒ C = 106 × log2 (1 + 251) = 8 × 106 bits.
PAIR UP and Nyquist says C = 2B log2 M , so
DISCUSS 8 × 106 = 2 × 106 × log2 M ;
⇒ M = 16.
Signals
Thermal Noise
The amount of thermal noise to be found in a bandwidth of 1 Hz in any
device or conductor is
N0 = kT
in W/Hz where
I N0 is the noise power density in Watts per 1 Hz
I k is the Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
I T is the temperature, in Kelvins (absolute temperature)
Example
Room temperature is T = 17o C, or 290 K. At this temperature, the
thermal noise power density is N0 = (1.38 × 10−23 × 290 = 4 × 10−21
W/Hz
= −204 dBW/Hz
Signals
Boltzmann’s grave in the Zentralfriedhof, Vienna
Signals
Thermal Noise
The amount of thermal noise to be found in a bandwidth of B Hz in any

device or conductor is
N0 = kT B
in W and in decibel-Watts it is
N = 10 log k + 10 log T + 10 log B
= −228.6dBW + 10 log T + 10 log B

since the thermal noise is assumed to be independent of the
frequency.
Signals
Eb /N0
Eb /N0 is the ratio of the signal energy per bit to the noise power
density per Hertz.
Eb = STb
where S is the signal power and Tb is the time required to send one bit.
Then, the data rate is R = 1/Tb . This follows,
Eb S/R S
= =
N0 N0 kT R
in linear scale. Or in decibel notation

Eb
= SdBW − 10 log R + 228.6dBW − 10 log T
N0 dB
Bit Error Rate (BER) is a decreasing function of Eb /N0 .

Signals
Bit Error Rate (BER)

Eb /N0
For some sort of modulation scheme, Eb /N0 = 8.4 dB is

required for a bit error rate of 10−4 (one bit error out of
every 10,000). If the effective noise temperature is 290o K
(room temperature) and the data rate is 2400 bps, what
received signal level is required?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Eb /N0
For some sort of modulation scheme, Eb /N0 = 8.4 dB is

required for a bit error rate of 10−4 (one bit error out of
every 10,000). If the effective noise temperature is 290o K
(room temperature) and the data rate is 2400 bps, what
received signal level is required?
Answer

Eb
= SdBW − 10 log R + 228dBW − 10 log T
PAIR UP and N0 dB
DISCUSS
8.4 = SdBW − 10 log 2400 + 228.6dBW − 10 log 290
Then, S = −161.8 dBW.
Physical Layer Modulation
Modulation
Definition
I Carrier signal: analog constant-frequency signal

I Carrier signal is chosen to be compatible with medium
I Data is transmitted using a carrier signal by modulation
Modulation
is the process of encoding source data onto a carrier with frequency fc
Modulation
Baseband - Passband
Modulation
Digital Data, Digital Signal
I Signal spectrum: lack of high frequency components, no dc,

concetrate power in the middle (coding)
I Clocking: determine the beginning and end of frame (instead of
additional clock, self-synchronization)
I Error detection: mostly data link layer
I Signal to Interference + Noise Ratio: coding gain, transmission
power adaptation, ...
I Cost complexity: larger bandwidth higher cost
Modulation
Digital Data, Digital Signal
Modulation
Modulation Rate: Bit rate versus baud rate
When bit duration is Tb then bit rate is R = 1/Tb
Modulation (baud) rate, D

is the rate at which signal elements (symbols) are generated
R
D=
log2 M
Passband (Analog) Modulation

Types

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Change the amplitude of sinusoid
(
A cos(2πfc t) binary 1
s(t) =
0 binary 0
THINK PAIR SHARE

What is the bit rate compared to baud
(symbol) rate and how can you
increase it?

Frequency Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Change the frequency of sinusoid
(
A cos(2πf1 t) binary 1
s(t) =
A cos(2πf2 t) binary 0
THINK PAIR SHARE

increase it?

Multiple Frequency Shift Keying
Multiple Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK)

Change the frequency of sinusoid si (t) = A cos(2πfi t)
where 1 ≤ i ≤ M
fi = fc + (2i − 1 − M )fd ,
fc is the carrier (center) frequency,
fd is the difference frequency.

Phase Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Change the phase of sinusoid
(
A cos(2πfc t) binary 1
s(t) =
A cos(2πfc t + π) binary 0
THINK PAIR SHARE

increase it?

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
Qudrature Shift Keying (QPSK)




A cos(2πfc t + π/4) 11

A cos(2πf t + 3π/4)
c 01
s(t) =


A cos(2πfc t − 3π/4) 00

A cos(2πf t − π/4)
c 10

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

Different Constellations
We can modulate phase and amplitude at the same time.

Different Constellations
Physical Layer Ticket to Retention

1. Fundamental limits: Why can we not transmit infinitely many bits

per second over a channel. What are the limits?
2. Signals over a wire: What happens to signals as they propagate
over a wire?
3. Base- and pass-band signals: How can we transmit baseband
signals over higher frequency carriers?
Application Layer
Section 4
Application Layer
Application Layer

understand the conceptual and implementation aspects of network
application protocols by examining popular application-level protocols
such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS and develop network applications
using socket programming API.
Application Layer
I Principles of network applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1

I Web and HTTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2
I File transfer protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
I Electronic mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4
Domain name server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5
I Peer to peer applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6
I Socket programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7
(Kurose and Ross, 2013)
Application Layer
1. Client/server versus peer-to-peer: Compare and contrast

client/server architecture with peer-to-peer (P2P) architecture.
2. Peer-to-peer systems: What are the ways to locate information in
a P2P system?
3. Transport layer services: Compare and contrast TCP and UDP
services.
4. Centralized versus distributed application: What are the
disadvantages of centralized systems?
5. Domain name server: What are the types of DNS queries?
Compare and contrast.
Application Layer Principles of Network Applications

Network Applications
Tell me some of the network applications you

use? Do you know the names of the underlying
protocols?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Tell me some of the network applications you

use? Do you know the names of the underlying
protocols?
Typical answer
e-mail, web, text messaging, remote login, P2P
file sharing, multi-user network games, streaming
stored video (YouTube, Hulu, Netflix), voice over
IP (e.g., Skype), real-time video conferencing,
PAIR UP and social networking, search, ...
DISCUSS
Communication
Communication
I write programs that:

I run on (different) end systems
I communicate over network
I e.g., web server software communicates with browser software
I no need to write software for network-core devices
I network-core devices do not run user applications
I applications on end systems allows for rapid app development,
propagation
Client-server and Peer-to-peer Architectures
Client-server Architecture
Server
I always-on host
I permanent IP address
I data centers for scaling
Client
I communicate with server
I may be intermittently
connected
I do not communicate directly
with each other
Peer-to-peer Architecture
I no always-on server
I arbitrary end systems directly
communicate
I peers request service from
other peers, provide service in
return to other peers
I self scalability: new peers
bring demand and also
capacity
I peers are intermittently
connected and change IP
addresses, complex
management
Process
is the program running within a host. Within same host, two processes
communicate by using inter-process communication and processes
in different hosts communicate by exchanging messages.
Who is client? Who is server?
Process
is the program running within a host. Within same host, two processes
communicate by using inter-process communication and processes
in different hosts communicate by exchanging messages.
Who is client? Who is server?

client process: process that initiates communication,
server process: process that waits to be contacted.
Application Processesç, Sockets and Transport Protocol
process sends/receives messages to/from its socket

Addressing Processes
I to receive messages, process must have identifier

I host device has unique 32-bit IP address
I Question: Does IP address of host on which process runs suffice
for identifying the process?
Addressing Processes
I to receive messages, process must have identifier

I host device has unique 32-bit IP address
I Question: Does IP address of host on which process runs suffice
for identifying the process?
I Answer: no, many processes can be running on same hosts
I identifier includes both IP address and port numbers associated
with process on host.
I example port numbers: HTTP server: 80, mail server: 25
Application Layer Protocols
I types of messages exchanged, e.g., request, response

I message syntax: what fields in messages & how fields are
delineated
I message semantics, meaning of information in fields
I rules for when and how processes send & respond to messages
Requirements from Lower (Transport) Layer
Requirements from Lower (Transport) Layer
I Reliable data transfer

I Throughput
I Timing
I Security
Internet transport protocols services
TCP Service UDP Service

I reliable transport I unreliable data
I flow control I does not provide:
I congestion control reliability, flow control,
I connection-oriented congestion control, timing,
Idoes not provide: timing, throughput guarantee,
minimum throughput security, or connection
guarantee, security setup,
Neither TCP nor UDP provides security. We will cover this aspect in
another course.
Example Applications and Transport Protocols Thereof
Application Layer HTTP
HTTP
Overview
I uses TCP
I stateless
I non-persistent HTTP: at most one object sent over TCP
connection, connection then closed
I persistent HTTP: multiple objects can be sent over single TCP
connection between client, server
http://eonur.eu/academics/index.html
Question
Who is client, who is server?
HTTP
Overview
HTTP
Non-persistent HTTP
Assume user enters URL http://eonur.eu/academics/index.html

1. Client initiates TCP connection to HTTP server (process) at
eonur.eu
2. Server waiting for TCP connection at port 80, accepts connection,
notifying client
3. Client sends HTTP request message (containing URL) into TCP
connection socket. Message indicates that client wants the object
academics/index.html.
4. Server receives request message, forms response message
containing requested object, and sends message into its socket
5. Client received the response and parses the object
6. Server closes TCP connection.
HTTP
Non-persistent HTTP
Internet transport protocols services
Persistent HTTP
I server leaves connection open
Non-persistent HTTP after sending response
I requires 2 RTTs per object I subsequent HTTP messages
I OS overhead for each TCP between same client/server
connection sent over open connection
I browsers often open I client sends requests as soon
parallel TCP connections as it encounters a referenced
to fetch referenced objects object
I as little as one RTT for all the
referenced objects
HTTP
HTTP Messages
I Two types of HTTP messages: request, response
I HTTP request message: ASCII (human-readable)
HTTP
HTTP Request Methods
POST Method
I web page often includes form input
I input is uploaded to server in entity body
GET Method
I input is uploaded in URL field of request line
I www.somesite.com/animalsearch?monkeys&banana
HEAD Method
I asks server to leave requested object out of response
HTTP
HTTP Request Methods
PUT Method
I uploads file in entity body to path specified in URL field
DELETE Method
I deletes file specified in the URL field
HTTP
HTTP Response Message
HTTP
HTTP Response Status Codes
I 200 OK: request succeeded, requested object later in this msg

I 301 Moved Permanently: requested object moved, new location
specified
I 400 Bad Request: request msg not understood by server
I 404 Not Found: requested document not found on this server
I 505 HTTP Version Not Supported

HTTP
How can you introduce state to this system?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

HTTP
How can you introduce state to this system?
Typical answer
Cookies
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS
HTTP
Cookies
I cookie header line of HTTP response message

I cookie header line in next HTTP request message
I cookie file kept on user’s host, managed by user’s browser
I back-end database at Web site
I http messages carry state
HTTP
Cookies

HTTP
How can you reduce the response time for client

requests?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

HTTP
How can you reduce the response time for client

requests?
Typical answer
Caching
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS
HTTP
Caching
HTTP
Caching

Caching
Average object size: 1 Mbits

Average request rate: 15 requests/sec
Average Internet delay: 2 sec
Can you neglect LAN delay? Can you neglect
delay on access link?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Caching
Average object size: 1 Mbits

Average request rate: 15 requests/sec
Average Internet delay: 2 sec
Can you neglect LAN delay? Can you neglect
delay on access link?
Typical answer
The traffic intensity on the LAN is (15 requests/sec) . (1
Mbits/request)/(100 Mbps) = 0.15 << 1. Therefore, LAN delay can
be neglected
PAIR UP and The traffic intensity on the access link is (15 requests/sec) . (1
Mbits/request)/(15 Mbps) = 1. Delay is very large
DISCUSS

Caching
Same scenario but using local cache

Cache hit rate: 0.4
What is the average delay when cache is used?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Caching
Same scenario but using local cache

Cache hit rate: 0.4
What is the average delay when cache is used?
Typical answer
When cache is used LAN delay + 0.6 × 2 sec.
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS
HTTP
Conditional GET (use cache)
I Goal: do not send object if cache has up-to-date cached version

I no object transmission delay
I lower link utilization
I cache: specify date of cached copy in HTTP request
I If-modified-since: ¡date¿
I server: response contains no object if cached copy is up-to-date:
HTTP/1.0 304 Not Modified
Application Layer File Transfer Protocol
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
I FTP client contacts FTP server at port 21, using TCP

I Client authorized over control connection
I Client browses remote directory, sends commands over control
connection
I When server receives file transfer command, server opens 2nd
TCP data connection (for file) to client
I After transferring one file, server closes data connection
I Server opens another TCP data connection to transfer another file
I Control connection: ”out of band”
I FTP server maintains ”state”: current directory, earlier
authentication
Application Layer Electronic Mail
Electronic Mail
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
Electronic Mail

Comparison with HTTP
I HTTP: pull, SMTP: push

I Both uses TCP (HTTP:80, SMTP:25)
I Both command/response interaction
I Both have ASCII command/response interaction, status codes
I HTTP: each object encapsulated in its own response msg
I SMTP: multiple objects sent in multipart msg
Application Layer Domain Name Server
Domain Name Server

Name Resolution
I people: many identifiers: SSN, name, passport number

I Internet hosts, routers: IP address (32 bit) - used for addressing
datagrams
I name, e.g., www.yahoo.com - used by humans
THINK PAIR SHARE

How can you map between IP address
and name, and vice versa?
Domain Name Server

Name Resolution
Domain Name System

is a distributed database implemented in hierarchy of many name
servers.
I application-layer protocol: hosts, name servers communicate to

resolve names (address/name translation)
I implemented as application-layer protocol: complexity at network’s
edge
I services: name resolution, host aliasing, load distribution

Domain Name Server (DNS)
Why should you not centralize DNS?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Domain Name Server (DNS)
Why should you not centralize DNS?
Typical answer
I single point of failure
I traffic volume
I distant centralized database
I maintenance
PAIR UP and
I does not scale
DISCUSS
Domain Name Server

Hierarchy
I client wants IP for www.amazon.com; 1st approx:

I query root server to find com DNS server
I query .com DNS server to get amazon.com DNS server
I query amazon.com DNS server to get IP address for
www.amazon.com
Domain Name Server

DNS Server Classes
Root DNS Servers
I There are 13 root DNS servers (a through m)
Domain Name Server

DNS Server Classes
Top-level domain (TLD) Servers

I responsible for com, org, net, edu, aero, jobs, museums, and all
top-level country domains, e.g.: uk, fr, ca, jp
I Network Solutions maintains servers for .com TLD
I Educause for .edu TLD
Domain Name Server

DNS Server Classes
Authoritative Servers
I organization’s own DNS server(s), providing authoritative
hostname to IP mappings for organization’s named hosts
I can be maintained by organization or service provider
Domain Name Server

DNS Server Classes
Local DNS Servers

I does not strictly belong to hierarchy
I each ISP (residential ISP, company, university) has one also called
default name server
I when host makes DNS query, query is sent to its local DNS server
I has local cache of recent name-to-address translation pairs (but
may be out of date!)
I acts as proxy, forwards query into hierarchy
Domain Name Server

Interaction of Various DNS Servers: Iterated Queries
I don’t know this name, but

contact this server to find it
out yourself
Domain Name Server

Interaction of Various DNS Servers: Recursive Queries
I don’t know this name, but

let me find it out for you.
Domain Name Server

DNS Records
Resource Records
RR = (name, value, type, ttl)
I Type=A, name:hostname, value:IP Address
I Type=NS, name:domain, value:hostname of authoritative server
I Type=CNAME, name:alias, value:canonical name
I Type=MX, name:name, value:name of mailserver
Domain Name Server

Interaction of Various DNS Servers: Recursive Queries
Flags:
I query or reply
I recursion
desired
I recursion
available
I reply is
authoritative

Inserting records into DNS
What are the DNS records that have to be created when

networkutopia.com is registered at a DNS registrar.
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Inserting records into DNS
What are the DNS records that have to be created when

networkutopia.com is registered at a DNS registrar.
Typical answer
I provide names, IP addresses of authoritative name
server
I registrar inserts two RRs into .com TLD server:
I (networkutopia.com, dns1.networkutopia.com, NS)
PAIR UP and I (dns1.networkutopia.com, 212.212.212.1, A)
DISCUSS I type A record for www.networkuptopia.com; type
MX record for networkutopia.com
Application Layer Peer-to-peer Architecture
Pure P2P Architecture
Pure P2P Architecture
I no always-on server
I arbitrary end systems directly communicate
I peers are intermittently connected and change IP addresses
THINK PAIR SHARE

How much time to distribute file (size F )
from one server to N peers? (peer
upload/download capacity is limited
resource)
Distribution Problem: Client-server Approach
I server
transmission:
must
sequentially
send (upload) N
file copies:
I time to send one
copy: F/us
I time to send N
copies: N F/us
I client: each
client must
download file
copy
I dmin = minimum
client download
rate
I min client
download time:
F/dmin
The time to distribute F to N

clients using client-server
approach is

NF F
Dcs ≥ max ,
us dmin
Distribution Problem: P2P Approach
I server transmission: must

upload at least one copy
I time to send one copy: F/us
I client: each client must
download file copy
I min client download time:
F/dmin
I clients: as aggregate must
download N F bits
I max upload rate (limiting
P max
download rate) is us + ui
The time to distribute F to N clients using P2P

approach is

F F NF
Dp2p ≥ max , , P
us dmin us + ui
Client-server versus Peer-to-peer
client upload rate = u, F/u = 1 hour, us = 10u, dmin ≥ us

Example: Bittorent
Distributed Hash Tables (DHT)
I DHT: a distributed P2P database

I Database has (key, value) pairs; examples:
I key: ss number; value: human name
I key: movie title; value: IP address
I Distribute the (key, value) pairs over peers
I A peer queries DHT with key: DHT returns values that match the
key
I Peers can also insert (key, value) pairs
THINK PAIR SHARE

How will you assign keys to peers?
Basic idea:
I Convert each key to an integer
I Assign integer to each peer
I Put (key,value) pair in the peer that is closest to the key
For instance:
I assign integer identifier to each peer in range [0, 2n−1 ] for some n.
I each identifier represented by n bits.
I to get integer key, hash the original key
I e.g., key = hash(”Led Zeppelin IV”)
I rule: assign key to the peer that has the closest ID.
I convention in lecture: closest is the immediate successor of the
key.
I e.g., n=4; peers: 1,3,4,5,8,10,12,14;
I key = 13, then successor peer = 14
I key = 15, then successor peer = 1
Circular DHT
Peer churn
handling peer churn:

I peers may come and go (churn)
I each peer knows address of its two successors
I each peer periodically pings its two successors to check aliveness
I if immediate successor leaves, choose next successor as new
immediate successor
THINK PAIR SHARE

What happens when a node joins?
Application Layer Socket Programming
Socket Programming
Goals
I Goal: learn how to build client/server applications that

communicate using sockets
I Socket: door between application process and end-end-transport
protocol
Socket Programming
Socket Types
I UDP: unreliable datagram

I TCP: reliable, byte stream-oriented
UDP Socket Programming
I UDP: no ”connection” between client & server

I no handshaking before sending data
I sender explicitly attaches IP destination address and port number
to each packet
I receiver extracts sender IP address and port number from received
packet
I transmitted data may be lost or received out-of-order
I UDP provides unreliable transfer of groups of bytes (datagrams)
between client and server
UDP Socket Programming
UDP Socket Programming: Client I

/* Sample UDP client */
#include <sys/socket.h>
#include <netinet/in.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main(int argc, char**argv)
{
int sockfd,n;
struct sockaddr_in servaddr,cliaddr;
char sendline[1000];
char recvline[1000];
if (argc != 2) {
printf("usage: udpcli <IP-address>\n");
exit(1);
}
sockfd=socket(AF_INET,SOCK_DGRAM,0);
bzero(&servaddr,sizeof(servaddr));
servaddr.sin_family = AF_INET;
servaddr.sin_addr.s_addr=inet_addr(argv[1]);
servaddr.sin_port=htons(32000);
UDP Socket Programming: Client II
while (fgets(sendline, 10000,stdin) != NULL) {

sendto(sockfd,sendline,strlen(sendline),0,
(struct sockaddr *)&servaddr,sizeof(servaddr));
n=recvfrom(sockfd,recvline,10000,0,NULL,NULL);
recvline[n]=0;
fputs(recvline,stdout);
}
}
UDP Socket Programming: Server I

/* Sample UDP server */
#include <stdio.h>
{
int sockfd,n;
socklen_t len;
char mesg[1000];
sockfd=socket(AF_INET,SOCK_DGRAM,0);
servaddr.sin_addr.s_addr=htonl(INADDR_ANY);
bind(sockfd,(struct sockaddr *)&servaddr,sizeof(servaddr));
for (;;) {
len = sizeof(cliaddr);
UDP Socket Programming: Server II
n = recvfrom(sockfd,mesg,1000,0,(struct sockaddr *)&

cliaddr,&len);
sendto(sockfd,mesg,n,0,(struct sockaddr *)&cliaddr,sizeof
(cliaddr));
printf("---------------\n");
mesg[n] = 0;
printf("Received the following:\n");
printf("%s",mesg);
printf("---------------\n");
}
}
TCP Socket Programming
I client must contact server

I server process must first be running
I server must have created socket (door) that welcomes client’s
contact
I client contacts server by:
I Creating TCP socket, specifying IP address, port number of server
process
I when client creates socket: client TCP establishes connection to
server TCP
I when contacted by client, server TCP creates new socket for
server process to communicate with that particular client
I allows server to talk with multiple clients
I source port numbers used to distinguish clients (more in Chap 3)
From the application view-point

TCP provides reliable, in-order byte-stream transfer (”pipe”) between
client and server

TCP Server Process
TCP Socket Programming: Client I

/* Sample TCP client */
#include <stdio.h>
{
int sockfd,n;
char sendline[1000];
char recvline[1000];
if (argc != 2)
{
printf("usage: client <IP address>\n");
exit(1);
}
sockfd=socket(AF_INET,SOCK_STREAM,0);
TCP Socket Programming: Client II
servaddr.sin_addr.s_addr=inet_addr(argv[1]);
connect(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&servaddr, sizeof(
servaddr));
while (fgets(sendline, 10000,stdin) != NULL)
{
sendto(sockfd,sendline,strlen(sendline),0,
(struct sockaddr *)&servaddr,sizeof(servaddr));
n=recvfrom(sockfd,recvline,10000,0,NULL,NULL);
recvline[n]=0;
fputs(recvline,stdout);
}
}
TCP Socket Programming: Server I
/* Sample TCP server */
#include <stdio.h>

{
int listenfd,connfd,n;
socklen_t clilen;
pid_t childpid;
char mesg[1000];
listenfd=socket(AF_INET,SOCK_STREAM,0);
servaddr.sin_addr.s_addr=htonl(INADDR_ANY);
TCP Socket Programming: Server II

bind(listenfd,(struct sockaddr *)&servaddr,sizeof(servaddr))
;
listen(listenfd,1024);
for(;;) {
clilen=sizeof(cliaddr);
connfd = accept(listenfd,(struct sockaddr *)&cliaddr,&
clilen);
if ((childpid = fork()) == 0) {
close (listenfd);
for(;;) {
n = recvfrom(connfd,mesg,1000,0,(struct sockaddr *)
&cliaddr,&clilen);
sendto(connfd,mesg,n,0,(struct sockaddr *)&cliaddr,
sizeof(cliaddr));
printf("-----------\n");
TCP Socket Programming: Server III
mesg[n] = 0;
printf("Received the following:\n");
printf("%s",mesg);
printf("-----------\n");
}
}
close(connfd);
}
}
Application Layer Ticket to Retention

1. Client/server versus peer-to-peer: Compare and contrast

client/server architecture with peer-to-peer (P2P) architecture.
2. Peer-to-peer systems: What are the ways to locate information in
a P2P system?
3. Transport layer services: Compare and contrast TCP and UDP
services.
4. Centralized versus distributed application: What are the
disadvantages of centralized systems?
5. Domain name server: What are the types of DNS queries?
Compare and contrast.
Transport Layer
Section 5
Transport Layer
Transport Layer

understand principles behind transport layer services such as
multiplexing, demultiplexing, reliable data transfer, flow control and
congestion control.

describe the Internet transport layer protocols; namely, UDP:
connectionless transport, TCP: connection-oriented reliable transport
and TCP congestion control.

assemble the mechanisms required for reliable data transfer over
unreliable channels.
Transport Layer
I Transport-layer services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1

I Multiplexing and demultiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2
I Connectionless transport: UDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3
I Principles of reliable data transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4
I Connection-oriented transport: TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5
I Principles of congestion control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6
I TCP congestion control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7
Transport Layer
1. Reliable data transfer: What are the mechanisms for reliable data
transfer and how do you use them?
2. Flow control: Why and how do you implement flow control?
3. Congestion control: Why and how do you implement congestion
control?
4. UDP versus TCP Describe why an application developer might
choose to run an application over UDP rather than TCP.
Transport Layer Transport Layer Services
Transport Services and Protocols
I provide logical
communication
between
application
processes
running on
different hosts
I transport
protocols run in
end systems
Transport Layer Transport Layer Services
Transport Services and Protocols
I reliable, in-order delivery (TCP)

I congestion control
I flow control
I connection setup
I unreliable, unordered delivery (UDP)
I no-frills extension of ”best-effort” IP
I services not available:
I delay guarantees
I bandwidth guarantees
Transport Layer Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
I Multiplexing: handle data from multiple sockets, add transport

header
I Demultiplexing: use header info to deliver received segments to
correct socket

How Does It Work?
I host receives IP datagrams

I each datagram has source
IP address, destination IP
address
I each datagram carries one
transport-layer segment
I each segment has source,
destination port number
I host uses IP addresses & port
numbers to direct segment to
appropriate socket

Connectionless Demultiplexing
I when host receives UDP

segment:
I checks destination port
number in segment
I directs UDP segment to
socket with that port number
I IP datagrams with same
destination port number, but
different source IP addresses
and/or source port numbers
will be directed to same
socket at destination

Connectionless Demultiplexing

Connection-oriented Demultiplexing
I TCP socket identified by 4-tuple:

I source IP address
I source port number
I dest IP address
I dest port number
I Demultiplexing: receiver uses all four values to direct segment to
appropriate socket
I server host may support many simultaneous TCP sockets: each
socket identified by its own 4-tuple
I web servers have different sockets for each connecting client:
non-persistent HTTP will have different socket for each request

Connection-oriented Demultiplexing
Transport Layer Connectionless Transport
Connectionless Transport
User Datagram Protocol [RFC 768]
I ”best effort” service, UDP segments may be lost or delivered

out-of-order to application
I Connectionless: no handshaking between UDP sender and
receiver;
I Each UDP segment handled independently of others
I Example applications using UDP: DNS, SNMP, streaming
multimedia

How can you make applications over UDP

reliable? No packet losses or out-of-order
delivery?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

How can you make applications over UDP

reliable? No packet losses or out-of-order
delivery?
Typical answer
I add these features at the application layer
I application-specific error recovery?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Segment Header

Why is there a transport layer protocol such as

UDP?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Why is there a transport layer protocol such as

UDP?
Typical answer
I no connection establishment (which can add
delay)
I simple: no connection state at sender,
receiver
I small header size
PAIR UP and I no congestion control: UDP can blast away
DISCUSS as fast as desired

Internet Checksum
Goal
detect ”errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted packet (note: used at
transport layer only)
I Sender
I treat segment contents as sequence of 16-bit integers
I checksum: addition of segment contents and then 1’s complement
of the sum
I sender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field
I Receiver
I expected result = addition of segment contents and the checksum
sent in the header
I if expected result = all 1’s then everything is ok
I Otherwise, the segment is corrupt
Transport Layer Reliable Data Transfer
Reliable Data Transfer

Service Model

Getting Started
I incrementally develop sender, receiver sides of reliable data

transfer protocol (rdt)
I consider only unidirectional data transfer
I but control info will flow on both directions!
I use finite state machines (FSM) to specify sender, receiver

RDT 1.0 (over a reliable channel)

RDT 1.0
Underlying channel may flip bits, how can we

recover from errors? Real-life case: How do
humans recover errors in conversations?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

RDT 1.0
Underlying channel may flip bits, how can we

recover from errors? Real-life case: How do
humans recover errors in conversations?
Typical answer
I Error detection
I Acknowledgments (ACKs): receiver explicitly
tells sender that pkt received OK
I negative acknowledgments (NAKs): receiver
PAIR UP and explicitly tells sender that pkt had errors
DISCUSS I sender retransmits pkt on receipt of NAK

RDT 2.0 (over an unreliable channel)
Extension to RTD 1.0 is error detection and feedback (ACK, NAK)

RDT 2.0 (over an unreliable channel)

RDT 2.0
What are the flaws or is there room for
improvement in RDT 2.0?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

RDT 2.0
What are the flaws or is there room for
improvement in RDT 2.0?
Typical answer
I Corrupted ACK or NAK!
I Duplicates
I Should not we ACK the ACK or NAK?
I Stop and wait, waste resources!
I Lost packets!
I Infinite re-transmissions?
PAIR UP and I How long would you wait for an ACK?
DISCUSS I Weak checksum: bit errors that cannot be
detected?

RDT 2.1 Sender (garbled ACK/NAK)

RDT 2.1 Receiver (garbled ACK/NAK)

RDT 2.2 Sender (NAK-free)

RDT 2.2 Receiver (NAK-free)

RDT 3.0 Receiver (lost packets)

RDT 3.0 Receiver (Same as RDT 2.2)
notcorrupt
AND
seq=0
corrupt corrupt
OR Wait for 0 Wait for 1 OR
seq=1 seq=0
notcorrupt
AND
seq=1

RDT 2.3: The Alternating-bit Protocol

RDT 2.3: The Alternating-bit Protocol

RDT 3.0
Performance of RDT 3.0: 1 Gbps link, 15 ms

prop. delay, 8000 bit packet. What is the
utilization of sender?
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

RDT 3.0
Performance of RDT 3.0: 1 Gbps link, 15 ms

prop. delay, 8000 bit packet. What is the
utilization of sender?
Typical answer
dt = L/R = 8000/109 = 8 microseconds
Ack at the sender at 15 + 15 + 0.008 = 30.008
msec (assuming dt for ACK is negligible.)
When RTT=30 msec, 1KB packet every 30 msec;
then, 33 kB/sec throughput over 1 Gbps link!
Utilization of sender,
PAIR UP and
Us = RT TL/R
+L/R = 0.008/30.008 = 0.00027
DISCUSS
Not a good performance. What can you do?

Stop-and-wait Operation

Stop-and-wait versus pipelined

Pipelining
Pipelining
Rather than operating in a stop-and-wait manner, the sender is allowed
to send multiple packets without waiting for acknowledgments. Many
in-transit sender-to-receiver packets can be visualized as filling a
pipeline.
Consequences:
I sequence numbers
I buffer
I responding to lost, corrupted, and overly delayed packets.
Two basic approaches toward pipelined error recovery can be
identified: Go-Back-N and selective repeat.

Pipelined Operation

Pipelining
1 Gbps link, 15 ms prop. delay, 8000 bit packet.

What is the utilization of sender when 3-packet
pipelining is employed.
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Pipelining
1 Gbps link, 15 ms prop. delay, 8000 bit packet.

What is the utilization of sender when 3-packet
pipelining is employed.
Typical answer
Utilization of sender,
Us = RT3L/R
T +L/R = 0.0024/30.008 = 0.00081
Increased by a factor of 3.
PAIR UP and
DISCUSS

Pipelining
Go-back-N
I sender can have up to N unacked packets in pipeline
I receiver only sends cumulative ack: does not ack packet if there is
a gap
I sender has timer for oldest unacked packet: when timer expires,
retransmit all unacked packets
Selective Repeat
I sender can have up to N unacked packets in pipeline
I receiver sends individual ack for each packet
I sender maintains timer for each unacked packet: when timer
expires, retransmit only that unacked packet

Go-back-N

Go-back-N Sender

Go-back-N Receiver

Go-back-N in Operation

Selective Repeat: Sender

Selective Repeat: Receiver

Selective Repeat in Operation

Selective Repeat: Too Large Windows I

Selective Repeat: Too Large Windows II

Summary of Mechanisms for Reliable Data Transfer
I Checksum: any errors?

I Timer: packet or its ACK is lost?
I Sequence number: in-order, lost packet?
I Acknowledgment: correctly received?
I Negative acknowledgement: not received correctly?
I Window, pipelining: increased utilization
Transport Layer Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Introduction (RFCs: 793,1122,1323, 2018, 2581)
I point-to-point: one sender, one receiver

I reliable, in-order byte stream: no ”message boundaries”
I pipelined: TCP congestion and flow control set window size
I full duplex data: bi-directional data flow in same connection
I connection-oriented: handshaking (exchange of control msgs)
inits sender, receiver state before data exchange
I flow controlled: sender will not overwhelm receiver

Send and Receive Buffers

Segment Structure

Dividing File into TCP Segments

Sequence Numbers

Round Trip Time, Timeout
How to set TCP timeout value?

I longer than RTT but RTT varies
I too short: premature timeout, unnecessary retransmissions
I too long: slow reaction to segment loss
How to estimate RTT?

I SampleRTT: measured time from segment transmission until ACK
receipt, ignore retransmissions
I SampleRTT will vary, want estimated RTT ”smoother”: average
several recent measurements, not just current SampleRTT

Estimating Round Trip Time and Setting Timeout
EstimatedRTT = (1 − α) EstimatedRTT + αSampleRTT
DevRTT = (1 − β) DevRTT + β |SampleRTT - EstimatedRTT |
TimeoutInterval = EstimatedRTT + 4 DevRTT

I TCP creates RDT service on top of unreliable network layer

I pipelined segments
I cumulative acks
I single retransmission timer
I retransmissions triggered by:
I timeout events
I duplicate acks

TCP Sender

Retransmission Due to Lost Ack

Premature Timeout

Cumulative Ack

Ack Generation
Event at receiver TCP receiver action

Arrival of in-order segment with ex- Delayed ACK. Wait up to 500ms fo
pected seq #. All data up to ex- next segment. If no next segmen
pected seq # already ACKed send ACK
Arrival of in-order segment with ex- Immediately send single cumula
pected seq #. One other segment tive ACK, ACKing both in-order seg
has ACK pending ments
arrival of out-of-order segment immediately send duplicate ACK
higher than expect seq. #. Gap indicating seq.# of next expecte
detected byte
arrival of segment that partially or immediate send ACK, provided tha
completely fills gap segment starts at lower end of gap

Fast Retransmit

Flow Control
Flow Control
receiver controls sender, so sender won’t overflow receiver’s buffer by
transmitting too much, too fast

Connection Management
Handshake
agree to establish connection (each knowing the other willing to
establish connection) and agree on connection parameters

Closing TCP Connection

TCP States: Client

TCP States: Server
Transport Layer Congestion Control
Congestion Control
Principles
Congestion (informal)
too many sources sending too much data too fast for network to handle
Manifestations:
I lost packets (buffer overflow at routers)
I long delays (queueing in router buffers)
Congestion Control
Causes/costs: Scenario 1
Congestion Control
Congestion Control
Congestion Control
Congestion Control
Congestion Control
Congestion Control
Approaches Towards Congestion Control
End-to-end Congestion Control

I no explicit feedback from network
I congestion inferred from end-system observed loss, delay
I approach taken by TCP
Network-assisted Congestion Control

I routers provide feedback to end systems
I single bit indicating congestion (SNA, DECbit, TCP/IP ECN, ATM)
I explicit rate for sender to send at
TCP Congestion Control

TCP Slow Start


Evolution of TCP’s Congestion Window

Fairness
Fairness Goal
If K TCP sessions share same bottleneck link of bandwidth R, each
should have average rate of R/K.

Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease (AIMD)
sender increases transmission rate (window size), probing for usable

bandwidth, until loss occurs
I additive increase: increase cwnd by 1 MSS every RTT until loss
detected
I multiplicative decrease: cut cwnd in half after loss






UDP, Parallel TCP Connections and Fairness
Fairness and UDP

Multimedia applications often do not use TCP, do not want rate
throttled by congestion control. Therefore, they send audio/video at
constant rate, tolerate packet loss.
Fairness and parallel TCP connections

Applications may open multiple parallel connections between two
hosts such as web browsers. In this case, what happens to fairness?

TCP Throughput
I Ignoring the slow start, the average TCP throughput is

T = 0.75W/RT T bytes/sec.
I In terms of segment
√ loss probability L the throughput is
T = 1.22S/(RT T L) where S is the maximum segment size.
Transport Layer Ticket to Retention

2. Flow control: Why and how do you implement flow control?
3. Congestion control: Why and how do you implement congestion
control?
4. UDP versus TCP Describe why an application developer might
choose to run an application over UDP rather than TCP.
Network Layer
Section 6
Network Layer
Network Layer

understand and describe the principles behind network layer services
such as network layer service models, forwarding versus routing, how
a router works, routing (path selection), broadcast, multicast and
analyze their implementation in the Internet.
Network Layer
I Forwarding versus routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1

I Virtual-circuit and datagram networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
I Routers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
I Internet Protocol (IP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4
I Routing Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
I Routing in the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6
I Broadcast and multicast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7
Network Layer
Ticket to Retention (TtR) Question
1. Forwarding versus routing: What is relationship between

forwarding and routing?
2. Difference from Transport Layer Connection Setup: What is most
important difference between TCP 3-way handshake and virtual
circuit connection setup?
3. Datagram versus Virtual-circuits Compare?
4. What is inside a router?
5. LS or DV? Compare link state routing protocols with distance
vector protocols?
Network Layer Introduction to Network Layer
Network Layer
Introduction
Network Layer
Two Key Functions: Forwarding and Routing
Forwarding
move packets from router’s input to appropriate router output
Routing
determine route taken by packets from source to destination
Network Layer
Relationship Between Forwarding and Routing
Network Layer Services

For Individual Datagrams
Network service model

defines the characteristics of end-to-end transport of packets between
sender and receiver.
Network layer services for individual datagrams:
I guaranteed delivery
I guaranteed delivery with bounded delay
Network Layer Services

For Flow of Datagrams
Network layer services for for flow of datagrams:

I in-order datagram delivery
I guaranteed minimal bandwidth
I guaranteed maximal jitter (inter packet spacing)
I security services

Internet Best-Effort Service
The Internet’s network layer provides a single

service: best-effort service.
Fill in the table.
Service Internet
Bandwidth guarantee
No-loss guarantee
Ordering
Timing guarantee
Packet delivery guar.
Congestion feedback
PAIR UP and Security
DISCUSS

Internet Best-Effort Service
The Internet’s network layer provides a single

service: best-effort service.
Fill in the table.
Service Internet
Bandwidth guarantee NONE
No-loss guarantee NONE
Ordering ANY ORDER
Timing guarantee NONE
Packet delivery guar. NONE
Congestion feedback NONE
PAIR UP and Security NONE
DISCUSS How to you infer congestion in TCP?
Network Layer Virtual-circuit and Datagram Networks
Virtual-circuit and Datagram Networks

Definitions
Datagram network
provides network-layer connectionless service
Virtual-circuit network
provides network-layer connection service
Similar to TCP/UDP connecton-oriented/connectionless transport-layer

services, but:
I service: host-to-host
I no choice: network provides one or the other
I implementation: in network core
Virtual-circuit
Implementation
I call setup before data flow
I packets carry VC identifier (not host address)
I routers maintain “state” for each passing connection
I bandwidth, buffers may be allocated to VC
Virtual-circuit
Implementation
A virtual circuit consists of
I Path: e.g., A-R1-R2-B
I VC numbers for each link on path e.g., 12,22,32
I Forwarding table on each router: shown below for R1
I How does a router determine the replacement VC number?

I Why not the same VC number on each link?
Virtual-circuit
Implementation
Datagram Networks
Attributes
I no call setup at network layer
I routers have no state about end-to-end connections
I no network-level concept of “connection”
I packets forwarded using destination host address
Datagram Networks
Forwarding Table
Datagram Networks
Forwarding Table
What happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?

Datagram Networks
Forwarding Table
Longest Prefix Matching

Router finds the longest matching entry in the forwarding table and
forwards the packet to the link interface associated with the entry.

Datagram versus Virtual Circuit
Datagram versus Virtual-circuits Fill in the below table?
Feature Datagram VC
Packets go on same routes
Out of sequence pkts possible
Packets contain addr/conn-id
Table changes for each connection
Requires connection setup
First packet delay large
Impact of router failure
Bursty traffic
Routers have conn. state
Bandwidth reservation possible

Datagram versus Virtual Circuit
Datagram versus Virtual-circuits Fill in the below table?
Feature Datagram VC
Packets go on same routes
may be diff. same
Out of sequence pkts possible
may be not possible
Packets contain addr/conn-id
addresses conn-id
Table changes for each connection
no yes
Requires connection setup
no yes
First packet delay large
no yes
Impact of router failure
moderate large
Bursty traffic
yes yes
Routers have conn. state
no yes
Bandwidth reservation possible
no yes
Network Layer What is inside a Router?
Routers
What is inside?
Router Functions
running routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP) and forwarding
datagrams from incoming to outgoing link
Routers
Input Port Processing
Decentralized Switching
I given datagram dest., lookup output port using forwarding table in
input port memory
I goal: complete input port processing at ’line speed’
I queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than forwarding rate into switch
fabric
Switching Fabrics
Switching via Memory
First generation
I traditional computers with switching under direct control of CPU
I packet copied to system’s memory
I speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per
datagram)
Switching Fabrics
Switching via Bus
Bus contention
I datagram from input port memory to output port memory via a
shared bus
I bus contention: switching speed
Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab)
limited by bus bandwidth
CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 338 / 487
Switching Fabrics
Switching via Crossbar (interconnecting network)
I overcome bus bandwidth limitations

Routers
Output Port Processing
I buffering required when datagrams arrive from fabric faster than

the transmission rate
I scheduling discipline chooses among queued datagrams for
transmission
Routers
Output Port Queuing
Routers
Input Port Queuing

Routers
What is inside a router Suppose that a datagram can be transferred from an input port
to a given output port in a time slot, but different output ports can receive datagrams
from different input ports in a single time slot. What is the minimal number of time
slots needed to transfer the packets shown from input ports to their output ports,
assuming any input queue scheduling order you want?

Routers
What is inside a router Suppose that a datagram can be transferred from an input port
to a given output port in a time slot, but different output ports can receive datagrams
from different input ports in a single time slot. What is the minimal number of time
slots needed to transfer the packets shown from input ports to their output ports,
assuming any input queue scheduling order you want?
The minimal number of time slots needed is 3. The scheduling is as follows. Slot 1: send X in top
input queue, send Y in middle input queue. Slot 2: send X in middle input queue, send Y in
bottom input queue Slot 3: send Z in bottom input queue.
Network Layer Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet Protocol (IP)

Overview

Datagram Format

IP Fragmentation and Reassembly

IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
IPv4 Addressing
Interface Addresses and Subnets
IPv4 Addressing
Subnets
Subnet
is a network where devices can reach each other without an
intervening router. High order bits of IP addresses are the subnet part.
To determine the subnets, detach each interface from its host or router,
creating islands of isolated networks, with interfaces terminating the
end points of the isolated networks. Each of these isolated networks is
called a subnet.
IPv4 Addressing
Subnet Addresses
IPv4 Addressing
Subnets: Example
IPv4 Addressing
CIDR
CIDR
The Internet’s address assignment strategy is known as Classless
Interdomain Routing (CIDR pronounced cider) [RFC 4632]. CIDR
generalizes the notion of subnet addressing. As with subnet
addressing, the 32-bit IP address is divided into two parts and again
has the dotted-decimal form a.b.c.d/x, where x indicates the number of
bits in the first part of the address.
How to get an IP Address

I Manual
I Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
IPv4 Addressing
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
I host broadcasts DHCP discover msg [optional]

I DHCP server responds with DHCP offer msg [optional]
I host requests IP address: DHCP request msg
I DHCP server sends address: DHCP ack msg
DHCP uses UDP service.
IPv4 Addressing
IPv4 Addressing
IPv4 Addressing
How does an organization get IP address from ISP?
IPv4 Addressing
How does an ISP get IP addresses?
ICANN
ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
(http://www.icann.org)
I allocates addresses
I manages DNS
I assigns domain names, resolves disputes
IPv4 Addressing
Hierarchical Addressing
IPv4 Addressing
Hierarchical Addressing
IPv4 Addressing
Network Address Translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP address as far as outside

world is concerned:
I range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one IP address for
all devices
I can change addresses of devices in local network without
notifying outside world
I can change ISP without changing addresses of devices in local
network
I devices inside local net not explicitly addressable, visible by
outside world (a security plus)
IPv4 Addressing
IPv4 Addressing
Network Address Translation Problem
I client wants to connect to server with address 10.0.0.1
I server address 10.0.0.1 local to LAN (client cannot use it as
destination addr)
I externally visible address: 138.76.29.7. SOLUTION?
IPv4 Addressing
Several Solutions:
I statically configure NAT to forward incoming connection requests
to a server inside
I Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) Internet Gateway Device (IGD)
Protocol: local servers learn public IP address and use IGD to
configure NAT ports
I external relaying (bridging) entity; both parties establish a
connection to the relay
IPv4 Addressing
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
I used by hosts and routers to communicate network-level

information
I e.g., error reporting: unreachable host, network, port, protocol
I e.g., echo request/reply (used by ping)
I network-layer above IP: ICMP msgs carried in IP datagrams
I ICMP message: type, code plus first 8 bytes of IP datagram
causing error
IPv4 Addressing
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Type Code Description
0 0 echo reply (to ping)
3 0 destination network unreachable
3 1 destination host unreachable
3 2 destination protocol unreachable
3 3 destination port unreachable
3 6 destination network unknown
3 7 destination host unknown
4 0 source quench (congestion control)
8 0 echo request
9 0 router advertisement
10 0 router discovery
11 0 TTL expired
12 0 IP header bad
Traceroute
UDP and ICMP working together
I Source sends series of UDP segments to dest, first set has TTL
=1, second set has TTL=2, etc.
I When nth set of datagrams arrives to nth router:
I Router discards datagrams and sends source ICMP messages
(type 11, code 0, TTL expired)
I ICMP messages includes name of router and IP address
I When ICMP messages arrives, source records RTTs
I When UDP segment reaches destination, destination returns
ICMP message (type 3, code 3, destination port unreachable)
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

Why not 32 bit addresses
I 32-bit address space full

I new header format helps speed up processing and forwarding
I header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 Header

Migration
I not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously

I mixed IPv4 and IPv6 routers
I Solution?

Migration: Header Conversion

Migration: Tunneling
Tunneling
IPv6 datagram is carried as payload in IPv4 datagram among IPv4
routers

Migration: Tunneling

IP Addressing
Consider the network shown below. Each of the subnets A-D contains
at most 30 hosts; subnet E connects routers R1 and R2.
1. Assign network addresses to the five subnets

2. What is the network prefix advertised by router R1 to the public
Internet?

IP Addressing - Answers
1. Each subnet needs to address up to 30 hosts, using the rightmost

5 bits of the address. The five subnet addresses are x.y.z.0/27,
x.y.z.32/27, x.y.z.64/27, x.y.z.96/27, and x.y.z.128/27 in dotted
decimal notation. Other answers with different bit values in bits 25,
26, and 27 are also possible, as long as the five three-bit patterns
used are unique.
2. x.y.z./24
Network Layer Routing Algorithms
Routing Algorithms
Interplay between Routing and Forwarding: Revisited
Routing Algorithms
Abstract Graph Model of Computer Network
Graph G = (N, E) where N = {u, v, w, x, y, z} is the set of routers and

E = {(u, v), (u, x), (v, x), (v, w), (x, w), (x, y), (w, y), (w, z), (y, z)} is the
set of links.
Routing Algorithms
Abstract Graph Model of Computer Network
c(x, x0 ) is the cost of the link (x, x0 ) c(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is the cost of the
path and is equal to c(x1 , x2 ) + c(x2 , x3 ), . . . , c(xn−1 , xn ).
What is the least-cost path between u and z?
Algorithm that finds the least-cost path is called as routing algorithm.
Routing Algorithms
Classification
Global, link-state algorithms

All the routers have complete (all) topology and link cost information.
The network graph is present in all nodes.
Decentralized, distance vector algorithms

Routers know only physically connected neighbors and costs of only
those links. The calculation of the least-cost path is carried out in an
iterative, distributed manner. No node has complete information about
the costs of all network links.
Link-state Routing Algorithm

For source node u
I D(v): cost of the least-cost path from the source node to

destination v as of this iteration of the algorithm.
I p(v): previous node (neighbor of v) along the current least-cost
path from the source to v.
I N 0 : subset of nodes; v is in N 0 if the least-cost path from the
source to v is definitively known.

For source node u
Complexity O n2 or O n log n when there are n nodes


For source node u

For source node u

Pathological Case: Oscillation when cost=link load

Pathological Case: Oscillation when cost=link load
Distance Vector Routing Algorithm

Difference from Link-State Routing
Difference from Link-State Routing

Whereas the LS algorithm is an algorithm using global information, the
distance- vector (DV) algorithm is iterative, asynchronous, and
distributed.
I Distributed: each node receives some information from one or

more of its directly attached neighbors, performs a calculation, and
then distributes the results of its calculation back to its neighbors.
I Iterative this process continues on until no more information is
exchanged between neighbors (self-terminating)
I Asynchronous does not require all of the nodes to operate in
lockstep with each other.

At each node x
Let dx (y) be the least-cost path from x to y, then
dx (y) = min {c(x, v) + dv (y)} (1)

v
I This is Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic programming).

I From time to time, each node sends out its distance vector
estimate.
I When a node receives a distance vector, it updates its own
distance vector using Eq. 1

At each node x

At each node x

At each node x
Distance Vector Routing - Recap
Routing tables of each node

e.g., it takes 3 to reach C from A and the next hop is B
1 2
A B C
Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Next Metric …
A A 0 A A 1 A B 3
B B 1 B B 0 B B 2
C B 3 C C 2 C C 0
Event: BC link weight changes to 1 from 2

B broadcasts the new
routing information
to his neighbors
Routing table (A, 1) (A, 1)
is updated (B, 0) (B, 0)
(C, 1) (C, 1)
1 1
A B C
A A 0 A A 1 A B 3 2
B B 1 B B 0 B B 1
C B 3 2 C C 1 C C 0
Event: New node D joins the network
broadcasts to update
tables of C, B, A with new entry for D
(A, 1) (A, 2)
(B, 0) (B, 1)
(C, 1) (C, 0)
(D, 2) (D, 1) (D, 0)
1 1 1
A B C D
A A 0 A A 1 A B 2
B B 1 B B 0 B B 1
C B 2 C C 1 C C 0
D B 3 D C 2 D D 1
Event: node D leaves the network
1 1 1
A B C D
Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Des
Dest. Nex
Next Metr
Metric …
Next Metric …
c
… …
… … … … … … t. … t …
ic
D B 3 D C 2 D …
… D …
D B 1

Loop starts
(D, 2) (D, 2)
1 1 1
A B C D
… … … … … … … … …
D B 3 D C 2 D B 3

Count to infinity
(D,5)
(D,4) (D,4)
(D,3)
(D,2) (D,2)
1 1 1
A B C D
Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Dest. Next Metric …
Next Metric …
c
… … … … … … … … …
D B 3, 5, … D C 2,4,6… 3, 5,
D B
…
Hierarchical Routing
Assumptions up to now
I All routers identical

I Topology is flat
These assumptions are not true in real life
I Does not scale to 232 interfaces
I Cannot store all destinations in routing table
I Updates will swamp capacity
Solution: the title of the slide
Scalability solution
Autonomous System (AS)

Aggregate routers into regions
I Intra-AS routing: routers in same AS run same routing protocol

I Routers in different AS can run different intra-AS routing protocols
I Gateway router: at the edge of AS, has link to router in another AS
Example
Inter-AS Tasks
Scenario
Suppose router in AS1 receives datagram destined outside of AS1. It
should forward the packet to the gateway router, but which one?
The tasks of inter-AS routing:

I AS1 must learn which destinations are reachable through AS2
and AS3
I Propagate this reachability information to all routers in AS1
Question
Question
Subnet x is in AS3 and not reachable from AS2. How does router 1d
know this?
Question
Question
Subnet x is in AS3 and not reachable from AS2. How does router 1d
know this?
Solution
Suppose AS1 learns via Inter-AS protocol that subnet x is reachable
via AS3 over gateway 1c but not via AS2. This information is propagate
to all nodes in AS2. Router 1d determines from Intra-AS routing that its
interface connected to 1a is on the least cost path to 1c. Updates its
routing table accordingly.
Question
Question
Subnet x is in AS3 and also reachable from AS2. How does router 1d
know this?
Question
Question
Subnet x is in AS3 and also reachable from AS2. How does router 1d
know this?
Solution: Hot potato routing

Send packet towards closes of two routers.
Routing in the Internet

Examples
Intra-AS Routing or Interior Gateway Protocols (IDP)

The most common Intra-AS routing protocols are
I RIP: Routing Information Protocols
I OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
I IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (CISCO)
Inter-AS Routing
The glue that holds the Internet together
I BGP: Border Gateway Protocol

Why Inter- and Intra-AS routing?
I inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic routed, who
routes through its net.
I intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
I hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update traffic
(scalability)
I intra-AS: can focus on performance
I inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

RIP: Routing Information Protocol
I Distance vector algorithm

I Distance metric: number of hops (max 15), each link has cost 1
I Distance vectors exchanged every 30 seconds (advertisement)
I Each advertisement contains up to 25 destination subnets


Routing table
Dr. Ertan Onur ofLab)
(WINS D before receiving A’s advertisement
CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 401 / 487

A’s advertisement

Routing table of D after receiving A’s advertisement


If no advertisement heard after 180 sec then neighbor/link is declared

down
I routes via neighbor invalidated
I new advertisements sent to neighbors
I neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if tables changed)
I link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
I poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops (infinite distance
= 16 hops)

Implementation of RIP as route-d daemon.


OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
I Link-state (LS) algorithm

I LS packet dissemination
I Topology map at each node
I Route computation: Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm
I OSPF advertisements carries one entry per neighbor in an IP
datagram that is flooded to network

OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
I Security: all OSPF authenticated

I Multiple same-cost routes allowed
I Multiple cost metrics for different ToS
I Integrated uni- and multi-cast

Hierarchical OSPF

Hierarchical OSPF
I two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.

I link-state advertisements only in area
I each nodes has detailed area topology; only know direction
(shortest path) to nets in other areas.
I area border routers: summarize distances to nets in own area,
advertise to other Area Border routers.
I backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to backbone.
I boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Inter-AS Routing, BGP: Border Gateway Protocol
I glue that holds the Internet together

I eBGP: obtain subnet reachability information from neighboring
ASs.
I iBGP: propagate reachability information to all AS-internal routers.
I determine good routes to other networks based on reachability
information and policy.
I allows subnet to advertise its existence to rest of Internet: “I am
here”

I Two BGP routers (peers) exchange BGP messages

I Advertising paths to different destination network prefixes over
TCP

When AS3 advertises a prefix to AS1

I AS3 promises it will forward datagrams towards that prefix
I AS3 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement

I advertised prefix includes BGP attributes prefix + attributes =

“route”
I AS-PATH: contains ASs through which prefix advertisement has
passed: e.g., AS 67, AS 17
I NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to next-hop AS.
(may be multiple links from current AS to next-hop-AS)
I gateway router receiving route advertisement uses import policy
to accept/decline; e.g., never route through ASx


A router may learn about more than 1 route to destination AS, selects
route based on:
I local preference value attribute: policy decision
I shortest AS-PATH
I closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
I additional criteria

BGP messages:
I OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and authenticates sender
I UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
I KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence of UPDATES;
also ACKs OPEN request
I NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg; also used to close
connection

I A,B,C are provider networks

I X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
I X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
I X does not want to route from B via X to C
I .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

I A advertises path AW to B
I B advertises path BAW to X
I Should B advertise path BAW to C?
I No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither W nor
C are B’s customers
I B wants to force C to route to W via A
I B wants to route only to/from its customers!
1. Forwarding versus routing: What is relationship between

forwarding and routing?
2. Difference from Transport Layer Connection Setup: What is most
important difference between TCP 3-way handshake and virtual
circuit connection setup?
3. Datagram versus Virtual-circuits Compare?
4. What is inside a router?
5. LS or DV? Compare link state routing protocols with distance
vector protocols?
Data Link Layer
Section 7
Data Link Layer

Data Link Layer

describe the basic functions and principles of data link layer and
instantiation thereof
Data Link Layer
I Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
I Error detection and correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
I Multiple access protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3
I Switched local area networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
I Link virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
I Data center networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
Data Link Layer Introduction
Data Link Layer

Introduction
Data Link Layer

Introduction
Data link layer

has responsibility of transferring datagram from one node to physically
adjacent node over a link
I Node: hosts or routers

I Link: communication channels that connect adjacent nodes along
communication path (wired, wireless)
I Frame: layer-2 packet that encapsulates datagram
Data Link Layer Services I

Framing and link access
I encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer channel
access if shared medium
I Medium Access Control (MAC) addresses used in frame headers
to identify source, destination (different from IP address)
Reliable delivery between adjacent nodes

I Remember transport layer discussions
I Seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber, some twisted pair)
I Wireless links: high error rates
Flow control
pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
Data Link Layer Services II
Error detection
Bit errors caused by signal attenuation, noise, fading etc. Receiver
detects presence of errors and signals sender for retransmission or
drops frame
Error correction
receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to
retransmission
Half- or full-duplex
with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can transmit, but not at
same time
Data Link Layer

Where is the link layer implemented?
Data Link Layer

Communication
Sending side
I encapsulates datagram in frame
I adds error checking bits, reliable data transfer, flow control, etc.
Receiving side
I looks for errors, reliable data transfer, flow control, etc
I extracts datagram, passes to upper layer at receiving side
Data Link Layer Error Detection and Correction
Error Detection and Correction

D: Data, EDC: Error detection and correction bits

Parity Checks

Parity Checks

Internet Checksum
Goal
detect ”errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted packet (note: used at
transport layer only)
I Sender
I checksum: addition of segment contents and then 1’s complement
of the sum
I sender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field
I Receiver
I expected result = addition of segment contents and the checksum
sent in the header
I if expected result = all 1’s then everything is ok
I Otherwise, the segment is corrupt

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
I view data bits, D, as a binary number

I choose r + 1 bit pattern (generator), G
I choose CRC bits R (of length r) such that
I D||R is divisible by G modulo 2
I receiver knows G, divides D||R by G. Non-zero remainders
indicates error
I Ethernet, 802.11, WiFi, ATM

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
D × 2r ⊕ R = nG
D × 2r = nG ⊕ R
D × 2r

R = Remainder
G
Data Link Layer Medium Access Control
Medium Access Control (MAC)

Multiple Access Channels
Point-to-point
consists of a single sender at one end of the link and a single receiver
at the other end of the link.
Broadcast link
can have multiple sending and receiving nodes all connected to the
same, single, shared broadcast channel. The term broadcast is used
here because when any one node transmits a frame, the channel
broadcasts the frame and each of the other nodes receives a copy.

Multiple Access Problem
Problem
How to coordinate the access of multiple sending and receiving nodes
to a shared broadcast channel
Collision
Because all nodes are capable of transmitting frames, more than two
nodes can transmit frames at the same time. When this happens, all of
the nodes receive multiple frames at the same time; that is, the
transmitted frames collide at all of the receivers. Typically, when there
is a collision, none of the receiving nodes can make any sense of any
of the frames that were transmitted; in a sense, the signals of the
colliding frames become inextricably tangled together.


Multiple Access Protocols

is distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel, i.e.,
determine when node can transmit communication about channel
sharing must use channel itself! No out-of-band channel for
coordination

An Ideal Multiple Access Protocol
I Given: a broadcast channel of rate R bps

I Desired rate:
1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send at rate R.
2. when M nodes want to transmit, each can send at average rate R/M
3. fully decentralized:
I no special node to coordinate transmissions
I no synchronization of clocks, slots
4. simple

Taxonomy
Channel partitioning
divide channel into smaller pieces (time slots, frequency, code) and
allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random access
channel is not divided, allow collisions and we have to recover from
collisions
Taking turns
nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take longer turns
Channel Partitioning
TDMA and FDMA
I TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access

I Access to channels in rounds
I Stations get fixed length slots (packet transmission time)
I Unused slots do idle
I FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access
I Spectrum divided into frequency bands
I Stations get fixed frequency bands
I Unused bands go idle
Channel Partitioning
TDMA and FDMA
Random Access Protocols
I when node has packet to send

I transmit at full channel data rate R.
I no a priori coordination among nodes
I two or more transmitting nodes, then collision,
I random access MAC protocol specifies:
I how to detect collisions
I how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed retransmissions)
I Examples: ALOHA, slotted ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA

Slotted ALOHA
I Assumptions
I all frames same size
I time divided into equal size slots (time to transmit 1 frame)
I nodes start to transmit only slot beginning
I nodes are synchronized
I if 2 or more nodes transmit in slot, all nodes detect collision
I Operation: when node obtains fresh frame, transmits in next slot
I if no collision: node can send new frame in next slot
I if collision: node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with
prob. p until success

Slotted ALOHA

Advantages/Disadvantage of Slotted ALOHA
Pros
I single active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channel
I highly decentralized: only slots in nodes need to be in sync
I simple
Cons
I collisions, wasting slots
I idle slots
I nodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit
packet
I clock synchronization

Advantages/Disadvantage of Slotted ALOHA
Efficiency
long-run fraction of successful slots (many nodes, all with many frames
to send)
I Suppose N nodes with many frames to send, each node transmits

in a slot with probability p
I Probability that a given node has success in a slot is p(1 − p)N −1
I Probability that any node has a success is N p(1 − p)N −1
I Max efficiency: find p that maximizes N p(1 − p)N −1
I As N → ∞, max efficiency = 1/e = .37 or (37%)

Pure (Unslotted) ALOHA
I Simpler, no synchronization
I When frame arrives, transmit immediately
I Probability that a given node has a success is N p(1 − p)2(N −1)
I As N → ∞, max efficiency = 1/(2e) = .18 or (18%)

CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access
I Listen before transmit
I If channel is idle, transmit entire frame
I If channel is busy, defer (delay) transmission

CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection
I Listen before transmit

I If channel is idle, transmit entire frame
I If channel is busy, defer (delay) transmission
I Collisions can be detected within short time
I Wired: measure signal strength, compare transmitted and
received signals
I Wireless: not that easy

CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection

Ethernet CSMA/CD

Ethernet CSMA/CD, Binary Exponential Back-off
Why random amount of time after collisions?

if two nodes transmitted frames at the same time and then both waited
the same fixed amount of time, they would continue colliding forever?
Question: How to choose how much to back off?

Answer: BEB (Binary Exponential Back-off)
I after mth collision, node chooses K at random from
0, 1, 2, . . . , 2m−1 . Node waits K × 512 bit times, returns channel

sensing
I longer back-off interval with more collisions

Ethernet CSMA/CD, Binary Exponential Back-off
Efficiency
Let dp be maximum propagation delay between two nodes and dt be
the time to transmit maximum size frame. Then, efficiency of
CSMA/CD is
1
ECSMA/CD = d
.
1 + 5 dpt
Check the limits,
lim ECSMA/CD → 1,
dp →0
and
lim ECSMA/CD → 1.
dt →∞
Better performance than ALOHA.
Taking-turns Protocols
Polling
I master node invites slave nodes to transmit in turn

I typically used with ”dumb” slave devices
I concerns:
I polling overhead
I latency
I single point of failure (master)
Token Passing
I control token passed from one node to next sequentially.

I token message
I concerns:
I token overhead
I latency
I single point of failure (token)
Example: Cable Access Network (DOCSIS)
Data Link Layer Switched Local Area Networks
Switched Local Area Networks

Example

Link Layer Addressing
I MAC Addresses (LAN, physical, Ethernet addresses) are locally

used to get frame from one interface to another physically
connected interface
I 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in NIC ROM, also
sometimes software settable
I e.g.: 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
I MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
I manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure
uniqueness)
I MAC flat address facilitates portability: can move LAN card from
one LAN to another

Link Layer Addressing

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

I ARP table: each IP node (host, router) on LAN has table

I IP/MAC address mappings for some LAN nodes: IP address;
MAC address; TTL¿
I TTL (Time To Live): time after which address mapping will be
forgotten (typically 20 min)

I A wants to send datagram to B

I B’s MAC address not in A’s ARP table.
I A broadcasts ARP query packet, containing B’s IP address
I Destination MAC address is FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
I B receives ARP packet, replies to A with its (B’s) MAC address
I frame sent to A’s MAC address (unicast)
I A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until
information becomes old (times out)
I ARP is plug-and-play: nodes create their ARP tables without
intervention from network administrator

I walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R

I A knows R’s MAC address (how?)

Ethernet
Bus
popular through mid 90s; all nodes in same collision domain (can
collide with each other)
Star
prevails today; active switch in center; each spoke runs a (separate)
Ethernet protocol (nodes do not collide with each other)

Ethernet
I connectionless: no handshaking between sending and receiving

NICs
I unreliable: receiving NIC doesnt send acks or nacks to sending
NIC: data in dropped frames recovered only if initial sender uses
higher layer rdt (e.g., TCP), otherwise dropped data lost
I Ethernet’s MAC protocol: unslotted CSMA/CD wth binary backoff

Ethernet

Ethernet Switch
I link-layer device: takes an active role

I store, forward Ethernet frames
I examine incoming frame’s MAC address, selectively forward
frame to one-or-more outgoing links when frame is to be
forwarded on segment, uses CSMA/CD to access segment
I transparent: hosts are unaware of presence of switches
I plug-and-play, self-learning: switches do not need to be configured

Ethernet Switch
switching: A-to-A’ and B-to-B’ can transmit simultaneously, without

collisions

Ethernet Switch
Question
How does a switch know A’ is reachable via interface 4?
I The switch has a switch table

I Entry: MAC address of host, interface to reach host, time stamp
I How to populate switch table: when frames received, switch
learns location of sender and stores this piece of information

Ethernet Switch: Frame Forwarding
I record incoming link, MAC address of sending host

I index switch table using MAC destination address
I if entry found for destination then
I if destination on segment from which frame arrived then
I drop frame
I else
I forward frame on interface indicated by entry
I else
I flood: forward on all interfaces except arriving interface

Ethernet Switches
Sending from A to G?

Switches, Routers, Hosts

Virtual Local Area Networks
Virtual Local Area Network

Switch(es) supporting VLAN capabilities can be configured to define
multiple virtual LANS over single physical LAN infrastructure.
Port-based VLAN
switch ports grouped (by switch management software) so that single
physical switch operates as multiple virtual switches



Virtual Local Area Networks: 802.1Q VLAN Frame Format
Data Link Layer Link Virtualization
Link Virtualization: MPLS

MPLS: Multi-protocol Label Switching
Goal
high-speed IP forwarding using fixed length label (instead of IP
address)
I fast lookup using fixed length identifier (rather than shortest prefix
matching)
I borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approach
I but IP datagram still keeps IP address!

MPLS: Multi-protocol Label Switching
I a.k.a. label-switched router

I forward packets to outgoing interface based only on label value
(don’t inspect IP address)
I MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
I flexibility: MPLS forwarding decisions can differ from those of IP
I use destination and source addresses to route flows to same
destination differently (traffic engineering)
I re-route flows quickly if link fails: pre-computed backup paths
(useful for VoIP)

MPLS Signaling
I modify OSPF, IS-IS link-state flooding protocols to carry info used

by MPLS routing, e.g., link bandwidth, amount of ”reserved” link
bandwidth
I entry MPLS router uses RSVP-TE signaling protocol to set up
MPLS forwarding at downstream routers

MPLS Forwarding Tables
Data Link Layer Data Center Networks
Data Center Networks
I 10’s to 100’s of thousands of hosts, often closely coupled, in close

proximity
I multiple applications, each serving massive numbers of clients
I managing/balancing load, avoiding processing, networking, data
bottlenecks

Load Balancing
I receives external client requests

I directs workload within data center
I returns results to external client (hiding data center internals from
client)

Load Balancing

Rich Interconnection
I increased throughput between racks (multiple routing paths

possible)
I increased reliability via redundancy

I principles behind data link layer services:

I error detection, correction
I sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
I link layer addressing
I instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
I Ethernet
I switched LANS, VLANs
I virtualized networks as a link layer: MPLS
References I
Kurose, James F. and Keith W. Ross (2013). Computer Networking.

Pearson.
Stallings, William (2013). Data and computer communications.
Vol. 10. Prentice Hall.
Tanenbaum, Andrew S. and David J. Wetherall (2011). Computer
networks. Vol. 5. Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs (NY).

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CENG435 Data Communications and

Dr. Ertan Onur

I 2016-2017 Fall (3 Credits)

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 1 / 487

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 2 / 487

I Alperen Eroğlu, alperen@ceng.metu.edu.tr, 5535, B205

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 3 / 487

I Mainly MOODLE: http://odtuclass.metu.edu.tr/

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 4 / 487

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 5 / 487

This textbook is for a first course on computer networking. It can be used in

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 6 / 487

Some of these slides are identical to those published by

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 7 / 487

At the end of this course, YOU will be able to:

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 8 / 487

Introduction and physical layer . . . . (Chapter 1) . . . . 9 hours

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 9 / 487

Assessment and Grading

Assignments (×2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13+17%

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 10 / 487

Academic Honesty: There will be no tolerance to cheating in the

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 11 / 487

Computer Networks and the Internet

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 12 / 487

Objectives of the Lecture

At the end of this lecture, you will be able to

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 13 / 487

Overview and Compulsory Reading

I Focus of the course

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 14 / 487

Ticket to Retention (TtR) Questions

1. Packet- versus circuit-switching: Suppose that all of the network

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 15 / 487

Focus of the Course

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 16 / 487

Focus of the Course

Distributed Systems Applications

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 17 / 487

Focus of the Course

Your Objectives in this Course

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 18 / 487

Focus of the Course

Your Objectives in this Course

I We use the Internet a lot. Learning how it works.

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 18 / 487

Focus of the Course

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 19 / 487

Focus of the Course

What are the example uses of the networks?

Why do we build networks?

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 20 / 487

What is the Internet?

THINK PAIR SHARE

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 21 / 487

What is the Internet?

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 22 / 487

What is the Internet?

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 23 / 487

What is the Internet?

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 24 / 487

What is the Internet?

Dr. Ertan Onur (WINS Lab) CENG435 2017-2018 Fall 25 / 487

What is the Internet?