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الفيزياء 5 البحرين PDF
الفيزياء 5 البحرين PDF
Original Title:
Physics
Principles and Problems
By:
Paul W. Zitzewitz
Todd George Elliott
David G. Haase
Kathleen A. Harper
Michael R. Herzog
Jane Bray Nelson
Jim Nelson
Charles A. Schuler
Margaret K. Zorn
www.macmillanmh.com
ﻳﺄﰐ ﺍﻫﺘﲈﻡ ﳑﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﻦ ﺑﺘﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻣﻨﺎﻫﺞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻭﲢﺪﻳﺜﻬﺎ ﰲ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﺍﳋﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﻭﺳﻌﻴﻬﺎ ﺇﱃ
ﻣﻮﺍﻛﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﳌﻴﺔ ﻋﲆ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻷﺻﻌﺪﺓ.
ﻭﻳﺄﰐ ﻛﺘﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ٥ﻟﻠﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﰲ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﻣﴩﻭﻉ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻣﻨﺎﻫﺞ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ،ﺍﻟﺬﻱ
ﳞﺪﻑ ﺇﱃ ﺇﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﻧﻮﻋﻲ ﰲ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻭﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﺎﺗﲔ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺗﲔ ،ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ
ﻭﺍﳌﺤﻮﺭﻱ ﰲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺘﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌ ﹼﻠﻢ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺟﺎﺀ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﰲ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻓﺼﻮﻝ ﺷﻤﻠﺖ :ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ،
ﻭﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ.
ﻭﻗﺪ ﺟﺎﺀ ﻋﺮﺽ ﳏﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﺑﺄﺳﻠﻮﺏ ﻣﺸﻮﻕ ،ﻭﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺗﺮﺑﻮﻱ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ،ﻳﻌﻜﺲ ﺗﻮﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻬﺞ
ﻭﻓﻠﺴﻔﺘﻪ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﻛﺘﺐ ﺑﺄﺳﻠﻮﺏ ﻳﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻋﲆ ﺗﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﲑ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺝ
ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﲑ ،ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻫﺘﲈﻣﻪ ﺑﺎﳉﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺒﻲ .ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﺷﺘﻤﻞ ﺍﳌﺤﺘﻮ ﻋﲆ ﺃﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ
ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮ ،ﺗﺘﺴﻢ ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﻄﻠﺒﺔ ﳍﺎ ،ﻭﺗﺮﺍﻋﻲ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻭﻕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ،
ﹰ
ﻭﺃﺷﻜﺎﻻ ﻭﺭﺳﻮ ﹰﻣﺎ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﱪﺓ ﺗﻌﻜﺲ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ،ﻣﻊ ﺣﺮﺹ ﺻﻮﺭﺍ
ﹰ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺗﻀﻤﻴﻨﻪ
ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﻋﲆ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻮﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻨﻲ ﰲ ﻓﺼﻮﻟﻪ ﻭﺩﺭﻭﺳﻪ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ.
ﻛﲈ ﺃﻛﺪﺕ ﻓﻠﺴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﺃﳘﻴﺔ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺍﳌﻨﻬﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﲑ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ،ﻭﺗﺰﻭﻳﺪﻩ
ﺑﺎﳌﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﴬﻭﺭﻳﺔ ،ﻭﻣﻨﻬﺎ :ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻬﻼﻟﻴﺔ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ،
ﻭﳐﺘﱪ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ،ﻭﺍﻹﺛﺮﺍﺀ ،ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺮﺻﻬﺎ ﻋﲆ ﺭﺑﻂ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺣﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ،ﺇﱃ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ
ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ ﻣﺜﻞ :ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻘﻨﻴﺔ ،ﻭﺍﳌﺠﺘﻤﻊ.
ﻭﺍﷲﹶ ﻧﺴﺄﻝ ﺃﻥ ﳛﻘﻖ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﳌﺮﺟﻮﺓ ﻣﻨﻪ ،ﻭﺃﻥ ﻳﻮﻓﻖ ﺍﳉﻤﻴﻊ ﳌﺎ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺧﲑ ﺍﻟﻮﻃﻦ ﻭﺗﻘﺪﻣﻪ
ﻭﺍﺯﺩﻫﺎﺭﻩ.
5
ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻳﺎت
اﻟﻔﺼﻞ 1
ﺑﻌﺪ دراﺳــﺘﻚ ﻟﻬﺬا اﻟﻔﺼﻞ
ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ اﻟﻜﻢ 8 ............................................
ﺳﺘﻜﻮن ﻗﺎدرًا ﻋﻠﻰ
ﱢ
ﻓﻜﺮ ◀
8
اﻟﻔﺼﻞ 2
اﻟﺬرة 32 ...................................................
ﺑﻌﺪ دراﺳــﺘﻚ ﻟﻬﺬا اﻟﻔﺼﻞ
ﺳﺘﻜﻮن ﻗﺎدرًا ﻋﻠﻰ
• ﺗﻌﻠﱡﻢ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﻣﻜﻮﹼ ﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ.
• ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻃﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ.
• ﺗﻌﻠﱡـﻢ ﻛﻴـﻒ ﻗـﺎﺩﺕ ﻧﻈﺮﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻜـﻢ ﺇﱃ
ﱢ
ﻓﻜﺮ ◀
ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺃﻟ ﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻹﺿﺎﺀﺓ .ﻭﻛﻴﻒ
ﳐﺘﱪﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳـﺎﺀ 54 ..............................
ﺗﺴـﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﲢﺪﻳـﺪ ﻧـﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻐـﺎﺯ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ ﻛﻞ
32
6
ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻳﺎت
اﻟﻔﺼﻞ 3
8
62
7 7
ﺑﻌﺪ دراﺳــﺘﻚ ﻟﻬﺬا اﻟﻔﺼﻞ
ﺳﺘﻜﻮن ﻗﺎد ًرا ﻋﻠﻰ
• ﺗﻌـﺮﻑ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻀـﻮﺀ ﻳﺴـﻠﻚ ﺳـﻠﻮﻙ
ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﳍﺎ ﻋﺰﻡ ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ.
• ﺗﻌـﺮﻑ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﲑﺓ
ﺗﺴﻠﻚ ﺳـﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺎﺕ؛ ﻓﻴﺤﺪﺙ ﳍﺎ
ﺣﻴﻮﺩ ﻭﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ.
اﻫﻤﻴﺔ
ﹸﺰﻭﺩﻧـﺎ ﻧﻈﺮﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻜـﻢ ﺑﻤﺒﺪﺃ ﻋﻤـﻞ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ
ﺗ ﱠ
ﻣﻬـﻢ ،ﻫـﻮ ﺍﳌﺠﻬـﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻘـﻲ ﺍﳌﺎﺳـﺢ
ﴐﻭﺭﻳﺎ
ﹼﹰ )(STM؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻌﺪﹼ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳉﻬﺎﺯ
ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ﻟﻠﺒﺎﺣﺜﲔ ﺍﳌﻬﺘﻤﲔ ﺑﺪﺭﺍﺳـﺔ ﺍﳊﻤﺾ
ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﻭﻱ ،DNAﻭﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋـﻞ
ﺃﻳﻀـﺎ ﰲ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ
ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋـﻲ ،ﻭﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﹰ
ﺣﺠﲈ ﻭﺍﻷﻛﱪ
ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﻮﺏ ﺍﻷﺻﻐﺮ ﹰ
ﴎﻋﺔ.
ﺻـﻮﺭ ﻋـﲆ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﻱ ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ
ﻣﺸـﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﻧﻮﻋﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴـﻴﻠﻴﻜﻮﻥ،
ﻳﻈﻬـﺮﺍﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻮﻧـﲔ ﺍﻷﲪـﺮ ،ﻭﺍﻷﺯﺭﻕ
ﰲ ﺻـﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺴـﻴﻠﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﻧﺤﺼـﻞ
ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ،ﺑﺎﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﳌﺠﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻘﻲ ﺍﳌﺎﺳﺢ
).(STM
ﱢ
ﻓﻜﺮ ◀
ﺍﺳـﺘﹸﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﳌﺠﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻘﻲ ﺍﳌﺎﺳﺢ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﲆ
ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻟﺴﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻠﻴﻜﻮﻥ .ﻭﻫﻮ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ
ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳـﺪ ﻣﻘـﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﻋـﲆ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﺰ ﻋﱪ
ﺣﺎﺟـﺰ .ﻛﻴـﻒ ﲢﺪﺙ ﻋﻤﻠﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﺰ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ
ﺗﻌﺪﹼ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻴﻠﺔ ﻭﻓﻖ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺣﻔﻆ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ؟
8
1-1اﻟﻨﻤﻮذج اﻟﺠﺴﻴﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺟﺎت
A Particle Model of Waves
ﻣـﺎ ﺃﻟـﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻀـﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﺮﺋـﻲ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜـﺔ ﻣﻦ
• ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺳﺎﺧﻦ.
ﻣﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﻣﺘﻮﻫﺞ ﻭﺳﺎﻃﻊ؟
• ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ ﻭﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ.
• ﻣﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ.
A
A B
B A
CC D
B
D E
C
A
E D
F
B
F G
E
G
C H
F
H
D G
IEI H
JF
J K
K
G
I L
H I N
JL M
K
M N
L K N
J M L M N
ﺛﺒﺖ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺞ ﰲ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺗﻪ. .1
ﻣﻜﲈﺓ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺻﻞ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﺟﻬﺪ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ .2
ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ ﻓﻴـﻪ ﺑﻤﻔﺘـﺎﺡ ﲢﻜﻢ ،ﻭﺃﺿـﺊ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﺑﺤﻴـﺚ ﻳﺼﺪﺭ
ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﻳﻘﺎﻑ )ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ( ﺿـﻮ ﹰﺀﺍ ﺧﺎﻓﺘﹰـﺎ .ﲢﺬﻳﺮ :ﲡﻨﺐ ﳌﺲ ﺍﳌﺼﺒـﺎﺡ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺞ؛
ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ )ﺩﺍﻟﺔ( ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﱃ ﺇﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﺣﺮﻭﻕ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺳـﺎﺧﻨﹰﺎ.
ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ ﺃﻃﻔﺊ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺑﻴﺢ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﺟﻌﻞ .3
ﺇﺿﺎﺀﲥﺎ ﺧﺎﻓﺘﺔ.
ﺗﻢ ﺇﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺻﺤﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﺎﱂ ﻗـﻒ ﻋـﲆ ﹸﺑﻌـﺪ 1-2 mﻣـﻦ ﺍﳌﺼﺒـﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋـﻲ، .4
ﻣﺎﻛﺴﻮﻳﻞ ،ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﲡﺎﺭﺏ ﻫﻴﻨﺮﺵ ﻫﲑﺗﺰ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﺟﺮﺍﻫﺎ ﻭﺃﻣﺴـﻚ ﺑﻤﺤﺰﻭﺯ ﺣﻴﻮﺩ ﻫﻮﻟﻮﺟﺮﺍﰲ ،ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ
ﻋـﺎﻡ 1889ﻡ .ﻭﻗـﺪ ﺍﻋﺘﹸـﱪ ﺍﻟﻀـﻮﺀ ﺑﻌـﺪ ﺫﻟـﻚ ﻣﻮﺟـﺎﺕ ﻗﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻴﻨﻚ ،ﻭﺷﺎﻫﺪ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﻪ .ﲢﺬﻳﺮ:
ﻛﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ .ﻭﺑـﺪﺍ ﺃﻥ ﲨﻴـﻊ ﺍﻟﻈﻮﺍﻫـﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﴫﻳـﺔ - ﻻ ﺗﻨﻈﺮ ﻣﺒﺎﴍﺓ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻃﻊ ﺩﻭﻥ
ﻭﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻭﺍﳊﻴﻮﺩ ﻭﺍﻻﺳـﺘﻘﻄﺎﺏ -ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺴـﲑ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﳏﺰﻭﺯ ﺍﳊﻴﻮﺩ؛ ﻷﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻳـﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﱃ ﺇﳊﺎﻕ
ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ. ﺍﻷﺫ ﺑﻘﺪﺭﺗﻚ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ.
ﻭﺭﻏﻢ ﺫﻟﻚ ،ﻓﻘﺪ ﺑﻘﻴﺖ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﳌﺸﻜﻼﺕ ﻟﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﲔ ﺍﺳـﺘﻌﻤﻞ .5
ﺑﺤﺎﺟﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺣﻞ؛ ﻷﻥ ﻣﺎ ﺃﺷـﺎﺭﺕ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﺎﻛﺴـﻮﻳﻞ - ﺃﻗﻼﻡ ﺭﺻﺎﺹ ﻣﻠﻮﻧﺔ ﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﻲ ﳌﺎ ﺗﺸﺎﻫﺪﻩ.
ﹺ
ﺃﺩ ﹾﺭ ﻣﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺳﻄﻮﻉ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ .6
ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﻣﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﻛﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ﳏﻀﺔ -
ﱂ ﺗﺴـﺘﻄﻊ ﺗﻔﺴﲑ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻈﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﺍﳌﻬﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ .ﻭﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺪﹼ ﻩ ﺍﻷﻗﴡ.
ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﺸـﻜﻼﺕ ﻋﻤﻮ ﹰﻣـﺎ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻴـﺔ ﺍﻣﺘﺼـﺎﺹ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﺳـﺘﻌﻤﻞ .7
ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴـﴘ .ﻭﻣـﻦ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﺸـﻜﻼﺕ: ﺃﻗﻼﻡ ﺭﺻﺎﺹ ﻣﻠﻮﻧﺔ ﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﻲ ﳌﺎ ﺗﺸﺎﻫﺪﻩ.
ﺍﻟﻄﻴـﻒ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺴـﻢ ﺳـﺎﺧﻦ ،ﻭﺗﻔﺮﻳﻎ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ
ﺍﳌﺸـﺤﻮﻧﺔ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺳـﻄﺢ ﻓﻠﺰﻱ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺳـﻘﻮﻁ ﺃﺷـﻌﺔ
ﺻـﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺼﺒـﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ .ﻫﻞ ﻫﻮ
ﻓـﻮﻕ ﺑﻨﻔﺴـﺠﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻴـﻪ .ﻭﺳـﻮﻑ ﺗﺘﻌﻠـﻢ ﰲ ﻫـﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ
ﻣﺘﺼـﻞ ﺃﻡ ﺳﻠﺴـﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﻁ ﺍﳌﻠﻮﻧـﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻤ ﹼﻴﺰﺓ؟ ﺻﻒ
ﺃﻥ ﻫﺎﺗـﲔ ﺍﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮﺗـﲔ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻔﺴـﲑﳘﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ ﺗﺪﺭﻙ ﺃﻥ
ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻫﺪ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﺳﻄﻮﻉ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ.
ﺍﳌﻮﺟـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ﳍـﺎ ﺧﺼﺎﺋـﺺ ﺟﺴـﻴﻤﻴﺔ
ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺼﻬﺎ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ. ﻣﺎ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ
ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌـﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺼﺒـﺎﺡ؟ ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﳛﺪﺙ
ﻟﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻓﺘﻴﻠﺔ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ
ﻳﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﺳﻄﻮﻉ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ؟
9
اﺷﻌﺎع ﻣﻦ اﺟﺴﺎم اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻫﺠﺔ
Radiation from Incandescent Bodies
ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚAﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺴـﻢ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺧﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﲔ؟ ﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻧﻪ ﳚـﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﳌـﺎﺫﺍ ﺣﲑ ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻉ
CF DGﹼ B C AD BE EH FI GJ HK IL M
J K N L M N
Aﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ .ﱂ ﺗﺴـﺘﻄﻊ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ
ﺷـﺪﺓB ،
ﺣﻴﺚC AD ﻣﻦ BE
ﺍﳌﺸـﻜﻠﺔ CF
DG EH FI GJH
KIL M N M N
JK L
ﻧﻈﺮﻳـﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ﳌﺎﻛﺴـﻮﻳﻞ ﺗﻔﺴـﲑ ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺸـﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺧﻨﺔ .ﺇﺫﻥ ﻓﲈ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍ ﹸﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺧﻨﺔ؟
ﻳﻌـﺪﹼ ﺍﳌﺼﺒـﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋـﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺷـﺎﻫﺪﺗﻪ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑـﺔ ﺍﻻﺳـﺘﻬﻼﻟﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺼـﻞ ﻣﺜﺎﻻﹰ
ﻋﲆ ﺍﳉﺴـﻢ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺧﻦ .ﻭﻛﲈ ﻳﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺑﻨﺎ ﹰﺀ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ،ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ
ﺍﳌﺸـﺤﻮﻧﺔ ﺍﳌﻬﺘﺰﺓ ﰲ ﻓﺘﻴﻠﺔ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻀﻮ ﹶﺀ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ ﻭﺍﻷﺷـﻌﺔ ﲢﺖ ﺍﳊﻤﺮﺍﺀ ،ﺣﻴﺚ
.1
ﺑﺎﳌﺘﻮﻫﺞ.
ﹼ ﺗﻮﻫﺠﺖ ،ﻟﺬﺍ ﻳﻮﺻﻒ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﺗﴤﺀ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﻴﻠﺔ؛ ﻷﳖﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﻨﺔ ،ﻭﻳﻘﺎﻝ ﺇﳖﺎ ﹼ
ﻭﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺍﻷﻟﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﺍﻫﺎ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺸـﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺴـﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ .2
ﺍﻟﱰﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ،ﻭﻋﲆ ﺣﺴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻋﻴﻨﻴﻚ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺎﺕ.
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﹸﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻣﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﳉﻬﺪ ﺍﳌﺴﻠﻂ ﻋﲆ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﻴﻠﺔ .3
ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺠـﺔ ﺗـﺰﺩﺍﺩ .ﻭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﺬﻟـﻚ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻥ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻷﲪﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻛـﻦ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﱪﺗﻘﺎﱄ ،ﺛﻢ ﺇﱃ .4
ﻭﺃﺧـﲑﺍ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻷﺑﻴـﺾ .ﻭﳛﺪﺙ ﺗﻐـﲑ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻥ ﻫـﺬﺍ ﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﻴﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺩﺭﺟـﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ
ﹰ ﺍﻷﺻﻔـﺮ،
.5
ﺍﻷﻋﲆ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﺇﺷﻌﺎ ﹰﻋﺎ ﺑﱰﺩﺩ ﺃﻋﲆ )ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ﺃﻗﻞ( .ﺇﻥ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﱰﺩﺩ ﺍﻷﻋﲆ ﹶﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻦ
ﺍﻟﱰﺩﺩ ﺍﻷﻋﲆ ﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ )ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴﺠﻲ( ،ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﻴﻠﺔ ﺑﻴﻀﺎﺀ.
ﻣـﺎﺫﺍ ﺗﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺸـﺎﻫﺪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻧﻈﺮﺕ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﻴﻠﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﳏـﺰﻭﺯ ﺣﻴﻮﺩ؟ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ
ﲠﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﲨﻴﻊ ﺃﻟﻮﺍﻥ ﻗﻮﺱ ﺍﳌﻄﺮ .ﻭﻳﺒﻌﺚ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ .6
ﲢﺖ ﲪﺮﺍﺀ ﻭﺃﺧﺮ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺑﻨﻔﺴﺠﻴﺔ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺭﺅﻳﺘﻬﲈ ،ﻭﻳﻌﱪ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﲏ ﻟﺸﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ
ﻣﻦ ﺟﺴـﻢ ﺳـﺎﺧﻦ ﻋﲆ ﻣﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ،ﻭﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ 1-1
.7
ﺃﻃﻴـﺎﻑ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌـﺎﺙ ﳉﺴـﻢ ﻣﺘﻮﻫﺞ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺩﺭﺟـﺎﺕ ﺍﳊـﺮﺍﺭﺓ 4000 Kﻭ 5000 Kﻭ 6000 Kﻭ
،7000 Kﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻛﻞ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻋﻨﺪﻩ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﻋﻈﻤﻰ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ .ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻗﻤﺖ ﺑﻤﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﻗﻤﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﺤﻨﻰ ،ﻓﺴﺘﻼﺣﻆ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻛﻠﲈ ﺍﺯﺩﺍﺩﺕ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ،
ﻓـﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ
ﻋﻨﺪﻩ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤـﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
�WO��HM��« ‚u �wzd
ﻳﻘﻞ.
¡«dL(« X%
6000 K
6000˚K
ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻃﺮﺩ ﹼﹰﻳﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ
ﺣـﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﳉﺴـﻢ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺧﻦ ﺑﻮﺣـﺪﺓ
5000 K
5000˚K
ﻛﻠﻔـﻦ ،ﻣﺮﻓﻮﻋـﺔ ﻟﻠﻘـﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻌـﺔ؛
4000˚K
4000 K
ﻟـﺬﺍ ﺗﺸـﻊ ﺍﻷﺟﺴـﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺳـﺨﻦ،
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
«�©µm® w�u*« ‰uD
10
ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﺟﺴـﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺑﺮﺩ .ﻭﺗﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺸـﻤﺲ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﺷـﻴﻮ ﹰﻋﺎ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ
ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺧﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸـﻊ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ؛ ﺇﺫ ﺗﻌﺪ ﻛـﺮﺓ ﻛﺜﻴﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺧﻨﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ
ﻭﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺠﺔ؛ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺴـﺒﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋـﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ .ﻭﺗﺒﻠﻎ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ
ﺳـﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﺸـﻤﺲ ،5800 Kﻭﺗﺸـﻊ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻫـﺎ 4 ×10 26 Wﻭﻫﻲ ﻛﻤﻴـﺔ ﻫﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ .ﻭﰲ
ﺍﳌﺘﻮﺳـﻂ ﻳﺴـﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﻛﻞ ﻣﱰ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ 1000 Jﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ؛ ﺃﻱ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ
ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻫـﺎ ،1000 Wﻭﺗﻜـﻮﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻹﺿﺎﺀﺓ ﻋـﴩﺓ ﻣﺼﺎﺑﻴﺢ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﻛﻞ
ﻣﻨﻬﺎ 100 W
ﺍﻟﺜﺎﺑﺖ hﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺇﱃ 6.63 ×10 -34 J/Hzﻟﺘﺒﺴﻴﻂ ﺇﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﺍﳊﺴﺎﺑﺎﺕ ،ﻭ nﻋﺪﺩ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ
ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻲ ﻣﺜﻞ 0ﻭ 1ﻭ 2ﻭ 3ﻭ...
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻻ ﻳﺴـﻘﻂ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻋﲆ ﺍﳌﻬﺒﻂ )ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻟﺐ( ﻻ ﻳﴪﻱ ﺗﻴﺎﺭ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ،
ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻗﻴﺎﺳﻪ ﺑﺎﳉﻠﻔﺎﻧﻮﻣﱰ ،ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ
ﹼ 1-3ﻟﻜﻦ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﻘﻂ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺗﻴﺎﺭ
ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .1-3ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ ﺃ ﹼﺩ ﺇﱃ ﲢﺮﻳﺮ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ -
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻴﺔ -ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻬﺒﻂ ﰲ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﳌﺼﻌﺪ )ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺐ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺐ( ،ﻭﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﹰ
ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻴﺎﺭ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ.
a
ﻻ ﻳﺘﻮﻟـﺪ ﺗﻴـﺎﺭ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ،ﻋﻨﺪ ﺳـﻘﻮﻁ ﺃﻱ ﺇﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﻋﲆ ﺍﳌﻬﺒـﻂ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺗﻨﻄﻠﻖ
ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻬﺒﻂ ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻂ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺻﻐﺮ
ﻼ ﹸﲢﺮﺭ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ
ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ،ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ،f0ﻭﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﺑﺘﻐﲑ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰ .ﻓﻤﺜ ﹰ b
12
ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴـﺔ ﻟﻠﻀـﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ -ﻣﺎ ﻋﺪﺍ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻷﲪـﺮ -ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴـﻴﺰﻳﻮﻡ ،ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﻻ ﹸﳛﺮﺭ
ﺃﻱ ﻃـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟـﻲ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﻧﻚ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺇﻧﻨﺎ ﻧﺤﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻷﺷـﻌﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ
ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴﺠﻴﺔ ،ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﱰﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱄ ﳊﺪﻭﺙ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺰﻧﻚ.
ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻂ ﻋﲆ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻏﲑ ﻗﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﲆ ﲢﺮﻳﺮ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﻪ ﻣﻬﲈ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺷـﺪﺓ ﻫﺬﺍ
ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ .ﰲ ﺣﲔ ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺳـﻘﻮﻁ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺷﺪﺗﻪ ﻗﻠﻴﻠﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ
ﹴ
ﻣﺴـﺎﻭ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﺇﱃ ﲢﺮﻳﺮ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰ ﻣﺒﺎﴍﺓ .ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻭﻟﻜـﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ
ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻂ ﻣﺴﺎﻭ ﹰﻳﺎ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺷﺪﺓ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ
ﺗﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﱃ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻴﺔ.
ﺗﻔﴪ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛـﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ؟ ﺇﳖﺎ ﻏﲑ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﲆ ﻛﻴـﻒ ﹼ
ﻳﴪﻉ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰ ،ﻭﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺫﻟـﻚ؛ ﻓﺒﻨﺎ ﹰﺀ ﻋﲆ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻓﺎﳌﺠـﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﹼ
ﺷـﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﻣﻊ ﺷـﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻉ )ﻻ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ( .ﻭﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﲢﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ
ﺍﻟﻔﻠـﺰ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻥ ﲤﺘـﺺ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻣـﻦ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺧﺎﻓﺖ ﻓـﱰﺓ ﺯﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ﻗﺒـﻞ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺘﺤﺮﺭ.
ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺗﺒﲔ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺕ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﻨﻄﻠﻖ ﻣﺒﺎﴍﺓ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﻘﻂ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ
ﹴ
ﻣﺴﺎﻭ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ. ﺫﻭ ﺷﺪﺓ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ
ﻧـﴩ ﺍﻟﻌـﺎﱂ ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﰲ ﻋـﺎﻡ 1905ﻡ ﻧﻈﺮﻳـﺔ ﺗﻔـﴪ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛـﲑ
ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋـﻲ .ﻭﺑﻨﺎ ﹰﺀ ﻋﲆ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ،ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﻭﺍﻷﺷـﻜﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻉ
ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺰﻡ )ﻣﻜﲈﺓ( ﻭﻣﻨﻔﺼﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،ﹸﺳ ﹼﻤﻲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﻴﲈ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ،
ﻭﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻋﲆ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ.
ﲤﺜـﻞ fﺍﻟـﱰﺩﺩ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ،Hzﻭ hﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻼﻧـﻚ ،ﻭﻷﻥ Hz = 1/sﻓﺈﻥ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ J/Hzﻟﺜﺎﺑﺖ
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﻟﻠﻜﻤﻴﺔ ،J.sﻭﻷﻥ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﳉﻮﻝ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ،ﻻﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ
ﺑﻼﻧﻚ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ ﹰ
ﰲ ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤـﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﳊﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ،ﻟﺬﺍ ﻓﺎﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﺷـﻴﻮ ﹰﻋﺎ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ
ﻭﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻳﺘﺴـﺎﺭﻉ ﻋﱪ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺟﻬﺪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻩﻓﻮﻟﺖ ) ،(eVﹼ
ﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ.
)1 eV = (1.60×10 -19 C)(1 V
=1.60×10 -19 C.V
=1.60×10 -19 J
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ
hc )(1240 eV.nm
__ = E
λ
________ =
λ
ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ) (eVﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻗﺴﻤﺔ 1240 eV.nmﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ).(nm
ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﺳـﱰﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﺴـﺄﻟﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﺷـﺘﻘﺎﻕ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻭﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ
ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ.
13
hc
ﺰﻭﺩﻧـﺎ ﲢﻮﻳـﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ hcﺇﱃ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ eV.nmﺑﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻣﺒﺴـﻄﺔ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﳊﻞ ﹸﻳ ﱢ
ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ.
.1ﺗﻌﻄﻰ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻃﻮﻟﻪ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ λﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ E = hf
.2ﻷﻥ ،f=c/λﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻋﲆ ﺷﻜﻞ E = hc/λ
.3ﻋﻨـﺪ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟـﺔ ،E = hc/λﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ hcﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ eV.nmﻣﻘﺴـﻮ ﹰﻣﺎ
ﻋـﲆ λﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ nmﻓﺴـﻮﻑ ﲢﺼﻞ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ .eVﻟﺬﺍ ﻓﺈﻧـﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻔﻴﺪ ﺃﻥ
ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ hcﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ .eV.nm
.4ﻳﺘﻢ ﲢﻮﻳﻞ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ hcﺇﱃ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ eV.nmﻛﲈ ﻳﲇ:
)hc = (6.626×10 -34 J/Hz) (2.998×10 8 m/s
(
)(l eV
___________
) 10 9 nm
_____
(1.602 ×10 -19 J) 1 m
= 1240 eV.nm
ﺑﺘﻌﻮﻳﺾ hc = 1240 eV.nmﰲ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﲢﺼﻞ ﻋﲆ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ؛ .5
)(1240 eV.nm
__ = E __________ =
hc ﺣﻴﺚ λﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ nmﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ Eﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ :eV
λ λ
ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟـﺔ ﺃﻋﻼﻩ ﳊﻞ ﻣﺴـﺎﺋﻞ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗـﻮﻥ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ .6
ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ .eV
ﻣـﻦ ﺍﳌﻬـﻢ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺃﺷـﻤﻞ ﻭﺃﻋﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ ﻟﻺﺷـﻌﺎﻉ
ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌـﺚ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻷﺟﺴـﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺧﻨﺔ .ﻓﺒﻴﻨـﲈ ﺗﻮﻗـﻊ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻬﺘـﺰﺓ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﺇﺷـﻌﺎ ﹰﻋﺎ
ﻛﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ،nhfﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﱂ ﻳﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﻭﺍﻷﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ ﻟﻺﺷﻌﺎﻉ
ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ ﺗﺴـﻠﻚ ﺳـﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ .ﺃﻣﺎ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻓﺘﻌﻴﺪ ﺗﻔﺴـﲑ
ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ ﻟﻺﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺧﻨﺔ ﻭﺗﻮﺳﻌﻬﺎ.
ﻟﻴﺘﻢ ﲢﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰ؛ ﻓﺈﻧﻨﺎ ﻧﺤﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﱃ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ ﻣﺴﺎﻭ ﹰﻳﺎ
ﻟﱰﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻔﻠﺰ ، f0ﻓﺈﺫﺍ ﺳـﻘﻂ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ ﺃﻛﱪ ﺃﻭ ﻳﺴـﺎﻭﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻔﻠﺰ ،ﺳﺘﺘﺤﺮﺭ
ﺍﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰ ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺗﻌﻄﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
14
1-4
-
-
-
15
1
ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﻳﻘﺎﻑ ﳋﻠﻴﺔ ﺿﻮﺋﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ،4.0 Vﻓﲈ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ
ﻋﱪ ﻋﻦ ﺇﺟﺎﺑﺘﻚ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﰐ ﺍﳉﻮﻝ ﻭﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ. ﹸﻳﻜﺴﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ؟ ﹼ
1
ﺍﺭﺳﻢ ﺍﳌﻬﺒﻂ ﻭﺍﳌﺼﻌﺪ ،ﻭﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ ،ﻭﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭ.
ﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﻳﻘﺎﻑ ،ﳛﻮﻝ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻋﱪ ﺍﳋﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻴﺔ.
λ
?=)ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ eVﻭ KE (J V0 = 4.0 V
q= -1.60×10 -19 C
+ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺳﺎﻗﻂ -
2
ﻼ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﺍﳌﺒﺬﻭﻝ Wﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺳﺎﻟﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺑﺘﺪﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﻳﺒﺬﻝ ﺍﳌﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﺷﻐ ﹰ
KE + W = 0 J KEﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻻ ﲤﺮ ﻋﱪ ﺍﳋﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻴﺔ.
KE = - W ﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﳊﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ .KE
= - q V0 W=qV0
)= -(-1.60 × 10-19 C) (4.0 V V0=4.0Vq=-1.60×10 19C
= +6.4 × 10-19 J
ﻣﺎ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﳉﻮﻝ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻪ 2.3 eV؟ .1
ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﴎﻋﺔ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ،6.2 × 106 m/sﻓﲈ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻪ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ؟ .2
ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﻳﻘﺎﻑ ﳋﻠﻴﺔ ﻛﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻴﺔ ،5.7 Vﻓﺎﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﻰ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ .eV .3
ﻳﻠـﺰﻡ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺇﻳﻘـﺎﻑ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻩ 3.2 Vﳌﻨﻊ ﴎﻳﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﰲ ﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﻛﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻴﺔ .ﺍﺣﺴـﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﻰ .4
ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﳉﻮﻝ.
16
ﺍﻓﱰﺽ ﺃﻥ ﻗﻄﻌﺔ ﻧﻘﺪﻳﺔ ﻛﺘﻠﺘﻬﺎ 5.0 gﻣﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺾ ﲥﺘﺰ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻋﲆ ﻭﺇﱃ ﺃﺳـﻔﻞ ،ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﴪﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻮ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻌﺔ ﰲ ﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀ
ﺍﻫﺘﺰﺍﺯﻫـﺎ ،1.0 cm/sﺍﻋﺘـﱪ ﺃﻥ ﻗﻄﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻘـﺪ ﺍﳌﻬﺘﺰﺓ ﺗﹸﻨﻤﺬﺝ ﺍﻻﻫﺘﺰﺍﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﻄﻰ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ
ﺍﻻﻫﺘﺰﺍﺯﺍﺕ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ E= nhf
.1ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﻰ ﻟﻠﺠﺴﻢ ﺍﳌﻬﺘﺰ.
.2ﻳﺒﻌـﺚ ﺍﳉﺴـﻢ ﺍﳌﻬﺘﺰ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﲆ ﺷـﻜﻞ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺑـﱰﺩﺩ 5.0×10 Hzﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧـﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
14
ﻳﻤﺜـﻞ ﺍﻟﺮﺳـﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴـﺎﲏ ﻃﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﺣﺮﻛـﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﺤﺮﺭ ﻣـﻦ ﻓﻠﺰ ،ﻣﻘﺎﺑـﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ
ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻄﺔ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺧﻂ ﻣﺴـﺘﻘﻴﻢ ،ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .1-6ﻟﻠﻔﻠﺰﺍﺕ
ﲨﻴﻌﻬﺎ ﺭﺳـﻮﻡ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﺸـﺎﲠﺔ ﳍﺎ ﺍﳌﻴﻞ ﻧﻔﺴـﻪ ،ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﻞ ﻳﺴـﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻨﺴـﺒﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﺍﳋﻂ
ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻣﺘﺪﺍﺩﻩ ﺍﻷﻓﻘﻲ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ .h
ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﻰ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﺃﳼ
= = ﺍﳌﻴﻞ
ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﰲ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ ﺍﻷﻓﻘﻲ
____ = h
∆KE
∆f
ﲣﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﺮﺳـﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻔﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻓﻘﻂ ﰲ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻡ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ.
ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 1-6ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ f0ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﻨﺪﻫﺎ .KE = 0ﻭﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﻘﻊ f0
1-6 ﻋﲆ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺗﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﺍﳋﻂ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﺤﻮﺭ ،xﻭﻳﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ )ﺩﺍﻟﺔ( ﺍﻟﺸـﻐﻞ
ﻟﻠﻔﻠﺰ .ﻭﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﻟﻔﻠﺰ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﺿﻌﻒ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎ ﹰ
ﻃﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ
ﺃﻭ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻠـﺰ ،ﻭﻳﺮﻣـﺰ ﳍـﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻣـﺰ ϕﻭﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭﻩ ﻳﺴـﺎﻭﻱ ،hf0ﻭﺗﻘـﻊ ϕﻋﲆ ﻧﻘﻄـﺔ ﺗﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﺍﳋﻂ
ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﺤﻮﺭ ،yﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﻘﻂ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ
f0ﻋـﲆ ﻓﻠﺰ ﺗﻜـﻮﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻪ ﻛﺎﻓﻴـﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ
ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﺩﻭﻥ ﺗﺰﻭﻳﺪﻩ ﺑﺄﻱ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﻴﺔ.
ﺃﺟﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜـﻲ ﺭﻭﺑﺮﺕ ﻣﻠﻴﻜﺎﻥ ﺑﲔ ﻋﺎﻣﻲ
1905ﻭ 1916ﻡ ﳎﻤﻮﻋـﺔ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺠـﺎﺭﺏ ،ﺣـﺎﻭﻝ
ﻣـﻦ ﺧﻼﳍـﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺪﺣـﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻴـﺔ
3
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﻰ)(eV
ﺧﺎﺭ
ﺳﻴ
ﺻ
ﺻﲔ
2
ﻮﺩﻳ
ﻮﻡ
ϕ-
17
2
ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﺿﻮﺋﻴﺔ ﻣﻬﺒ ﹰﻄﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺩﻳﻮﻡ .ﻓﺈﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ
λ 0ﳌﻬﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺩﻳﻮﻡ 536 nm
.aﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺩﻳﻮﻡ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ . eV
.bﺇﺫﺍ ﺳﻘﻂ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺑﻨﻔﺴﺠﻲ ﻃﻮﻟﻪ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ 348 nmﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺩﻳﻮﻡ ﻓﲈ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ eV؟
1
ﺍﺭﺳﻢ ﺍﳌﺼﻌﺪ ﻭﺍﳌﻬﺒﻂ ،ﻭﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ ،ﻭﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭ.
λ ? =ϕ λ0 = 536 nm
? = KE hc = 1240 eV.nm
.aﻣﺴﺘﺨﺪ ﹰﻣﺎ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ ﻭﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻹﳚﺎﺩ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ.
__ = ϕ = hf0
hc
λ 0
1240 eV.nm
________ =
536 nm λ0 = 536 nm, hc = 1240 eV.nm
= 2.31 eV
.bﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ ﻷﻳﻨﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﳊﺴﺎﺏ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ.
1240 eV.nm
________ = E
λ
1240 eV.nm
________ =
348 nm λ=348nm
= 3.56 eV
ﳊﺴﺎﺏ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭ ﺍﻃﺮﺡ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ.
__ = KE = hf – hf0 __ - hc hc
λ λ
__ =hcE
0
hc
=E–ϕ __ϕ= λ
λ0
= 3.56 eV-2.31 eV E = 3.56 eV ϕ = 2.31 eV
= 1.25 eV
3
ﺇﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺪﻱ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﻳﺆﻛﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ eVﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ .KE
ﺩﺍﺋﲈ.
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﹰ
ﻳﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﻣﻘﺎﺩﻳﺮ ﻗﻠﻴﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ.
.5ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺰﻧﻚ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ،Hzﻭﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ،eVﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺰﻧﻚ 310 nm
ﻣـﺎ ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ eVﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴـﻴﺰﻳﻮﻡ ،ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺴـﻘﻂ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺑﻨﻔﺴـﺠﻲ ﻃﻮﻟﻪ .6
ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ،425 nmﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﻟﻪ 1.96 eV
ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﲆ
ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻗـﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸـﻐﻞ ﻟﻔﻠﺰ ،4.50 eVﻓﲈ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻺﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻂ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ،ﺑﺤﻴـﺚ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﹰ .7
ﲢﺮﻳﺮ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﻪ؟
18
The Compton Effect ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮن
ﹸﻳﻈﻬـﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛـﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗـﻮﻥ -ﺭﻏﻢ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻟﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ -ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﲤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻛﲈ
ﻟﻠﺠﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ،ﻭﰲ ﻋـﺎﻡ 1916ﻡ ﺍﻗـﱰﺡ ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﳚـﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﻪ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺟﺴـﻴﻤﻴﺔ
ﻭﺑﲔ ﺃﻥ ﺯﺧﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ،E/cﻭﻷﻥ E = hƒ ﺃﺧﺮ ،ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ )ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺮﻙ( .ﹼ
ﻭ ،ƒ/c = 1/λﻓﺈﻥ ﺯﺧﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻳﻌﻄﻰ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ.
hf
__ =p __
c =λ
h
ﺯﺧﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ
ﺯﺧﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻗﺴﻤﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ.
ﺍﺧﺘـﱪﺕ ﲡـﺎﺭﺏ ﺃﺟﺮﺍﻫـﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋـﻲ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺃﺭﺛـﺮ ﻫﻮﱄ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘـﻮﻥ ﻋـﺎﻡ 1922ﻡ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ
ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ .ﻭﻗـﺪ ﺩﻋﻤﺖ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﲡـﺎﺭﺏ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﺳـ ﹼﻠﻂ
ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘـﻮﻥ ﺃﺷـﻌﺔ Xﺫﺍﺕ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ﻣﻌﻠـﻮﻡ ﻋﲆ ﻫﺪﻑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺮﺍﻓﻴـﺖ ،ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ
ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ ،1-7aﻭﻗﺎﺱ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻷﺷـﻌﺔ Xﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺷﺘﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﳍﺪﻑ .ﻻﺣﻆ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ ﺃﻥ
ﺑﻌـﺾ ﺃﺷـﻌﺔ Xﺍ ﹸﳌ ﹶﺸـﺘﱠﺘﺔ ﱂ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﻃﻮﳍﺎ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ،ﰲ ﺣﲔ ﺃﺻﺒـﺢ ﻟﺒﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ
ﺃﻛﱪ ﳑﺎ ﻟﻺﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻂ .ﻭﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ 1-7bﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ .ﻭﻳﻼﺣﻆ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﻥ
ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻷﻛﱪ ﺷﺪﺓ ﻷﺷﻌﺔ Xﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺸﺘﺘﺔ ﻳﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺜﻴﻠﻪ ﻷﺷﻌﺔ Xﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻄﺔ،
ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻷﻛﱪ ﺷﺪﺓ ﻷﺷﻌﺔ Xﺍﳌﺸﺘﺘﺔ ،ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺜﻴﻠﻪ ﻷﺷﻌﺔ Xﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻄﺔ.
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﻋﲆ ﺷـﻜﻞ ،E= hc/λ ﻭﺑـﲈ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟـﺔ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗـﻮﻥ E = hfﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺘﻬﺎ ﹰ
1-7 ﻭﺗﺒﲔ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺗﺘﻨﺎﺳـﺐ ﻋﻜﺴـ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﻣﻊ ﻃﻮﻟﻪ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ .ﻓﺎﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ
ﲬﺎ .ﻭﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻻﺣﻈﻪ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ ،ﺗﻌﻨﻲ ﺃﻥ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ Xﻗﺪ ﻓﻘﺪﺕ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺯ ﹰ
a ﺍﻹﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﰲ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺸـﺘﺘﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ .ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻹﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ،
ﻭﳍﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ Xﺑﺄﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ 10-2 nmﺃﻭ ﺃﻗﻞ.
bX
λ
θ = 90°
λ
´λ X
θ = 90°
X
X
X λ ´λ
19
a b
= E
= mv
ﰲ ﲡـﺎﺭﺏ ﻻﺣﻘـﺔ ،ﻻﺣﻆ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘـﻮﻥ ﲢﺮﺭ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺎﺟﺰ ﺍﳉﺮﺍﻓﻴـﺖ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺇﺟﺮﺍﺀ a1-8
ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ .ﻓﺎﻗﱰﺡ ﺃﻥ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ Xﺍﺻﻄﺪﻣﺖ ﺑﺎﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﰲ ﻫﺪﻑ ﺍﳉﺮﺍﻓﻴﺖ،
ﻭﻧﻘﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ .ﺍﻋﺘﻘﺪ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ -ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﻣﺸﺎﲠﺔ
ﲤﺎ ﹰﻣـﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﺼﺎﺩﻣـﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺮﻧﺔ ﰲ ﻛﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﻴﺎﺭﺩﻭ ،ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .1-8ﻭﺍﺧﺘﱪ ﻫﺬﻩ
ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ،ﻭﻭﺟﺪ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ ،ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ b
ﺍﻟﻠﺬﻳﻦ ﺗﻜﺘﺴﺒﻬﲈ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻳﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﺬﻳﻦ ﺗﻔﻘﺪﳘﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﻟﺬﺍ ﻓﺈﻥ
ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﲢﻘﻖ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﲏ ﺣﻔﻆ ﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺼﻄﺪﻡ ﺑﺠﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﺧﺮ.
1-1ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ
650 nmﻣـﻦ ﻣـﺆﴍ ﻟﻴـﺰﺭ .ﻣـﺎ ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﳌـﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺫﻭ ﺍﻟﺸـﺪﺓ .8
ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ eV؟ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴـﺔ ﻭﺍﻟـﱰﺩﺩ ﺍﳌﻨﺨﻔـﺾ ﻏـﲑ ﻗـﺎﺩﺭ ﻋـﲆ ﲢﺮﻳـﺮ
ﺍﻣﺘ ﹼﹸﺼـــﺖ ﺃﺷـﻌـــﺔ Xﰲ .14 ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﻓﻠـﺰ ،ﰲ ﺣـﲔ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺸـﺪﺓ
ﻋﻈـــﻢ ،ﻭﺣـــﺮﺭﺕ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﹰـﺎ .ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻄـﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻓﴪ ﺇﺟﺎﺑﺘﻚ. ﺍﳌﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﱰﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱄ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ؟ ﹼ
ﻷﺷـﻌــﺔ 0.02 nm Xﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒـﺎ ،ﻓﺎﺣﺴـــﺐ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ .9
ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ .eV ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻷﻋﲆ ﺷﺪﺓ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﺗﻔﻊ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ
ﹸﺃﺳـﻘﻄﺖ ﺃﺷـﻌﺔ Xﻋـﲆ ﻋﻈـﻢ، .15 ﺍﳉﺴـﻢ؟ ﻭﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﺘﻐﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ؟
ﻓﺎﺻﻄﺪﻣﺖ ﺑﺈﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻭﺗﺸـﺘﺖ .ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﻥ ﺑﲔ ﺳـ ﹼﻠﻂ ﻋﺎﱂ ﹲ .10
ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻷﺷـﻌﺔ Xﺍﳌﺸـﺘﺘﺔ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻄـﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺃﺷﻌ ﹶﺔ Xﻋﲆ ﻫﺪﻑ ،ﻓﺎﻧﻄﻠﻖ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳍﺪﻑ ﺩﻭﻥ
ﻷﺷﻌﺔ Xﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻄﺔ؟ ﻭﺿﺢ ﻣﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳊﺪﺙ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺃﻱ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺁﺧﺮ .ﹼ
ﻛﺮﰐ ﺑﻠﻴﺎﺭﺩﻭ ﻳﻨﻤﺬﺝ
ﲣﻴﻞ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﹶ ﹾ .16 ﻧﺎ ﹰﲡﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ ،ﺃﻡ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ.
ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋـﻞ ﺍﻟـﺬﻱ ﳛﺪﺙ ﺑﲔ ﻓﻮﺗـﻮﻥ ﻭﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣ ﹼﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ .11
ﻛﺜﲑﺍ
ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ .ﺍﻓﱰﺽ ﺃﻥ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﹰﺎ -ﻭﻛﺘﻠﺘﻪ ﺃﻛﱪ ﹰ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ ،ﻭﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ.
ﻣـﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ -ﹸﻭﺿﻊ ﺑﺪﻻﹰ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ، ﺍﺻﻄﺪﻡ ﺿــﻮﺀ ﺃﺧﴬ .12
ﻓﻬﻞ ﺗﻜـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻜﺘﺴـﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗـﻮﻥ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ λ=532 nmﺑﻔﻠﺰ ﻣﺎ ،ﻓﺤﺮﺭ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﻪ .ﺇﺫﺍ
ﺍﻟﺘﺼـﺎﺩﻡ ﻣﺴـﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﻟﺘﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻜﺘﺴـﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ؟ ﺗﻢ ﺇﻳﻘﺎﻑ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺟﻬﺪ
ﻭﻫـﻞ ﺗﻜـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﻳﻔﻘﺪﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻣﺴـﺎﻭﻳﺔ ،1.44 Vﻓﲈ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﻟﻠﻔﻠﺰ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ eV؟
ﻟﺘﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻔﻘﺪﻫﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﺑﺎﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ؟ ﺗﻨﺒﻌـﺚ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﻃﻮﳍـﺎ ﺍﳌﻮﺟـﻲ .13
20
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Matter Waves 1-2ﻣﻮﺟﺎت اﻟﻤﺎدة
ﻟﻘﺪ ﺃﻇﻬﺮ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ ﻭﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ ،ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ
ﲬﺎ ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﺎﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ .ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺯ ﹰ
ﹰ
ﺩﻟﻴﻼ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ •
ﺟﺴـﻴﻤﻴﺔ ،ﻓﻬﻞ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﺠﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴـﻠﻚ ﺳـﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺎﺕ ،ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺄﻥ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺍﺧﻞ
ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﲈﺩﺓ.
ﻭﺍﳊﻴـﻮﺩ؟ ﻭﺑﻌﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺮ :ﻫﻞ ﻟﻠﺠﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ؟ ﺗﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﻌـﺎﱂ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﻋﺎﻡ
ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟـﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑـﺮﻭﱄ
•
1923ﻡ ،ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﺠﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻣﻮﺟﻴـﺔ .ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﻏﲑ ﻋﺎﺩﻱ ،ﻭﻗﺪ ﻗﻮﺑﻞ
ﰲ ﺣـﻞ ﻣﺴـﺎﺋﻞ ﻋﺪﺩﻳـﺔ.
ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻓﺾ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻠﲈﺀ ﺁﺧﺮﻳﻦ ﺣﻴﻨﻬﺎ ،ﺣﺘﻰ ﻗﺮﺃ ﺃﻳﻨﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﺃﺑﺤﺎﺙ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺃﻳﺪﻩ ﰲ ﺫﻟﻚ.
• ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌـﺔ ﺍﳌﺰﺩﻭﺟﺔ
ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺟـﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ، De Broglie Waves ﻣﻮﺟﺎت دي ﺑﺮوﻟﻲ
ﻭﺃﳘﻴﺔ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ. ﻭﻗﻴﺎﺳﺎ ﻋﲆ ﺯﺧﻢ ﺗﺬﻛﺮ ﺃﻥ ﺯﺧﻢ ﺍﳉﺴـﻢ ﺍﳋﻄﻲ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻛﺘﻠﺘﻪ ﻣﴬﻭﺑﺔ ﰲ ﴎﻋﺘﻪ ،p= mv
ﹰ
ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ، p= h/λﺗﻮﻗﻊ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺃﻥ ﺯﺧﻢ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﻳﻌﱪ ﻋﻨﻪ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ
__ = p = mv
h
λ
ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ
ﻳﻤﺜـﻞ ﺍﻟﻄـﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟـﻲ λﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗـﺔ ﺃﻋﻼﻩ ﺍﻟﻄـﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟـﻲ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺐ ﻟﻠﺠﺴـﻴﻢ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﻙ،
ﻭﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ .ﻭﺗﻌﻄﻲ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﻣﺒﺎﴍﺓ.
h
λ = p__ = mv
___h
ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ
ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﻣﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﻗﺴﻤﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ ﻋﲆ ﺯﺧﻢ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ.
ﺍﻋﺘـﲈ ﹰﺩﺍ ﻋـﲆ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ،ﻳﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺗﹸﻈﻬﺮ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﻣﺜـﻞ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ
ﺧﺼﺎﺋـﺺ ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ﱂ ﻳﺴـﺒﻖ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻮﺣﻆ ﳍـﲈ ﺗﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻣﺜـﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻭﺍﳊﻴﻮﺩ.
ﻋﻈﻴﲈ ،ﺭﻏﻢ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺷﻚ ﻛﺒﲑ ﰲ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺘﻪ .ﻭﰲ ﻋﺎﻡ 1927ﻡ ﺃﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﻟﺬﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺇﻧﺠﺎﺯ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﹰ
ﲡﺮﺑﺘـﺎﻥ ﻣﺴـﺘﻘﻠﺘﺎﻥ ﺃﺛﺒﺘـﺖ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺠﻬـﲈ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﲢﻴـﺪ ﲤﺎ ﹰﻣـﺎ ﻛﺎﻟﻀﻮﺀ .ﻓﻔـﻲ ﺇﺣﺪ
ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺘﲔ ﺳ ﹼﻠﻂ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻱ ﺟﻮﺭﺝ ﺗﻮﻣﺴﻮﻥ ﺣﺰﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻋﲆ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﺓ ﺭﻗﻴﻘﺔ
1-9
ﺟـﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ؛ ﻭﺫﻟـﻚ ﻷﻥ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻠـﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﺔ ﺑﻨﻤﻂ ﻣﻨﺘﻈـﻢ ﳚﻌﻠﻬﺎ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻤـﻞ ﳏﺰﻭﺯ ﺣﻴﻮﺩ.
-
ﺗﻜﻮﳖﺎ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ Xﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﳍﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ
ﻭﻛﻮﻧﺖ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺣﻴﻮ ﹰﺩﺍ ﺑﺎﻷﻧﲈﻁ ﻧﻔﺴـﻬﺎ ،ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﹼ
ﹼ
-
ﻳﻜﻮﻧﻪ ﺣﻴـﻮﺩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ .ﻭﰲ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﻧﻔﺴـﻪ .ﻭﻳﻮﺿـﺢ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ 1-9ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻂ ﺍﻟـﺬﻱ ﱢ
ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺃﺟﺮ ﻛﻠﻴﻨﺘﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﻓﻴﺴـﻮﻥ ،ﻭﻻﺳـﱰ ﺟﲑﻣﺮ ﲡﺮﺑﺔ ﻣﺸـﺎﲠﺔ ،ﻣﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻣﲔ
ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﻌﻜﺴـﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻠﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺳـﻤﻴﻜﺔ .ﻭﻟﻘـﺪ ﺃﺛﺒﺘﺖ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺘﺎﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﺠﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﻳﺔ
ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ.
ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﻸﺟﺴـﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﺗﺮﺍﻫﺎ ،ﻭﺗﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ ﻳﻮﻣ ﹼﹰﻴـﺎ ،ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺘﻬﺎ ،ﻷﻥ
ﺃﻃﻮﺍﳍﺎ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻗﺼﲑﺓ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ .ﻓﻤﺜﻼﹰ ،ﻋﻨﺪ ﺩﺭﺍﺳـﺔ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻟﻜﺮﺓ ﻗﺪﻡ
ﻛﺘﻠﺘﻬﺎ ،0.145 kgﻭﴎﻋﺘﻬﺎ ،38 m/sﻧﺠﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻃﻮﳍﺎ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ:
6.63 ×10 -34 J.s
___ = _____________ =1.2 ×10 -34 m
h
λ=mv
)(0.145 kg)(38 m/s
ﻛﺜﲑﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﻪ ﺗﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ .ﻟﻜﻦ ﻭﻛـﲈ ﻳﻼﺣـﻆ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺃﺻﻐﺮ ﹰ
ﻛـﲈ ﺳـﱰ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘـﺎﱄ ،ﻟﻠﺠﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﲑﺓ ﺟـﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ -ﻛﺎﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻣﺜـ ﹰ
ﻼ -ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ
ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺘﻪ ﻭﻗﻴﺎﺳﻪ.
21
3
ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺟﻬﺪ ،75 Vﻓﲈ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻟﻪ؟
1
ﺿﻤﻦ ﺭﺳﻤﻚ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﺣﲔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺐ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺎﻟﺐ.
ﹼ
?=λ V = 75 V m = 9.11×10 -31 kg
h = 6.63 ×10 -34 J.s
+ - q = -1.6×10 -19 C
75 V
2
ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﻋﻼﻗﺘﲔ ﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ؛ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﳉﻬﺪ ،ﻭﺍﻷﺧﺮ ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﺔ ،ﻭﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻣﻬﲈ ﳊﺴﺎﺏ
ﴎﻋﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ.
KE = -qV ،KE = 2 mv
__
1 2
__
1
mv 2 = -qV KE
2 _____
-2qV
=v _____√
m ﺣﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑv
___________________
0 - 31kg
m = 9.11 × 1
√
-19
)-2(-1.60 ×10 C)(75 V
___________________ = -19
q= -1.60×10 C V = 75 V
-
(9.11×10 31
)kg
= 5.1 ×10 6
m/s
p = mv ﺣﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ
m9.11× 1 -34
0 kg
)= (9.11×10 -31 kg)(5.1×10 6 m/s
v5.1×10 ms
6
= 4.6×10 -24 kg.m/s
__ =λ
p
h
ﺣﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺇﱃ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ
6.63×10 -34 J.s h = 6.63× 10 -34 J.s
____________ =
4.6×10 -24 kg.m/s p = 4.6 × 10 -24 kg. m/s
= 1.4× 10 -10
m = 0.14 nm
3
ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺪﻱ ﻟﻠﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﻳﺜﺒﺖ ﺃﻥ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ m/sﻟﻠﴪﻋﺔ ،vﻭﻭﺣﺪﺓ nmﻟﻠﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ .λ
ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻌﺔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ vﻭ .λ
ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻗﺮﻳﺐ ﻣﻦ ،0.1 nmﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻘﻊ ﰲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻷﺷﻌﺔ Xﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ.
ﺗﺘﺪﺣﺮﺝ ﻛﺮﺓ ﺑﻮﻟﻨﺞ ﻛﺘﻠﺘﻬﺎ 7.0 kgﺑﴪﻋﺔ ،8.5 m/sﺃﺟﺐ ﻋﲈ ﻳﲇ: .17
.aﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻜﺮﺓ؟ .bﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﻻ ﺗﹸﻈﻬﺮ ﻛﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﻟﻨﺞ ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ﻣﻼﺣﻆ؟
ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﳉﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻡ ﳌﺴﺎﺭﻋﺔ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻟﻪ 0.125 nm؟ .18
ﻃـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟـﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑـﺮﻭﱄ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺜـﺎﻝ 3ﻳﺴـﺎﻭﻱ ،0.14 nmﻣﺎ ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﻮﺣـﺪﺓ eVﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ .19
) (m = 1.67 × 10-27 kgﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ؟
22
a +y Particles and Waves اﻟﺠﺴﻴﻤﺎت واﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎت
ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻤﻲ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﻫﻞ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﺃﻡ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ؟ ﺗﺸـﲑ ﺍﻟﺪﻻﺋﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻥ ﹼﹰ
ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻳﻠﺰﻣﺎﻥ ﻟﺘﻔﺴﲑ ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﻗﺎﺩﺕ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﺰﺩﻭﺟﺔ ﻟﻺﺷﻌﺎﻉ
+x
ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺭﺍﺋﻌﺔ ،ﻭﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﳌﺠﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻘﻲ ﺍﳌﺎﺳﺢ ).(STM
λ
= 0 ﻭﻓ ﹰﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻤﻲ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻋﻨﺪ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﻭﴎﻋﺘﻪ ﰲ
ﳊﻈﺔ ﺯﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ،ﻓﻼﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺃﺧﻄﺎﺀ ﲡﺮﻳﺒﻴﺔ ،ﺗﹸﻌﺰ ﺇﱃ ﺃﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺸـﺨﺺ
ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻘﻴﺲ ،ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﺧﻄﺎﺀ ﺇﱃ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ .ﻭﻟﻜﻦ
ﺣﺴـﺐ ﻧﻈﺮﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻜـﻢ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﻢ ﻓﺈﻧﻨﺎ ﻧﺴـﻠﻂ ﺿﻮ ﹰﺀﺍ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺛـﻢ ﲡﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ
+y ﺍﳌﻨﻌﻜـﺲ ﻋﻨـﻪ ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺑﺴـﺒﺐ ﺗﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﳊﻴﻮﺩ ،ﻓـﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﻳﻨﺘﴩ؛ ﳑﺎ ﳚﻌﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﺤﻴﻞ
b
'λ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻪ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺫﻱ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ﺃﻗﴫ ،ﻳﻘﻠﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﳊﻴﻮﺩ
ﻭﻳﺴﻤﺢ ﺑﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﻳﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﳋﻄﺄ ﰲ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﺯﺧﻢ
ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ.
+x
ﻣﻦ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺼﻄﺪﻡ ﺇﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﻃﻮﻟﻪ
ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻗﺼﲑ ،ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺘﻪ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﺠﺴﻴﻢ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺯﺧﻢ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ،ﻛﲈ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .1-10ﻭﺑﻨﺎﺀ
ﻋﲆ ﺫﻟﻚ ،ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﻢ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ ﰲ ﺗﻐﲑ ﺯﲬﻪ .ﻭﻛﻠﲈ ﺯﺍﺩﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﺔ ﰲ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ
ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺯﺍﺩ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﰲ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺯﲬﻪ .ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻢ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺯﺧﻢ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ،
ﻓـﺈﻥ ﻣﻮﻗﻌـﻪ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﻭﻳﺼﺒﺢ ﺃﻗﻞ ﲢﺪﻳـﺪﹰ ﺍ .ﹸﳋﹼﺼﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ ﰲ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻋـﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ
1-10
ﻳﻨـﺺ ﻋـﲆ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻏـﲑ ﺍﳌﻤﻜﻦ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺯﺧﻢ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﻭﲢﺪﻳـﺪ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻪ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻧﻔﺴـﻪ.
ﺳـﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﺳـﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻷﳌﺎﲏ ﻓﲑﻧﺮ ﻫﻴﺰﻧﺒـﺰﺝ -ﻫﻮ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ
ﺇﻥ ﻫـﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﺒﺪﺃ -ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﹼ
a
ﺍﳌﺰﺩﻭﺟﺔ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﻭﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ .ﻭﳜﱪﻧﺎ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﳍﻴﺰﻧﱪﺝ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺣﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ﻟﻠﺪﻗﺔ ﰲ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ
b
ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ.
1-2ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ
ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺷﻖ ﻣﺰﺩﻭﺝ ،ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻧﻤﻂ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ. ﺻـﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﺃﺛﺒﺘﺖ ﺃﻥ .20
ﻭﲢـﺪﺙ ﻛﻠﺘـﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺘﲔ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﲤـﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺃﻭ ﻟﻠﺠﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ.
ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﺧـﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺸـﻘﲔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻧﻔﺴـﻪ .ﻛﻴﻒ ﻓﴪ ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﻻ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﲈﺩﺓ؟
ﹼ .21
ﻳﻔﴪ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ؟ ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ .22
ﻣﺆﺧـﺮﺍ ﳏﺰﻭﺯ
ﹰ ﺍﺑﺘﻜـﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﻮﻥ .25 ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻳﺘﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺟﻬﺪ 125 V؟
ﺣﻴـﻮﺩ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺟـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻴـﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻮﻓـﺔ )ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻘﺮﺓ(. ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺼﻄﺪﻡ .23
ﻭﺗﻜـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﲤـﺮ ﺧـﻼﻝ ﺍﳌﺤـﺰﻭﺯ ﻧﻤـﻂ ﱢ ﺇﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﺑﺠﺴـﻴﻢ ﺛﻘﻴـﻞ ،ﻓـﺈﻥ ﴎﻋـﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ،
ﺗﺪﺍﺧـﻞ .ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧـﺖ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺻﻠـﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﺸـﻘﻮﻕ ﻭﻃـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺘـﻪ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﻗﺼـﺎﻥ .ﺑﻨـﺎﺀ ﻋـﲆ ﺫﻟـﻚ ،ﻛﻴﻒ
250 nm) __21 λﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒـﺎ( ،ﻓـﲈ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ؟
ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ؟ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻤﺮ ﺿـﻮﺀ ﺃﻭ ﺣﺰﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ .24
23
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ﻧﻤﺬﺟﺔ اﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ اﻟﻜﻬﺮوﺿﻮﺋﻲ Madeling the Photoelectric Effect
ﺗﻌـﺮﻑ ﻋﻤﻠﻴـﺔ ﺍﻧﺒﻌـﺎﺙ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﻣـﻦ ﺟﺴـﻢ ﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ ﻳﺴـﻘﻂ ﺇﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﻛﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴـﴘ ﻋﻠﻴـﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ
ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ .ﻭﺗﺘﺤﺮﺭ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻭ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ
ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﺗﺴـﻤﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ .ﺳـﺘﻨﻤﺬﺝ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺳـﺘﻘﺼﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ ،ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻌﲈﻝ ﻛﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﻮﻻﺫﻳﺔ.
ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺿﻮﺋﻴﺔ.
ﹲ ﻭﺳﻮﻑ ﲣﺘﱪ ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﲢﺮﺭ
ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﲈﻝ ﻛﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﻮﻻﺫﻳﺔ ﻟﻨﻤﺬﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ؟
ﺛـﻼﺙ ﻛﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﻮﻻﺫﻳﺔ ،ﻭﳎﺮ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺴـﺎﺭ ﻓﻴـﻪ ﺃﺧﺪﻭﺩ )ﻗﻨﺎﺓ ﻋﲆ ﻻﺳﺘﻘﺼﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ.
�
ﺷـﻜﻞ ﺣـﺮﻑ ،(Uﻭﻛﺘﺐ ،ﻭﺃﻗـﻼﻡ ﲣﻄﻴﻂ ﲪـﺮﺍﺀ ،ﻭﺑﺮﺗﻘﺎﻟﻴﺔ،
ﻭﺻﻔﺮﺍﺀ ،ﻭﺧﴬﺍﺀ ،ﻭﺯﺭﻗﺎﺀ ،ﻭﺑﻨﻔﺴﺠﻴﺔ )ﺃﻭ ﻻﺻﻘﺎﺕ ﻣ ﹼﻠﻮﻧﺔ(، � ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ.
� ﻟﺘﻔﺴﲑ ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﻻ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻈﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﻭﻣﺴﻄﺮﺓ ﻣﱰﻳﺔ.
ﺍﳉﺎﻫﺮﻳﺔ )ﺍﳌﺎﻛﺮﻭﺳـﻜﻮﺑﻴﺔ( ﺗﻔﺴﲑ ﺍﻟﺴـﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ.
.1ﺷـﻜﱢﻞ ﺍﳌﺠـﺮ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻘﻨـﺎﺓ ﻛـﲈ ﻫـﻮ ﻣﻮﺿـﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺼـﻮﺭﺓ،
ﻭﺍﺳـﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻋـﺪﺓ ﻛﺘـﺐ ﻟﺪﻋﻤﻬﺎ ﻛﲈ ﻫـﻮ ﻣﻮﺿـﺢ .ﺗﺄﻛﺪ ﺃﻥ
ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺐ ﻻ ﺗﻐﻠﻖ ﳖﺎﻳﺘﻲ ﺍﳌﺠﺮ.
ﺑﺎﺳـﺘﻌﲈﻝBﻗﻠﻢ A
ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴـﻂ ﺍﻷﲪﺮ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ ﺍﳊﺮﻑAAAC BRB
BﺍﻛﺘﺐD CC
CE DD A
.2DF EEBEG FFCFHGGDGI HHEHJ IIFK
I JJGJL KKH NM
MLLIL
K J N
MM N
ﻋـﲆ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ،4 cmﻓـﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﻛﲈ ﻫـﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ .ﲤﺜﻞ R
ﺍﻷﲪﺮ.
.3ﺍﻛﺘـﺐ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ Vﺑﺎﺳـﺘﻌﲈﻝ ﻗﻠـﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴـﺠﻲ ﻋﲆ
ﺍﻟﻘﻨـﺎﺓ ﻋﲆ ﺍﺭﺗﻔـﺎﻉ ،14 cmﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻭﻟـﺔ ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ.
ﻳﻤﺜـﻞ Vﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴـﺠﻲ .ﺍﺳـﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺃﻗـﻼﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴـﻂ ﹼ
ﺍﳌﻠﻮﻧـﺔ
ﺍﻷﺧـﺮ ﻟﻮﺿـﻊ ﻋﻼﻣـﺎﺕ ﻟـﻸﺯﺭﻕ ،Bﻭﻟﻸﺧـﴬ ،G
ﻭﻟﻸﺻﻔـﺮ ،Yﻭﻟﻠﱪﺗﻘـﺎﱄ Oﻋـﲆ ﻣﺴـﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﺴـﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﺑﲔ
ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻣﺘﲔ Rﻭ ،Vﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ
.4ﺿـﻊ ﻛﺮﺗﲔ ﻓﻮﻻﺫﻳﺘـﲔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺃﺧﻔﺾ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻋـﲆ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ .ﲤﺜﻞ
ﻫﺎﺗﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺗﺎﻥ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﲏ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓﺆ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ.
.5ﺃﻣﺴﻚ ﻛﺮﺓ ﻓﻮﻻﺫﻳﺔ ،ﻭﺿﻌﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻊ Rﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ .ﲤﺜﻞ
ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻷﲪﺮ .ﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ
ﻓﻮﺗـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻷﲪﺮ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﺃﻟﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ
ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ ﻧﻤﺬﺟﺘﻬﺎ.
24
ﰲ ﺍﳋﻄـﻮﺓ ،9ﻣﺎ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﲤﺜﻠﻪ .3 .6ﺃﻓﻠـﺖ ﺍﻟﻜـﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻻﺫﻳﺔ )ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ( ،ﻭﻻﺣـﻆ ﻣﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﳍﺎ
ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻻﺫﻳﺔ؟ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺗﻜﺎﻓﺆ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ؛ ﺃﻱ ﺭﺍﻗﺐ ﻣﺎ
ﰲ ﺍﳋﻄـﻮﺓ ،10ﻣـﺎ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ .4 ﺳـﺠﻞ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺗﻚ ﰲ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﻓﻠﺘﺖ ﺃ ﹼﹰﻳﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺗﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ .ﹼ
ﲤﺜﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻻﺫﻳﺔ؟ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ.
ﻫﻞ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺆﺧﺬ ﺑﻌﲔ .5 .7ﺃﺯﻝ ﺍﻟﻜـﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻻﺫﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﲤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻂ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺰﺀ
ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ؟ ﳌﺎﺫﺍ؟ ﺍﻟﺴـﻔﲇ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻨـﺎﺓ .ﻭﺃﻋـﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺗـﲔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻻﺫﻳﺘـﲔ ﺍﻟﻠﺘـﲔ
ﻧﺺ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺗﻚ ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ. .6 ﺍﺳـﺘﻌﻤﻠﺘﻬﲈ ﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴـﻞ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓـﺆ ﺇﱃ ﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﻬـﲈ
)ﺃﺧﻔﺾ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ(.
ﻛﺮﺭ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﺍﺕ 7-5ﻟﻜﻞ ﻟﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻟﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺣﺪﺩﲥﺎ ﻋﲆ .8ﹼ
ﺑﺈﻟﻜﱰﻭﲏ
ﹶﹾ ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﳛﺪﺙ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﺻﻄﺪﻡ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﹶﺎ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺃﲪﺮ .1
ﺩﺍﺋﲈ ﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ ﺗﻜﺮﺭ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺗﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ .ﺗﺄﻛﺪ ﹰ
ﺗﻜﺎﻓﺆ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻠﺤﻈﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ؟ ﺍﺧﺘﱪ ﺗﻮﻗﻌﻚ.
ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻻﺫﻳﺘـﺎﻥ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺃﺧﻔﺾ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻋـﲆ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﺓ .ﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ
ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗـﻮﺓ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓﺆ ﰲ .2
ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴﺠﻲ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻟﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ
ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﻌـﺾ ﺍﳌـﻮﺍﺩ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﻗـﻮﺓ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻃﻬـﺎ ﰲ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ
ﺃﺧﺮ .ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺗﹸﻌﺪﹼ ﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﻟﺒﻴﺎﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ؟ ﺳﺠﻞ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺕ ﰲ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ. ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ ﻧﻤﺬﺟﺘﻬﺎ .ﹼ
ﰲﻫﺬﺍﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ،ﻣﺎﺫﺍﳛﺪﺙﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ، .3 ﻛـﺮﺭ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﺍﺕ 5ﺇﱃ ،7ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺃﻓﻠـﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻻﺫﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ .9ﹼ
ﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ ﻳﺼﻄﺪﻡ ﺑﺈﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ،ﻭﻻ ﻳﺴـﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﲢﺮﻳﺮﻩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ؟ ﻼ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻊ .R ﲤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺃﺧﻔﺾ ﻗﻠﻴ ﹰ
ﺳﺠﻞ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺗﻚ ﰲ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ. ﹼ
ﻛـﺮﺭ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﺍﺕ 5ﺇﱃ ،7ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺃﻓﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻻﺫﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ .10ﹼ
،E = hfﺣﻴـﺚ ﲤﺜـﻞ hﺛﺎﺑـﺖ ﺑﻼﻧـﻚ ،ﻭfﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐـﺔ ﻼ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻊ .V ﲤﺜـﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻂ ﻣـﻦ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺃﻋﲆ ﻗﻠﻴ ﹰ
ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ ،ﳊﺴﺎﺏ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺳﺠﻞ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺗﻚ ﰲ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ. ﹼ
ﺍﻷﲪﺮ ،ﻗﺎﺭﳖﺎ ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻷﺯﺭﻕ. .11ﺃﺟﺐ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺴـﺆﺍﻝ 1ﰲ ﺑﻨﺪ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ،ﺛﻢ ﺍﺧﺘﱪ
ﺗﻮﻗﻌﻚ.
ﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻣﺼﻮﺭﻭ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﺟﺮﺍﻓﻴﺎ ﻋﺎﺩ ﹰﺓ ﺇﺿـﺎﺀﺓ ﲪﺮﺍﺀ ﰲ ﻏﺮﻓﻬﻢ .12ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻨﺘﻬﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺃﻋﺪ ﲨﻴﻊ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻷﻣﺎﻛﻦ
ﺍﳌﻈﻠﻤﺔ ،ﻓﻠﲈﺫﺍ ﻻ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻷﺯﺭﻕ؟ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺣﺪﺩﻫﺎ ﻟﻚ ﻣﻌﻠﻤﻚ.
اﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎء ﺣﺮﺭﺕ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﹰﺎ ﺃﻱ ﺃﻟـﻮﺍﻥ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﹼ
.1
ﻭﺍﺣﺪﹰ ﺍ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ ﰲ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻚ؟
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ﻷﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ
ﻫﻞ ﹼ .2
ﻣﻦ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ؟ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺤﺪﹼ ﺩ ﻟﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ.
25
ﻡ ﺍﳌﺠﻬﺮ1981 ﺍﺧـﱰﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﳌـﺎﻥ ﺟﲑﺩ ﺑﻴﻨﺞ ﻭﻫﻨـﺮﺵ ﺭﻭﻫﺮﻳﺮ ﻋـﺎﻡ
ﻭﺣﺼـﻼ ﺑﻌﺪ ﲬﺲ ﺳـﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻋﲆ ﺟﺎﺋﺰﺓ،(STM) ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻘـﻲ ﺍﳌﺎﺳـﺢ 3
V
d = 1 nm
.1
STM 2 1.0 × 10 A
-9
26
Aparticle Model of Waves 1-1
• ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﺍﻷﺟﺴـﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺨﻦ ﻟﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻫﺞ ﺿﻮ ﹰﺀﺍ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﻫﺘﺰﺍﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺸﺤﻮﻧﺔ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ •
ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﰲ ﺫﺭﺍﲥﺎ. ﻣﻜﲈﺓ
ﹼ •
• ﹸﻳﻐﻄﻲ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻷﺟﺴـﺎﻡ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺠﺔ ،ﻣﺪﹰ ﻭﺍﺳـ ﹰﻌﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ .ﻭﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ •
ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺠﺔ. ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ •
ﻣﻔﱰﺿﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﺠﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﻣﻘﺎﺩﻳﺮ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
ﹰ ﻓﴪ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﳉﺴـﻢ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺞ، • ﹼ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﻳﻘﺎﻑ •
ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﻭﻫﻲ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻔﺎﺕ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ. ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ •
ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ •
E = nhf
ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ •
ﻣﻔﱰﺿﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻀـﻮﺀ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻋﲆ ﺷـﻜﻞ ﺣﺰﻡ ﻣﻦ
ﹰ ﻓـﴪ ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛـﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋـﻲ،
• ﹼ
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ.
)(1240 eV.nm
_________ hc
__ = E = hf = )λ(nm
λ
• ﲤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ hﺍﻋﺘﲈ ﹰﺩﺍ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ.
• ﻳﻘﺎﺱ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸـﻐﻞ -ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻜﺎﻓﺊ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺭﺑﻂ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ -ﺑﺎﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﰲ
ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ.
ﻳﺒﲔ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘﻮﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﹰ
ﺯﲬﺎ ﻛﲈ ﺗﻮﻗﻊ ﺃﻳﻨﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ. • ﹼ
hf
h
__ =p
= c
__
λ
ﲬﺎ.
• ﺗﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﴪﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ .ﻭﺭﻏﻢ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻟﻴﺲ ﳍﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﳍﺎ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺯ ﹰ
Matter Waves 1-2
• ﺍﻗـﱰﺡ ﺍﻟﻌـﺎﱂ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﻳﺔ ،ﻭﺗﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻘـﻖ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻋﻤﻠ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﻋﻦ • ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ
ﻃﺮﻳـﻖ ﺣﻴﻮﺩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﻮﺭﺍﺕ .ﻭﻟﻜﻞ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﻛـﺔ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ، • ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ
___ h
__ h ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﻄﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ.
λ= p =mv
• ﺗﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺘﺎﻥ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻣ ﹰﻌﺎ ﻟﻮﺻﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ.
• ﻳﻨﺺ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﳍﻴﺰﻧﱪﺝ ﻋﲆ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﻤﻜﻦ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﻭﺯﺧﻢ ﺃﻱ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ
ﺿﻮﺋﻲ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺎﺩﻱ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺁﻥ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ.
27
ﻭﺿـﺢ ﻛﻴـﻒ ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﻗﻴـﺎﺱ ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋـﺺ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴـﺔ .36
ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ: ﺃﻛﻤﻞ ﺧﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺃﺩﻧﺎﻩ ،ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﳌﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ .26
.bﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ .cﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ .aﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴـﺔ :ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌـﺔ ﺍﳌﺰﺩﻭﺟـﺔ ،ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠـﺔ ،ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋـﺺ
ﻭﺿﺢ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ: .37 ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ،ﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ ،ﺍﳊﻴﻮﺩ.
.bﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ .cﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ . .aﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﳉﺴـﻢ ﻣﺘﻮﻫﺞ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺛﻼﺙ .38
ﺩﺭﺟـﺎﺕ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻛﲈ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ 1-1ﻭﺃﺟﺐ
ﻋﻨﺪﻩ ﺷﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ،ﻭﺑﲔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﲢﻜﻢ .ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﳛﺪﺙ ﻟﻠﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭ
ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺞ؟ ﻋﻦ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻣﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻗﺮﺍﺀﺓ؟
ﻭﺿـﻊ ﻗﻀﻴﺒﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺪ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨـﺎﺭ ،ﻓﺘﻮﻫﺞ ﺃﺣﺪﳘﺎ .39 ﻭﺿﺢ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ. ﹼ .28
ﺑﺎﻟﻠـﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﲪـﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻛـﻦ ،ﺑﻴﻨـﲈ ﺗﻮﻫﺞ ﺍﻵﺧـﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻮﻥ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﺘﻪ ﰲ ﺗﻔﺴـﲑ ﻣﺎﻛﺲ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ ﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ .29
ﺍﻟﱪﺗﻘﺎﱄ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻃﻊ .ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺒﲔ: ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺠﺔ؟
.aﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺳﺨﻮﻧﺔ؟ .bﻳﺸﻊ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ؟ ﻛﲈﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ؟ ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﹼ .30
ﻫﻞ ﳛﺮﺭ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ ﻛﺒﲑ ﻋﺪ ﹰﺩﺍ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ .40 ﹸﺳـ ﱢﻠﻂ ﺿـﻮﺀ ﻋﲆ ﻣﻬﺒـﻂ ﺧﻠﻴـﺔ ﺿﻮﺋﻴـﺔ ،ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ .31
ﻣﻦ ﺳـﻄﺢ ﺣﺴﺎﺱ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺑﻀﻮﺀ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ ﺃﻗﻞ، ﺍﻟﻀـﻮﺀ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﻔﻠﺰ ﺍﳌﻬﺒﻂ .ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﻔﴪ
ﻣﻊ ﺍﻓﱰﺍﺽ ﺃﻥ ﻛﻼ ﺍﻟﱰﺩﺩﻳﻦ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ؟ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﻟﻠﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋـﻲ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ
ﺗﻨﺒﻌـﺚ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺿﻮﺋﻴﺔ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺗﺎﺳـﻴﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ .41 ﺗﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻴﺔ ﻛﻠﲈ ﺯﺍﺩﺕ ﺷﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ؟
ﻳﺴـﻘﻂ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺃﺯﺭﻕ ،ﰲ ﺣﲔ ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻓـﴪﺕ ﻧﻈﺮﻳـﺔ ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﺣﻘﻴﻘـﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻭﺿـﺢ ﻛﻴـﻒ ﹼ .32
ﺿﻮﺋﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﺠﺴـﺘﻦ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﻘﻂ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻟـﺬﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗـﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﻔﻠﺰ ﻻ ﳛﺮﺭ
ﺑﻨﻔﺴﺠﻴﺔ .ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰﻳﻦ:
ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺿﻮﺋﻴﺔ ﻣﻨﻪ ،ﺑﻐﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺷﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ؟
.aﻟﻪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻋﺘﺒﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ؟ .bﻟﻪ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺷﻐﻞ ﺃﻛﱪ؟
ﻷﻥ ﺃﻧﻮﺍ ﹰﻋـﺎ ﻣﻌﻴﻨـﺔ ﻣـﻦ ﺃﻓﻼﻡ .33
ﻗـﺎﺭﻥ ﻃـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟـﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑـﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒـﺔ ﻟﻜـﺮﺓ .42
ﺍﻷﺑﻴﺾ ﻭﺍﻷﺳـﻮﺩ ﻟﻴﺴـﺖ ﺣﺴﺎﺳـﺔ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻷﲪﺮ،
ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺴﺒﻮﻝ ،ﺍﳌﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 1-11ﺑﻘﻄﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺓ.
ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﲢﻤﻴﻀﻬـﺎ ﰲ ﻏﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﻈﻠﻤﺔ ﻣﻀﺎﺀﺓ ﺑﻀﻮﺀ
ﻓﴪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﻨﺎ ﹰﺀ ﻋﲆ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ. ﺃﲪﺮ .ﹼ
0.10 m 21 m/s
ﲬﺎ ،ﻛﲈﻛﻴـﻒ ﺃﻇﻬﺮ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻮﻣﺒﺘـﻮﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺯ ﹰ .34
ﺃﻥ ﳍﺎ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ؟
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 1-11 ﺍﻟﺰﺧـﻢ pﳉﺴـﻴﻢ ﻣـﺎﺩﻱ ﻳﻌﻄـﻰ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟـﺔ p = mv .35
ﻫﻞ ﺗﺴـﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺯﺧﻢ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻣﺴﺘﺨﺪ ﹰﻣﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ
ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ؟ ﻭﺿﺢ ﺇﺟﺎﺑﺘﻚ.
28
1-2ﻣﻮﺟﺎت اﻟﻤﺎدة
ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ .51 1-1اﻟﻨﻤﻮذج اﻟﺠﺴﻴﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺟﺎت
ﻳﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺑﴪﻋﺔ 3.0 ×106 m/s؟ ﺍﻋﺘـﲈ ﹰﺩﺍ ﻋﲆ ﻧﻈﺮﻳـﺔ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ ،ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﺗـﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻫﺘﺰﺍﺯ .43
ﻣـﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﴪﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﳚـﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﲠﺎ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ .52 ﺫﺭﺓ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺑﻌﺜﺖ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻫﺎ 5.44×10 -19 Jﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ
ﻟﺘﻜـﻮﻥ ﻃـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟـﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑـﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒـﺔ ﻟـﻪ ﺗﻐﲑﺕ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ nﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ 1؟ﹼ
3.0 ×10-10 m؟ ﻣـﺎ ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﻓـﺮﻕ ﺍﳉﻬﺪ ﺍﻟـﻼﺯﻡ ﻹﻳﻘـﺎﻑ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ .44
ﻳﺘﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﺃﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ ﻣﻬﺒﻄﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﻮﻥ، .53
ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﻰ 4.8×10 -19 J؟
ﺧـﻼﻝ ﻓـﺮﻕ ﺟﻬـﺪ ،5.0 ×103 Vﺃﻭﺟـﺪ ﻣـﺎ ﻳـﺄﰐ:
ﻣـﺎ ﺯﺧـﻢ ﻓﻮﺗـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻀـﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴـﺠﻲ ﺍﻟـﺬﻱ ﻃﻮﻟـﻪ .45
.aﴎﻋﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ.
ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ 4.0×10 2 nm؟
.bﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺐ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ.
ﺍﺣﺘﹸﺠﺰ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻪ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ،0.025 eVﺃﻭﺟﺪ ﻣﺎ .54
ﺟﻬـﺪ ﺍﻹﻳﻘـﺎﻑ ﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﻓﻠﺰ ﻣﻌـﲔ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ .46
،13.65 eVﻓﺎﺣﺴﺐ:
.aﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﴎﻋﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ.
.bﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ.
.cﳏﻴـﻂ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟـﲔ ﺛـﻢ ﻗﺎﺭﻧﻪ ﺑﻄـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ + 5.0 V -
ﻋﻠﲈ ﺑﺄﻥ
ﺩﻱ ﺑـﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ .ﹰ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 1-12
ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ 0.519 nm
ﺗـﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒـﺔ ﻟﻔﻠﺰ ﻣﻌـﲔ ،3.00 ×1014 Hzﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ .47
ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻃـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑـﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ .56
،0.18 nmﻓﺄﺟﺐ ﻋﲈ ﻳﺄﰐ: ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﻰ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﺇﺫﺍ
.aﻣـﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﳉﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﲢـﺮﻙ ﺧﻼﻟﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺑﺪﺃ ﺃﴈﺀ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰ ﺑﻀﻮﺀ ﻃﻮﻟﻪ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ 6.50 ×102 nm؟
ﺍﳊﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﻮﻥ؟ ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺸـﻐﻞ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻡ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻄﺢ .48
.bﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻃـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟـﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑـﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒـﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺩﻳﻮﻡ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﻪ 4.4 ×1014 Hz؟
ﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ،0.18 nmﻓﲈ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﳉﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺳﻘﻂ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ 1.00 ×1015 Hzﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺩﻳﻮﻡ .49
ﲢﺮﻙ ﺧﻼﻟﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺑﺪﺃ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﻮﻥ؟ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ،ﻓﲈ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﻰ
ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻴﺔ؟
ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﻔﻠﺰ ﻣﺎ ،8.0 ×1014 Hzﻓﲈ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ .57
ﻳﺴـﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻀـﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﺟﺮﺍﰲ .50
29
ﺍﺣﺴـﺐ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻟﺪﻳﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ .59
ﻳﺒﻌـﺚ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﻟﻴـﺰﺭ ﻫﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ -ﻧﻴﻮﻥ )ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ (1Hﻛﺘﻠﺘـﻪ 3.3 ×10-27 kg
2
.65
ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻃﻮﳍﺎ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ،632.8 nmﺃﺟﺐ ﻋﲈ ﻳﺄﰐ: ﻭﻳﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺑﴪﻋﺔ 2.5 ×104 m/s
.aﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﳉﻮﻝ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻗـﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸـﻐﻞ ﻟﻠﺤﺪﻳﺪ ،4.7 eVﻓﺄﺟﺐ ﻋﲈ .60
ﹸﻳﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ. ﻳﺄﰐ:
.bﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧـﺖ ﻗـﺪﺭﺓ ﻣﺼـﺪﺭ ﻟﻴـﺰﺭ ﺻﻐـﲑ ﺗﻘﻠﻴـﺪﻱ .aﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﻪ؟
) 0.5 mWﺗﻜﺎﻓـﺊ ،(5× 10 -4 J/sﻓـﲈ ﻋـﺪﺩ .bﺇﺫﺍ ﹸﺃﺳـﻘﻂ ﺇﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﻃﻮﻟﻪ ﺍﳌﻮﺟـﻲ 150 nmﻋﲆ
ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ؟ ﺍﳊﺪﻳـﺪ ،ﻓـﲈ ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤـﻰ
ﻳﺪﺧـﻞ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺷـﺪﺗﻪ .66 ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ eV؟
1.5 ×10-11 W/m2ﺑﺼﻌﻮﺑﺔ ﺇﱃ ﻋﲔ ﺇﻧﺴـﺎﻥ ،ﻛﲈ ﰲ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻗـﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸـﻐﻞ ﻟﻠﺒﺎﺭﻳـﻮﻡ ،2.48 eVﻓﲈ ﺃﻛﱪ .61
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .1-14 ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﲢﺮﻳﺮ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﻪ؟
.aﺇﺫﺍ ﺳـﻠﻂ ﻫـﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﻋـﲆ ﻋﲔ ﺍﻹﻧﺴـﺎﻥ ،ﻭﻣﺮ ﻃـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟـﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑـﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒـﺔ ﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ .62
ﺧـﻼﻝ ﺑﺆﺑﺆ ﻋﻴﻨﻪ ،ﻓﲈ ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺪﺧﻞ ،400.0 nmﻭﻫﻲ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺃﻗﴫ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ
ﻋﻴﻨﻪ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻁ؟ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ .ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ:
.bﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺍ ﹸﳌﻌﻄـﻰ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ .aﴎﻋﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ .b .ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ .eV
ﻭﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍ ﹸﳌﻌﻄﺎﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ ،1-14ﳊﺴﺎﺏ ﻳﻌـﺪﹼ ﺍﳌﺠﻬﺮ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﲏ ﻣﻔﻴﺪﹰ ﺍ؛ .63
ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺪﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﲔ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ. ﻷﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺟﻌﻞ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﳌﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ
ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒـﺔ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺃﻗﴫ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄـﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ
ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ .ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ )ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ (eVﺍﻟﻼﺯﻡ
ﺗﺰﻭﻳﺪﻫﺎ ﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ
λ = 550 nm
ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻟﻪ 20.0 nm؟
ﻳﺴﻘﻂ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻋﲆ ﻗﺼﺪﻳﺮ ،ﻛﲈ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .1-13ﺇﺫﺍ .64
ﻛﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﺼﺪﻳﺮ ،1.2 ×1015 Hzﻓﲈ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ:
= 7.0 mm .aﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﺼﺪﻳﺮ؟
.bﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﻟﻠﻘﺼﺪﻳﺮ؟
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 1-14
.cﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴـﺔ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺤـﺮﺭﺓ
ﺑﻮﺣـﺪﺓ ،eVﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻄـﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻺﺷـﻌﺎﻉ
ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ 167 nm؟
ﺍﺑﺤـﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺃﺛﻘﻞ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﻣﻼﺣﻈـﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ .67
ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻟﻪ .ﺻﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﻭﻛﻴﻒ ﳛﺪﺙ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺍﺧﻞ؟
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 1-13
+ -
30
ﻳﺘﺴـﺎﺭﻉ ﺇﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﺧـﻼﻝ ﻓـﺮﻕ ﺟﻬـﺪ ،95.0 V .5 أﺳﺌﻠﺔ اﺧﺘﻴﺎر ﻣﻦ ﻣﺘﻌﺪد
ﻛـﲈ ﻫـﻮ ﻣﻮﺿـﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ ﺃﺩﻧـﺎﻩ .ﻣـﺎ ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ
اﺧﺘﺮ رﻣﺰ اﺟﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﻴﺤﺔ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ:
ﻃـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟـﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑـﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒـﺔ ﻟﻺﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ؟
ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﲤﺘـﺺ ،ﺃﻭ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ .1
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ .ﺃﻱ ﺍﳋﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻵﺗﻴﺔ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻟﺬﺭﺓ؟
3 hƒ C __3 hƒ A
4
95 V 4 hƒ D hƒ B
ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋﻲ؟ .2
2.52 × 10-10 m C 5.02 × 10-22 m A
Aﺃﻧـﻪ ﺃﻗـﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻺﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻂ ﺍﻟـﻼﺯﻡ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ
5.10 × 106 m D 1.26 × 10-10 m B
ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﻌﺪ ﺍﳋﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻴﺔ.
ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ، .6
Bﺃﻧـﻪ ﺃﻛﱪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻺﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻂ ﺍﻟـﻼﺯﻡ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ
ﻳﺘﺤـﺮﻙ ﺑﴪﻋـﺔ 391 km/s؟ )ﻛﺘﻠـﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ
ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﻌﺪ ﺍﳋﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻴﺔ.
(9.11×10-31kg
Cﺃﻧﻪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ ،ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳛﺮﺭ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ
4.8 × 10-15 m C 3.5 × 10-25 m A
ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻨﻪ.
1.86 × 10-9 m D 4.79 × 10-15 m B
Dﺃﻧـﻪ ﺃﻗـﻞ ﺗـﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻺﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻂ ﺍﻟـﻼﺯﻡ،
ﻣﺎ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﻟﻔﻠﺰ؟ .7
ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ.
Aﻣﻘﻴـﺎﺱ ﳌﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺸـﻐﻞ ﺍﻟـﺬﻱ ﻳﺴـﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺒﺬﻟﻪ
ﻣﺎ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ 1.14 ×1015 Hz؟ .3
ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻣﺘﺤﺮﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰ.
8.77 × 10-16 J C 5.82 × 10-49 J A
Bﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﺒﺔ.
1.09 × 10-12 J D 7.55 × 10-19 J B
Cﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﲇ
ﻳﺴـﻘﻂ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻪ 5.17 eVﻋﲆ ﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﺿﻮﺋﻴﺔ ،ﻛﲈ .4
ﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰ.
ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﺩﻧﺎﻩ .ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻗﱰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﳌﺎﺩﺓ
Dﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﺿﻌﻒ ﺍﳌﻬﺒﻂ ،2.31 eVﻓﲈ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭ؟
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎ ﹰﻃﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ.
اﺳﺌﻠﺔ اﻟﻤﻤﺘﺪة
.8ﲢﺮﻙ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺑﴪﻋﺔ ،45 m/sﻓﻜﺎﻥ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ
ﺍﳌﺼﺎﺣﺒﺔ ﻟﻪ ،2.3 × 10-34 mﻣﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ kg؟
λ
+ -
ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﻨـﺖ ﲣﻀﻊ ﻻﺧﺘﺒـﺎﺭ ﺫﻱ ﻭﻗﺖ ﳏﺪﺩ ﻓﻨ ﹼﻈﻢ ﻭﻗﺘﻚ. 2.86 eV C 0.00 eV A
ﻛﺒﲑﺍ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ﰲ ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ .ﺍﺗﺮﻙ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺋﻞ 7.48 eV D 2.23 eV B
ﻻ ﺗﻘﺾ ﻭﻗﺘﹰﺎ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﺼﻌﺒﺔ ،ﺛﻢ ﻋﺪ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﲡﻴﺐ ﻋﻦ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻬﻠﺔ.
31
ﺑﻌﺪ دراﺳــﺘﻚ ﻟﻬﺬا اﻟﻔﺼﻞ
ﺳﺘﻜﻮن ﻗﺎد ًرا ﻋﻠﻰ
• ﺗﻌ ﱡﻠﻢ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﹼ
ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ.
• ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻃﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ.
• ﺗﻌ ﱡﻠـﻢ ﻛﻴـﻒ ﻗـﺎﺩﺕ ﻧﻈﺮﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻜـﻢ ﺇﱃ
ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺚ.
• ﺗﻌ ﱡﻠﻢ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ .ﻭﻣﺎ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺗﻪ.
اﻫﻤﻴﺔ
ﻳﻔﴪ ﺍﻟﻨﻤـﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﻤـﻲ ﻟﻠـﺬﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ
ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺑـﲔ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ،
ﻛﺜﲑﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﻭﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ. ﹰ
ﻃﻴـﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌـﺎﺙ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﻧﺎﺑﻴـﺐ ﳑﻠﻮﺀﺓ
ﺑﺄﻧـﻮﺍﻉ ﳐﺘﻠﻔـﺔ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻐـﺎﺯﺍﺕ ،ﻭﻛﻞ
ﻣﻨﻬـﺎ ﻳﺒﻌـﺚ ﻃﻴ ﹰﻔـﺎ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﹰ ﺍ ﹰ
ﳑﻴـﺰﺍ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻷﻟﻮﺍﻥ .ﻭﻳﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺞ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ
ﺗﻨﺘﻘـﻞ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﺩﻧﻰ.
ﱢ
ﻓﻜﺮ ◀
ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺃﻟ ﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻹﺿﺎﺀﺓ .ﻭﻛﻴﻒ
ﺗﺴـﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﲢﺪﻳـﺪ ﻧـﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻐـﺎﺯ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ ﻛﻞ
ﺃﻧﺒﻮﺏ؟
32
The Bohr Model of the Atom 2-1ﻧﻤﻮذج ﺑﻮر اﻟﺬري
• ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ.
• ﺑﲔ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻤﺮ ،ﻭﻃﻴﻒ
ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﳋﻄﻲ. ﺃﺛﻨـﺎﺀ ﺩﻭﺭﺍﻥ ﺃﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻄـﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺪﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ
• ﻣﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮ. ﻓﻠﺴﺎ ﺃﻭ 50ﹰ
ﻓﻠﺴﺎ، ﻓﺌﺎﺕ 5ﻓﻠﺴـﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ 10ﻓﻠﺴـﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ 25ﹰ
ﻭﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ. ﺃﻭ 100ﻓﻠﺲ ،ﻋﲆ ﺳـﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻭﻟﺔ ،ﻣـﺎ ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ
ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺪﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺪﻭﺭ؟ﲤﻜﻨﻚ ﻣﻦ ﹼ
ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ
ﻧﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻥ A
A B
B CC D
D EE FF G
G H
H II JJ K M N
K LL M N
ﺿﻊ ﻗﻄﻌﺔ ﻧﻘﺪﻳﺔ ﻓﻠﺰﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻓﺌﺔ 100ﻓﻠﺲ ﺭﺃﺳ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﻋﲆ .1
ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ
ﺳـﻄﺢ ﻃﺎﻭﻟﺔ .ﻭﻟﺘﺜﺒﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﳌﺴـﻬﺎ ﺑﻄـﺮﻑ ﺇﺻﺒﻌﻚ ﺛﻢ
ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
ﺍﻧﻘﺮ ﻃﺮﻓﻬﺎ ﺑﺴﺒﺎﺑﺘﻚ ﻟﺘﺠﻌﻠﻬﺎ ﺗﺪﻭﺭ ﺑﴪﻋﺔ .ﻭﻻﺣﻆ
ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ
ﺍﻟـﺪﻭﺍﺭﺓ ﻭﺻﻮﲥـﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻘﱰﺏ ﻣﻦ ﹼ ﻣﻈﻬـﺮ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻌـﺔ
ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﺛﺎﺭﺓ
ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭﺍﻥ ﻋﲆ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻭﻟﺔ.
ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ
ﻛﺮﺭ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﺓ 1ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﺴﺘﺨﺪ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻗﻄ ﹰﻌﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻓﺌﺎﺕ .2
ﺑﻨﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺳﻊ ﻋﴩ ،ﺍﺗﻔﻖ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﻋﲆ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ) 5ﻭ 10ﻭ 25ﻭ (50ﹰ
ﻓﻠﺴﺎ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﱄ.
ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ،ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﻋﻄﻰ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﺗﻮﻣﺴﻮﻥ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺩﻟﻴ ﹰ
ﻼ ﺍﻃﻠﺐ ﺇﱃ ﺯﻣﻴﻠﻚ ﺗﺪﻭﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺪﻳﺔ ،ﻗﻄﻌﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ .3
ﻣﻘﻨ ﹰﻌـﺎ ﻋـﲆ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣـﻦ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺫﺭﻳﺔ. ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﻣـﺮﺓ ﻭﺑﱰﺗﻴﺐ ﻋﺸـﻮﺍﺋﻲ .ﺷـﺎﻫﺪ ﻛﻞ ﻗﻄﻌﺔ ﰲ
ﻭﻗـﺪ ﻭﺟـﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻛﻞ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﺧﺘﱪﻫـﺎ ﺗﻮﻣﺴـﻮﻥ ﲢﺘـﻮﻱ ﻋـﲆ ﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀ ﺩﻭﺭﺍﳖﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﺛﻢ ﺣﺎﻭﻝ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻌﺔ.
ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺳﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ،ﻭﺃﻥ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻛـﺮﺭ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﺓ ،3ﻭﺣـﺎﻭﻝ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻧـﻮﻉ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ .4
ﺻﻐـﲑﺓ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ .ﻭﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻛﺘـﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﻜﺘﻞ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﲥﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺭﺓ ﻋﲆ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﻴﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﻐﻤﻀﺘﲔ. ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺪﻳﺔ ﹼ
ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺟـﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻔﻘـﻮﺩﺓ ،ﻟﺬﺍ ﺑﺪﺃ
ﺍﻟﻌﻠـﲈﺀ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠـﺔ ﺍﳌﻔﻘﻮﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﺎ ﻣﺪ ﻧﺠﺎﺣﻚ ﰲ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺪﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ
ﺟـﺰ ﹰﺀﺍ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ .ﻣﺎ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳـﻴﺘﻢ ﺍﻻﺳـﺘﲈﻉ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻷﺻـﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺼﺪﺭﻫﺎ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ؟ ﻣﺎ
ﺍﻛﺘﺸـﺎﻓﻬﺎ ﻻﺣ ﹰﻘﺎ ﺑﻮﺻﻔﻬﺎ ﺟﺰ ﹰﺀﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ؟ ﻭﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﺘﻮﺯﻉ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ
ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻌﺔ ﹼ
ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ؟ ﻧﻮﻋﻬﺎ؟ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻷﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﲡﻌﻞ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻧﻮﻉ
ﺇﺿﺎﻓـﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺫﻟـﻚ ،ﻓﻤﻌﻠـﻮﻡ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﺘﻌﺎﺩﻟـﺔ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ، ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺪﻳﺔ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺳﻬﻮﻟﺔ؟
ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ ﺗﻢ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺳـﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ
ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ،ﻓﻜﻴﻒ ﺗﺘﻮﺯﻉ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺳـﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﺭﺓ ﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﻣﺎ ﰲ ﺃﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﻏﺎﺯ
ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ؟ ﻭﻣﺎ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﺗﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ؟ ﻭﻫﻞ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺮﻳﻎ ﻃﺎﻗ ﹰﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ
ﺃﻳﻀـﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ؟ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻓﻬـﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻠـﲈﺀ ﻣﻮﺟﺒـﺔ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ﹰ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ .ﻛﻴـﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ
ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣـﻞ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻻ ﻳـﺰﺍﻝ ﺑﻌﻴﺪﹰ ﺍ ﻗﺒـﻞ ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﲆ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺎﻋﺪﻙ ﻋﲆ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ
ﺍﻟﺘﺴﺎﺅﻻﺕ .ﻣﻦ ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺇﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﲆ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﰲ ﺃﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺮﻳﻎ؟
ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺳﺌﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻭﺿﻌﺘﻬﻢ ﰲ ﲢﺪﱟ . ﻭﻣﺎ ﺍﻷﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪﻙ ﻋﲆ ﺫﻟﻚ؟
33
The Nuclear Model اﻟﻨﻤﻮذج اﻟﻨﻮوي
ﻛﺜﲑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﺎﺅﻻﺕ ﻭﺍﺟﻬﺖ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﲔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ .ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺿﻮﺀ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ؟ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﺘﻮﺯﻉ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ؟ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻓﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﻮﻥ ﻭﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺩﻭﻝ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ
ﻋـﻦ ﺇﺟﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﺳـﺌﻠﺔ .ﱂ ﺗﺰﻭﺩﻧﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻮﺻﻠﻮﺍ ﺇﻟﻴﻬـﺎ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ
ﻓﻘـﻂ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﺯﻭﺩﺗﻨﺎ ﺑﻨﻬﺞ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻟﻔﻬـﻢ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺀ .ﻭﺃﺻﺒﺢ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ
ﰲ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﺺ ﺇﺛﺎﺭ ﹰﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﴩﻳﻦ.
ﺻﻮﺭ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺍﻋﺘﻘﺪ ﺗﻮﻣﺴﻮﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﲤﻸ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﹼ
ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ﻋـﲆ ﺃﳖﺎ ﺗﺘـﻮﺯﻉ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺒـﺔ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ،ﲤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺣﺒـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺰﺑﻴﺐ ﰲ
ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺎﻧﺰ ﺟﺎﳚﺮ ﻭﺇﺭﻧﺴﺖ ﻣﺎﺭﺩﺳﻦ، ﺍﻟﻔﻄﲑﺓ ﺍﳌﺴـﻄﺤﺔ .ﺷﺎﺭﻙ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺇﺭﻧﺴـﺖ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﹼﹰ
ﰲ ﺇﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ،ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺠﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ﺗﺮﻛﻴ ﹰﺒﺎ ﳐﺘﻠ ﹰﻔﺎ ﲤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ.
ﺃﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﲡﺮﺑﺔ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺑﺎﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻨﺎﴏ ﻣﺸـﻌﺔ ﺗﺼﺪﺭ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ ﻧﺎﻓﺬﺓ ،ﻭﻗﺪ ﻭﺟﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺑﻌﺾ
ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﻭﺛﻘﻴﻠﺔ ،ﻭﺗﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺑﴪﻋﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ .ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ
ﻭﺭﻣﺰ ﳍﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻣﺰ .αﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺸـﻒ ﻋﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺳـﻤﻴﺖ ﻓﻴﲈ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ،ﹸ
ﰲ ﲡﺮﺑﺔ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ،ﺑﻮﺳـﺎﻃﺔ ﻭﻣﻀﺎﺕ ﺿﻮﺋﻴﺔ ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺼﻄﺪﻡ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺷﺎﺷـﺔ
ﻣﻄﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﻄﺒﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﱪﻳﺘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺰﻧﻚ .ﻛﲈ ﻳﺘﻀﺢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ ،2-1ﻓﻘﺪ ﻗﺬﻑ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺣﺰﻣﺔ
ﻣﻬﺘـﲈ ﺑﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ
ﹼﹰ ﻣـﻦ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻋـﲆ ﺻﻔﻴﺤﺔ ﺭﻗﻴﻘـﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﻫـﺐ ،ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ
ﺗﻮﻣﺴـﻮﻥ ﻟﻠـﺬﺭﺓ ،ﻭﺗﻮﻗﻊ ﺣﺪﻭﺙ ﺍﻧﺤﺮﺍﻓﺎﺕ ﺑﺴـﻴﻄﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ﻓﻘﻂ ﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔـﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﱪ
ﺧﻼﻝ ﺻﻔﻴﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﺐ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻴﻘﺔ ،ﻭﺍﻋﺘﻘﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺴﺎﺭ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﴪﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ
ﺗﻜﻮﻥ
ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺿﺌﻴﻞ ،ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻌﱪ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺯﻋﺔ ﺑﺎﻧﺘﻈﺎﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﹼ
ﻛﻞ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﺐ.
ﻋﱪ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺻﻔﻴﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﺐ ﺩﻭﻥ ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﻣﺪﻫﺸـﺔ؛ ﻓﻘﺪ ﹶ
ﺍﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ،ﺃﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﻗﻠﻴﻞ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﺭﻫﺎ ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺍﺭﺗﺪﹼ ﺑﺰﻭﺍﻳﺎ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ )ﺗﺰﻳﺪ ﻋﻦ
.(90°ﻭﺍﻟﺮﺳـﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺿﻴﺤﻲ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .2-2ﻭﻗﺪ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ
ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺑﺈﺭﺗﺪﺍﺩ ﻗﺬﻳﻔﺔ ﻣﺪﻓﻊ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﺻﻄﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﻤﻨﺪﻳﻞ ﻭﺭﻗﻲ.
2-1
34
2-2
20,000
ﻣﺴـﺘﺨﺪ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻗﺎﻧـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻟﻜﻮﻟـﻮﻡ ،ﻭﻗﻮﺍﻧﲔ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﻦ ﰲ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﺔ ،ﺍﺳـﺘﻨﺘﺞ ﺭﺫﺭﻓـﻮﺭﺩ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻔﺴﲑﻫﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﻣﺘﻤﺮﻛﺰﺓ ﰲ ﺣﻴﺰ ﺻﻐﲑ ﻭﺛﻘﻴﻞ ،ﻳﺴﻤﻰ
ﺍﻵﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ .ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﺳـﻤﻲ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺣﺪﹼ ﺩ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ﻭﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ 99.9%ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ .ﺃﻣﺎ
ﺧﺎﺭﺟﺎ ﻭﺑﻌﻴﺪﹰ ﺍ ﻋﻦ
ﹰ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻻ ﺗﺴﺎﻫﻢ ﺑﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻓﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻮﺯﻋﺔ
ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ .ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺍﻍ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﺸﻐﻠﻪ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﳛﺪﺩ ﺍﳊﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﲇ ﺃﻭ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ .ﻭﻷﻥ
ﻗﻄﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺃﻛﱪ 10,000ﻣﺮﺓ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﺮﺍ ﹰﻏﺎ.
ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﺘـﻮﺯﻉ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ؟ ﺗـﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺃﺣﺪ ﻣﻔﺎﺗﻴﺢ
ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺑـﺔ ﻋـﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺴـﺆﺍﻝ ،ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺩﺭﺍﺳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻀـﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺍﺕ .ﺗﺬﻛﹼﺮ -ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻟﻔﺼـﻞ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺑﻖ -ﺃﻥ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ
ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ.
ﻳﻮﺿـﺢ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ ،2-3ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻫﺞ ﺍﳌﻤﻴـﺰ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ،ﻓﻌﻨﺪ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ
ﹴ
ﻏـﺎﺯ ﻣﺎ ﻭﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺟﻬﺪ ﻋﺎﻝ ﻋﱪ ﺃﻧﺒـﻮﺏ ﺗﻔﺮﻳﻎ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ،ﻧﻼﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺑﺪﺃ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻮﻫﺞ ،ﻛﲈ
ﻧﻼﺣـﻆ ﺃﻥ ﻛﻞ ﻏـﺎﺯ ﻳﺘﻮﻫﺞ ﺑﻀﻮﺀ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ،ﻭﺗﹸﻌﺪ ﺇﺷـﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﻠﻮﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ
ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﺣﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﻋﻼﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﻄﺒﻴ ﹰﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺃﻧﺎﺑﻴﺐ ﺗﻔﺮﻳﻎ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ.
35
a
b
c
2-4ﻧﺤﺼـﻞ ﻋﲆ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﻟﻠـﺬﺭﺓ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﻨﺸـﻮﺭ ﺃﻭ
a ﳏﺰﻭﺯ ﺣﻴﻮﺩ .ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺑﺘﻔﺼﻴﻞ ﺃﻛﱪ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﳌﻄﻴﺎﻑ.
b ﻭﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ ،2-4aﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﰲ ﻣﻨﺸـﻮﺭ ﺍﳌﻄﻴﺎﻑ ﻳﻌﱪ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺸـﻖ ،ﺛﻢ
cﻳﺘﺸﺘﺖ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻌﱪ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﳌﻨﺸﻮﺭ ،ﺛﻢ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ -ﻏﲑ ﻣﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ -ﻋﲆ
ﲡﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﺘﺸـﺘﺖ ،ﻟﻜﻲ ﻧﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺗﻪ ﺃﻭ ﺗﺴـﺠﻴﻠﻪ ﻋﲆ ﺷﺎﺷﺔ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﺟﺮﺍﻓﻴﺔ ،ﺃﻭ
ﻓﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﻄﻴﺎﻑ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺸﻖ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ.ﻋﲆ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﲏ ،ﹼ
ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻴـﻒ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌـﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺟﺴـﻢ ﺳـﺎﺧﻦ ،ﺃﻭﻋﻦ ﻣـﺎﺩﺓ ﺻﻠﺒﺔ ﻣﺘﻮﻫﺠـﺔ ،ﻣﺜﻞ ﻓﺘﻴﻠـﺔ ﺍﳌﺼﺒﺎﺡ
ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋـﻲ؛ ﻫـﻮ ﺣﺰﻣﺔ ﻣﺘﺼﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻟﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﲪﺮ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴـﺠﻲ ﻭﻳﺴـﻤﻰ ﺑﻄﻴﻒ
ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌـﺎﺙ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻤﺮ .ﻟﻜـﻦ ﻃﻴـﻒ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻳﻜـﻮﻥ ﺳﻠﺴـﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳋﻄـﻮﻁ ﺍﳌﻨﻔﺼﻠـﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺃﻟﻮﺍﻥ
ﳐﺘﻠﻔـﺔ .ﻭﺧﻄـﻮﻁ ﻃﻴ ﹼﻔﻲ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﻟﻐـﺎﺯﻱ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﻳﻮﻡ ﻣﻮﺿﺤﺎﻥ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ 2-4b
ﻣﻠﻮﻥ ﻳﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻣـﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟـﻲ ﺍﳌﺤﺪﺩ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀﻭﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ 2-4cﻋـﲆ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﱄ .ﻭﻛﻞ ﺧـﻂ ﹼ
ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻭﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﳋﻄﻲ.
ﻳﻌﺪﹼ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﳋﻄﻲ ﻭﺳﻴﻠﺔ ﲢﻠﻴﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﻔﻴﺪﺓ ،ﻓﻴﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻪ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻏﺎﺯ
ﳎﻬﻮﻟﺔ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻮﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺍﳌﺠﻬﻮﻝ ﰲ ﺃﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺗﻔﺮﻳﻎ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻟﻴﺒﻌﺚ ﺿﻮ ﹰﺀﺍ .ﻭﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ
ﳛﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﲆ ﺃﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﳑ ﹼﻴﺰﺓ ﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ .ﻟﺬﺍ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺍﳌﺠﻬﻮﻝ ﺑﻤﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ
ﺃﻃﻮﺍﻟﻪ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﰲ ﺧﺮﺍﺋﻂ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻷﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺔ.
ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ؛ ﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺧﻠﻴﻂ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ .ﻓﻌﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺼﻮﻳﺮ
ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﳋﻠﻴﻂ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﲢﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﻁ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺸﲑ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻮﻉ
ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﱰﺍﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﻴﺔ ﳍﺎ .ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﻗﻴﺪ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﲢﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﲆ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ
ﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﴫ ﻣﻌﲔ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ.
ﻭﻣـﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺇﺟـﺮﺍﺀ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺑﲔ ﻛﺜﺎﻓـﺎﺕ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﻁ ،ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﱰﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻨﺴـﺒﻲ ﻟﻠﲈﺩﺓ.
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2-5
ﰲ ﻋﺎﻡ 1814ﻡ ﻻﺣـﻆ ﺟﻮﺯﻳﻒ ﻓﻮﻥ ﻓﺮﻭﳖﻮﻓﺮ ،ﻇﻬـﻮﺭ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﻁ
ﺍﳌﻌﺘﻤـﺔ ﰲ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﺸـﻤﺲ .ﺗﻌـﺮﻑ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳋﻄـﻮﻁ ﺍﳌﻌﺘﻤﺔ ﺑﺨﻄـﻮﻁ ﻓﺮﻭﳖﻮﻓﺮ ،ﻭﻫﻲ
ﻣﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .2-5ﻭﻳﻔﴪ ﻇﻬﻮﺭﻫﺎ ﺑﺄﻥ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺲ ﻳﻌﱪ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﻱ
ﺍﳌﺤﻴﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﺸـﻤﺲ ،ﻭﲤﺘﺺ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺃﻃﻮﺍﻻﹰ ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﳑ ﱢﻴﺰﺓ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ،ﳑﺎ ﹸﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﻁ
ﺍﳌﻌﺘﻤـﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ .ﻭﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻤﺘﺼﺔ ﺑﻮﺳـﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺗﺴـﻤﻰ ﻃﻴﻒ
ﺍﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﺯ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﻣﻜﻦ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺸـﻤﴘ ﺑﻤﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﻁ ﺍﳌﻔﻘﻮﺩﺓ
ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﻴـﻒ ﺍﳌﺮﺋـﻲ ﺑﻄﻴـﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌـﺎﺙ ﺍﳌﻌﻠـﻮﻡ ﻟﻠﻌﻨـﺎﴏ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔـﺔ .ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗـﻢ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ
ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﻮﻡ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻨﻴﺔ.
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﺸـﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ ،ﺑﺘﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺃﺑﻴﺾ ﺧـﻼﻝ ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻏﺎﺯ ﻭﻣﻄﻴﺎﻑ ،ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ
ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .2-6aﻭﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻳﻤﺘﺺ ﺃﻃﻮﺍﻻﹰ ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻤﺮ
2-6 ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻷﺑﻴﺾ ﺳـﻴﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﲆ ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﻣﻌﺘﻤﺔ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﺮﻭﺭﻩ ﰲ ﻏﺎﺯ ﻣﺎ .ﻭﲢﺪﺙ
a ﺍﳋﻄﻮﻁ ﺍﳌﻀﻴﺌﺔ ﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ،ﻭﺍﳋﻄﻮﻁ ﺍﳌﻌﺘﻤﺔ ﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ ﻷﻱ ﻏﺎﺯ ﻏﺎﻟ ﹰﺒﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ
ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻧﻔﺴـﻬﺎ ،ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ 2-6bﻭﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ ،2-6cﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﱄ،
b ﻟﺬﻟـﻚ ﻓـﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﺩﺓ ﲤﺘﺺ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻧﻔﺴـﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﻌﺜﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺜﺎﺭ.
ﻭﻛـﲈ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺘﻮﻗﻊ ،ﻓﺈﻧـﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻏﺎﺯ ﻣﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻃـﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺨﻄﻮﻁ
c ﺍﳌﻌﺘﻤﺔ ﰲ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ.
a
b
c
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ﻳﻌﺪﹼ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻃﻴﻔﻲ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﻭﺍﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ ﻭﺳـﺎﺋﻞ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻔﻴﺪﺓ؛ ﻓﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ
ﻟﻸﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﳌﻤ ﱢﻴﺰﺓ ﻟﻠﻌﻨﴫ ﺍﺳـﺘﻄﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﲢﻠﻴﻞ ،ﻭﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻭﺣﺴـﺎﺏ ﻛﻤﻴـﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﳌﺠﻬﻮﻟﺔ،
ﻋـﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﺍﻷﻃﻴـﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﻌﺜﻬـﺎ ﺃﻭ ﲤﺘﺼﻬﺎ .ﻭﻷﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌـﺎﺙ ﻭﺍﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ
ﺃﳘﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺔ ،ﻛﲈ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﻮﺙ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ .ﻓﻤﺜﻼﹰ ،ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﻣﺼﺎﻧﻊ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺪ ﺑﺈﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻌﺎﳉﺔ
ﻛﻤﻴـﺎﺕ ﻛﺒـﲑﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺪﻳـﺪ ﺍﳋﺮﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳛـﻮﻱ ﻋﲆ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻴـﺐ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ،ﻓﻴﺘـﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﻴﻖ
ﳍـﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﱰﺍﻛﻴﺐ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺩﻗﺎﺋﻖ ﺑﻮﺳـﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻔﻲ .ﻛﲈ ﻭﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺪ
ﻟﻴﺘﻨﺎﺳـﺐ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺻﻔـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻳﺔ؛ ﻭﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﳏﻄـﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻠـﺰﺍﺕ – ﻭﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﻟﻮﻣﻨﻴﻮﻡ
ﻭﺍﻟﺰﻧﻚ ﻭﻣﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺃﺧﺮ -ﺑﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ.
ﺇﻥ ﺩﺭﺍﺳـﺔ ﺍﻷﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺗﻌﺪﹼ ﻓﺮ ﹰﻋﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻭﻑ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻔﻲ .ﻭﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﻮﻥ
ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﰲ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺑﺤﺎﺙ ﻭﺍﳌﺆﺳﺴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺇﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺃﻥ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ
ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻔـﻲ ﺃﺩﺍﺓ ﻓ ﹼﻌﺎﻟﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴـﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ،ﻭﻫـﻮ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺓ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﺍﻓﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﻴﺪﺓ
ﺣﺎﻟ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﻮﻡ ﻋﲆ ﻣﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﻀﺎﺀ ﺍﳌﺘﺴﻊ.
ﰲ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺳـﻊ ﻋﴩ ،ﺣﺎﻭﻝ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ
ﺍﻷﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ؛ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ .ﻭﲤﺖ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ؛ ﻷﻧﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ
ﺍﻷﺧـﻒ ،ﻭﻟﻪ ﺃﺑﺴـﻂ ﻃﻴﻒ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻜـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﳌﺮﺋـﻲ ﻟﻠﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﻣـﻦ ﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ
ﺧﻄﻴـﺔ :ﺍﻷﲪـﺮ ،ﻭﺍﻷﺧـﴬ ،ﻭﺍﻷﺯﺭﻕ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴـﺠﻲ ،ﻛـﲈ ﻫـﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .2-7
ﻭﺃﻱ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺗﻔﴪ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ،ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺄﺧﺬ ﰲ ﺍﳊﺴـﺒﺎﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ،
ﻭﺗﺪﻋـﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﻭﻱ .ﻭﻣﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﺍﻟـﺬﻱ ﺍﻗﱰﺣﻪ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﱂ ﳜﻞ
ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴـﻠﺒﻴﺎﺕ؛ ﺣﻴـﺚ ﺍﻓﱰﺽ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﺪﻭﺭ ﺣـﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﲤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻛﲈ ﺗﺪﻭﺭ
ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﻛﺐ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺲ ،ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺛﻐﺮﺓ ﺧﻄﲑﺓ ﰲ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻪ ﻫﺬﺍ.
ﻳﺘﺴـﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﺍﻩ ﻣﻊ ﺍﺳـﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﻭﺭﺍﻧﻪ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻭﻛﲈ ﺩﺭﺳـﺖ ﺳﺎﺑ ﹰﻘﺎ ،ﻓﺈﻥ
ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺴـﺎﺭﻋﺔ ﺗﺸـﻊ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﻣﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﻛﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ .ﻭﻣﻌﺪﻝ
ﹶﻓﻘـﺪ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻟﻄﺎﻗﺘـﻪ ﰲ ﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀ ﺩﻭﺭﺍﻧﻪ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﳚﻌﻞ ﻣﺴـﺎﺭﻩ ﻟﻮﻟﺒ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﺣﺘﻰ ﳛﻂ ﺃﺧﲑ ﹰﺍ ﰲ
ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ ﺧﻼﻝ ،10-9 sﻟﺬﻟـﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﻻ ﻳﺘﻔﻖ ﻣﻊ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﲔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ.
ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺫﻟﻚ ،ﻳﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺴـﺎﺭﻋﺔ ﺳـﻮﻑ ﺗﺸـﻊ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ
ﻛﻞ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ،ﻟﻜﻦ ﻛﲈ ﺩﺭﺳـﺖ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﹸﻳ ﹶﺸـﻊ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺃﻃﻮﺍﻝ
ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﻓﻘﻂ.
The Bohr Model of the Atom ﻧﻤﻮذج ﺑﻮر ﻟﻠﺬرة
ﺍﻧﺘﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﻧﲈﺭﻛﻲ ﻧﻴﻠﺰ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺇﱃ ﺑﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ 1911ﻡ ،ﻭﺍﻧﻀﻢ ﺇﱃ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ،
ﻟﻴﻌﻤـﻞ ﰲ ﲢﺪﻳـﺪ ﺗﺮﻛﻴـﺐ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ .ﻭﺣـﺎﻭﻝ ﺗﻮﺣﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻤـﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
ﺍﳌﻜﲈﺓ ﻟﺒﻼﻧﻚ ،ﻭﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺃﻳﻨﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ .ﻓﻜﺎﻧﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﻓﻜﺮﺓ ﺟﺮﻳﺌﺔ؛ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﺎﻡ 1911ﻡ
ﱂ ﺗﻜﻦ ﺃﻱ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﻓﻜﺎﺭ ﺍﳉﺮﻳﺌﺔ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻣﺔ ﻋﲆ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﻭﺍﺳﻊ ،ﺃﻭ ﻣﻘﺒﻮﻟﺔ.
2-7
38
ﺑﺪﺃ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ،ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .2-8
ﻟﻜﻨﻪ ﻗﺪﻡ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺟﺮﻳﺌﺔ ﺗﻨﺺ ﻋﲆ ﺃﻥ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﲔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻄﺒﻖ ﻋﲆ ﻣﺎ ﰲ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ.
ﻓﺎﻓﱰﺽ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻘﺮ ﻻ ﺗﺸﻊ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ،ﺭﻏﻢ ﺃﳖﺎ ﺗﺘﺴﺎﺭﻉ ،ﻭﺍﻋﺘﱪ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ
ﻫـﻮ ﴍﻁ ﺍﺳـﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ .ﻭﺫﻫﺐ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻓـﱰﺍﺽ ﺃﻥ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺳـﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﻟﻠـﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻘﻂ
ﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ ﺗﻜـﻮﻥ ﻛﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﳏـﺪﺩﺓ .ﻭﺑﺘﻌﺒﲑ ﺁﺧـﺮ ﺍﻋﺘﱪ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﰲ
ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﻜﲈﺓ.
ﻭﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ ،2-9ﻓﺈﻥ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺸـﺒﻴﻬﻬﺎ ﺑﺪﺭﺟﺎﺕ
ﺳ ﹼﻠﻢ؛ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﻗﺺ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺪ ﺑﲔ ﻛﻞ ﺩﺭﺟﺘﲔ ﻛﻠﲈ ﺻﻌﺪﻧﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻋﲆ .ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﺼﻌﺪ ﺇﱃ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ
2-8
ﺃﻋﲆ ﻟﻠﺴـﻠﻢ ،ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺃﺩﻧﻰ ﺇﱃ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺃﻋﲆ ،ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﺤﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﻮﻑ ﻋﻨﺪ
ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺗﻘﻊ ﺑﲔ ﺩﺭﺟﺘﲔ .ﻭﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﳍﺎ ﻛﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻜﲈﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ،
ﻓﻜـﲈ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺸـﻐﻞ ﻣﻜﺎﻧﹰﺎ ﺑﲔ ﺩﺭﺟﺘﻲ ﺳـﻠﻢ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ
ﳍﺎ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺑﲔ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻲ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﲔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﲠﺎ .ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ
ﻋﻨﺪ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻣﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﺑﻪ ،ﻳﻘﺎﻝ ﺇﳖﺎ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ .ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﲤﺘﺺ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،ﻓﺈﳖﺎ ﺗﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻋﲆ ،ﺃﻱ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻋﲆ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ.
ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﺛﺎﺭﺓ.
ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳛﺪﺩ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ؟ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ،
ﻭﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺿـﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺠـﺎﺫﺏ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ .ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ
ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻳﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﻴﺪﺓ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ؛ ﻷﻧﻪ ﳚﺐ
ﺃﻥ ﻳﺒـﺬﻝ ﺷـﻐﻞ ﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﻌﻴﺪﹰ ﺍ ﻋـﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ .ﻭﻫﻜﺬﺍ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺇﺛﺎﺭﺓ
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﲥﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻋﲆ ،ﺃﻱ ﰲ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺃﺑﻌﺪ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ .ﻭﻷﻥ
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ .ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﻜﲈﺓ ﻭﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﺮﻗﻢ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻮ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻮ ﻣﻜﲈﺓ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻢ ﻭﺻﻔﻪ ﺁﻧ ﹰﻔﺎ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺒﲔ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻳﺔ ﻭﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﳍﺎ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﻜﲈﺓ
ﺗﺪﻭﺭ ﺣﻮﳍﺎ ﺑﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ.
ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻣﺼﻴ ﹰﺒﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻓﱰﺍﺿﻪ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻘﺮﺓ ﻻ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ،ﻓﻤﻦ ﺍﳌﺴـﺆﻭﻝ ﺇ ﹰﺫﺍ ﻋﻦ
ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﳌﻤ ﱢﻴﺰ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ؟ ﻟﻺﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺴﺆﺍﻝ ،ﺍﻗﱰﺡ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺃﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ
ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺘﻐﲑ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺃﺧﺮ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ
ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﺿﻮﺋـﻲ ﻷﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ ،ﺃﺩﺭﻙ ﺑـﻮﺭ ﺃﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺗﻌﻄـﻰ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ = hfﻓﻮﺗـﻮﻥ ،Eﺛﻢ
ﺍﻓﱰﺽ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﲤﺘﺺ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﹰﺎ ،ﻓﺈﳖﺎ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﺜﺎﺭﺓ ،ﻭﺗﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ
ﹶﹶ
ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ،ﺛﻢ ﺗﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﺭﺓ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺸﻊ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ.
39
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﳛﺪﺙ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍﺋﻲ ،Eiﺇﱃ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﳖﺎﺋﻲ Efﻓﺈﻥ
ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﰲ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ∆Eﻳﻌﻄﻰ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ:
∆E
ﺫﺭﺓ
= Ef – Ei
ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ،2-10ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﰲ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ.
E |= |∆E
ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺫﺭﺓ
ﺃﻭ
E = ||Ef – Ei | = |E1 - E3ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ E 1
ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ
ﹼ
ﺗﻠﺨـﺺ ﺍﳌﻌـﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺃﺩﻧﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗـﺎﺕ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﰲ ﺣـﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻟﻠـﺬﺭﺓ ،ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ | =|E1 - E2ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ E 2
E2
Predictions of the Bohr Model ﺗﻨﺒﺆات ﻧﻤﻮذج ﺑﻮر λ2
ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺘﻪ ﳊﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ،ﻓﻜﺎﻧﺖ E1
ﺍﳊﺴﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻓﻘﺔ ﲤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻣﻊ ﻗﻴﻢ ﻣﻘﻴﺴﺔ ﺣﺪﺩﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﲈﺀ ﺁﺧﺮﻭﻥ .ﻭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺗﻢ ﻗﺒﻮﻝ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ
ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﻭﺍﺳﻊ .ﻟﻜﻦ ﻟﺴﻮﺀ ﺍﳊﻆ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺍﻧﻄﺒﻖ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﻋﲆ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﻓﻘﻂ، 2-10ﺑﻮﺭ ﻋﲆ ﹴ
ﻭﱂ ﻳﻜﻦ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻄﺎﻋﺘﻪ ﺗﻮﻗﻊ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﺍﻟﺒﺴﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ.
ﺗﻔﺴـﲑﺍ ﺟﻴﺪﹰ ﺍ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﺋﻞ ،ﻣﺜﻞ ﳌـﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ
ﹰ ﺇﺿﺎﻓـﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺫﻟـﻚ ،ﱂ ﻳﻘـﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ
ﻗﻮﺍﻧـﲔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻜﺎﻥ ،ﺇﻻ ﺩﺍﺧـﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ .ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﱂ ﻳﻜﻦ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻧﻔﺴـﻪ ﻳﻌﺘﻘﺪ
ﺃﻥ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟـﻪ ﻳﻤﺜـﻞ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ .ﻭﻋـﲆ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻴﻮﺏ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ،
ﻓﺈﻧـﻪ ﻳﺼﻒ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴـﺔ ﻟﻠﻀـﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ،ﻭﺍﳌﻤﺘـﺺ ﻣﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ
ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺟﻴﺪﺓ.
= maﳏﺼﻠﺔ F ﻃﻮﺭ ﺑـﻮﺭ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻪ ﺑﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﻦ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ ﰲ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﺔ
ﹼ
ﻋﲆ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﳌﺤﺼﻠﺔ ﺍﳌﺤﺴﻮﺑﺔ ،ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻛﻮﻟﻮﻡ ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ
ﺫﻱ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ –qﻭﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺫﻱ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ +qﻋﲆ ﺑﻌﺪ rﺍﺣﺪﳘﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﲢﺴـﺐ
ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ .F =K q2/r2 :ﺇﻥ ﺗﺴـﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﻱ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ
ﻛﺜﲑﺍ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﻳﻌﻄﻰ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟـﺔ .a =v 2/r :ﻭﻫﻜﺬﺍ ﺣﺼﻞ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻋﲆ
ﻛﺘﻠﺘـﻪ ﺃﻛـﱪ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ:
Kq
___
2
r2
___ =
mv2
r
40
ﺃﺧﺬ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﰲ ﺍﳊﺴﺒﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ ﺍﻟﺰﺍﻭﻱ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺪﻭﺭ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ
ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﻱ ،rﻓﺘﻮﺻﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻥ
ﹼ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﴐﺏ ﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ ﺍﳋﻄﻲ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ mvﰲ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﻣﺴﺎﺭﻩ
ﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ ﺍﻟﺰﺍﻭﻱ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻳﻌﻄﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ .mvrﺛﻢ ﺍﻓﱰﺽ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺰﺧﻢ ﺍﻟﺰﺍﻭﻱ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻟﻪ ﻗﻴﻢ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ،
ﻭﺃﻥ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﳌﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﲠﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﴬﻭﺑﺔ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻘﺪﺍﺭ h/2 π؛ ﺣﻴﺚ hﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺑﻼﻧﻚ .ﻭﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ n
H
B CI J K
D E L F M G N H I J K L M N
D
I E
J K
F G
L M H N
I J K L M N
Kq 2
ﺇﻥ ﹼﹰ
ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﻜﲈﺓ .ﻭﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ n
ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ،ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﻪ ﺣﺴـﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﳌﻜﲈﺓ ﻟﻜﻞ
ﻣﻦ rﻭ .E
41
ﺭﺑﲈ ﺗﺘﺴـﺎﺀﻝ ،ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﰲ ﻧﻤـﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ
ﺳـﺎﻟﺒﺔ؟ ﺗﺬﻛﺮ ﳑﺎ ﺩﺭﺳـﺖ ﺃﻥ ﻓﺮﻭﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ .ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻼﳖﺎﻳﺔ
ﻭﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺄﳖﺎ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ
ﺻﻔﺮﺍ ،ﻭﺗﺴـﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺮﻳـﺔ ،ﹼ
ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻫـﺎ ﹰ
ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﺑﻌﻴـﺪﹰ ﺍ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ،ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ﻟﻪ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺣﺮﻛـﺔ .ﻭﲢﺪﺙ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ
ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﺘﺄﻳﻨـﺔ ،ﺃﻱ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﹸﻳﻨﺰﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ .ﻭﻷﻧﻪ ﳚﺐ ﺑﺬﻝ ﺷـﻐﻞ ﻟﺘﺄﻳﲔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ،ﻓﺈﻥ
ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻔﺮ ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ
ﺫﺍﺕ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺳـﺎﻟﺒﺔ .ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﳛﺪﺙ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻗﻞ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ
ﺃﻋﲆ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﺃﻗﻞ ﺳﺎﻟﺒﻴﺔ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﲇ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﻣﻮﺟ ﹰﺒﺎ.
ﺑﻌﺾ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ،ﻭﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﻭﻓﻘ ﹰﺎ
ﻭﺍﳌﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .2-11ﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﺭﺓ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﹼ ﻟﺴﻼﺳﻠﻬﺎ
ﻣﺪ ﻭﺍﺳ ﹰﻌﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ ،ﻛﺎﻷﺷﻌﺔ ﲢﺖ ﺍﳊﻤﺮﺍﺀ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ ،ﺃﻭ ﺍﻷﺷﻌﺔ
ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴﺠﻴﺔ ﺑﺤﺴﺐ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﲢﺪﺙ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺍﻷﺷﻌﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴﺠﻴﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ
ﻳﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﺛﺎﺭﺓ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ .ﻭﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﻁ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ
ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻴـﺔ ﰲ ﻃﻴـﻒ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ،ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﳛـﺪﺙ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ n = 3
ﺃﻭ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺃﻋﲆ ،ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ .n = 2
2-11
n=2
n=3
0.38 eV E6
0.54 eV E5
n=6
0.85 eV E4
n=5
n=4
n=3
13.6 eV E1 n=1
42
1
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﲤﺘﺺ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،ﻓﺈﳖﺎ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﳖﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻷﺩﻧﻰ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻋﲆ ،ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻭﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ ،ﺛﻢ ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻤﺘﺼﺔ ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ.
n =2
E2
1
؟= E1 ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ ﳌﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ n = 1
n=1
E1 ؟= E2 ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ ﳌﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ n = 2
؟= ∆E
2
ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻤﺘﺼﺔ ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ،∆Eﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺑﲔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ E fﻭﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
ﺍﻷﻭ ﹼﱄ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ .Ei
∆E= Ef-Ei Ei = E1 Ef = E2
= E2-E1 E1 = 13.6 eV E2 =3.40 eV
)= -3.40 eV – (-13.6 eV
= 10.2 eV ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻤﺘﺼﺔ
3
ﺇﻥ ﻗﻴﻢ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻘﺎﺱ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ.
ﺇﻥ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﻮﺟﺐ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﺇﱃ
ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻋﲆ.
ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﻚ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ ﳚﺐ
ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ 10 eVﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ ،ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ.
43
2
ﻳﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺫﺭﺓ ﻫﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﻣﺜﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ ،n = 2ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻝn = 1؛ ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ .ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻗﻴﻢ E1ﻭ E2ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﻝ .1
1
E23.40 eV
ﺭﺳﲈ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ E1ﻭ . E2
ﺍﺭﺳﻢ ﹰ
E
E
ﻭﺿﺢ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺗﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،ﻭﻭﺿﺢ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ.ﹼ
E1 13.6 eV ؟=f E1 =-13.6 eV
؟=λ E2 =-3.40 eV
؟= ∆E
2
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ،∆Eﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺑﲔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ،Efﻭﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﳍﺎ .Ei
∆E = Ef-Ei
= E1-E2 Ef= E1 Ei = E2
)= -13.6 eV – (-3.40 eV E1 = 13.6 eV E 2 = 3.40 eV
= -10.2 eV ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ
ﳊﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ،ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻵﺗﻴﺔ:
||∆E
____ = fﻟﺬﺍ ﻓﺈﻥ|∆E| = hf ،
h
c ﻟﺬﺍ ﻓﺈﻥ= λf ، __ = λ
c
f
||∆E
λ _______ =
c
f= ____
)(|∆E|/h h
eV. nm
_________ =
1240
10.2 eV
hc=1240 eVnm|∆E|=10.2eV
= 122 nm
3
ﺗﻘﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ .ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺩﺋﺔ ﻧﺎﻧﻮ ﺗﻌﺪﹼ ﻝ ﺇﱃ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻣﱰ ،ﻭﻫﻲ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ
ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﱄ ﻟﻠﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ .SIﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﲤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺤﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ.
ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﹰﺎ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ،ﻭﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺳﺎﻟﺐ.
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﺿﻮ ﹰﺀﺍ ﰲ ﻣﺪ ﺍﻷﺷﻌﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻔﺴﺠﻴﺔ ،ﻭﻫﻮ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ
400 nm
44
ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺑﲔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ E3ﻭﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ E2ﰲ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ. .1
ﻗﻄﺮ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ،2.5 × 10-15 mﻭﺍﳌﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻭﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ 5 × 10-11 mﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ .ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﺖ .2
ﻛﺮﺓ ﻗﻄﺮﻫﺎ 7.5 cmﻟﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻓﻜﻢ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﹸﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ؟
ﰲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﳏﺪﺩ ،ﺗﺴﻘﻂ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ 8.82 eVﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ 6.67 eVﺍﺣﺴﺐ: .3
.aﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ.
.bﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ.
E5 n =5
ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻔﺴﲑ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ،ﻭﺑﺪﻗﺔ ﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ،ﺇﻻ
E4 n =4
λ= 632.8 nm
ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﲆ ﺗﻔﺴﲑ ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺃﻱ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺮ .ﲢﻘﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻮﺍﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻮﺭ ﺃﻧﻪ ﱂ ﻳﻜﻦ ﹰ
E3 n =3
ﰲ ﻧﻤـﻮﺫﺝ ﺑـﻮﺭ؛ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺇﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻥ .ﻓﺨﻼ ﹰﻓﺎ ﻟﺬﺭﺓ
E2 n =2 ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ،ﻓـﺈﻥ ﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻥ ﻋﴩﺓ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ،ﻭﺃﺣﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ
ﻳﻨﺘﻘـﻞ ﺑـﲔ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،n = 5ﻭﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،n = 3ﺑﺎﻋ ﹰﺜـﺎ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﹰﺎ ﰲ
ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ.
E1 n =1
.1ﺍﻋﺘـﱪ ﺃﻧـﻪ ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠـﺔ ﺇﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻴـﻮﻥ ،ﻛﺈﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﺫﺭﺓ
ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ،ﻓﲈ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺘﻮﻗﻌﻬﺎ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ؟
.2ﺍﻋﺘﱪ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻥ ،ﻛﺈﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ،
ﻓﲈ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻨﺒﺄ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ؟
.3ﺍﻟﻄـﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﳊﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﻤﻠﻴـﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ،632.8 nm
ﻣﺎ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﳋﻄﺄ ﺍﳌﺌﻮﻱ ﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻟﻠﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ؟
45
ﻳﻌﺪﹼ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺍﻷﺳـﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻣﻜﹼﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻓﻬﻢ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ،ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺴـﺎﺏ
ﻃﻴـﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌـﺎﺙ ،ﻛﺎﻥ ﺑـﻮﺭ ﻭﻃﻠﺒﺘﻪ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﻳﻦ ﻋﲆ ﺣﺴـﺎﺏ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻳﻦ ﻟـﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ.
ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺗﺄﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻭﻗﺪ ﺍﺗﻔﻘﺖ
ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﺎ
ﹰ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ
ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻳﻦ ﺍﳌﺤﺴـﻮﺑﺔ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ .ﻭﻗـﺪﻡ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﹰ
ﺗﺒﲔ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒﺎﺕ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﻴﺔ
ﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻨﺎﴏ .ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﹼ
ﺧﺎﺻـﺔ ﺑـﻜﻞ ﻋﻨﴫ ،ﺗﻌـﺪﹼ ﺍﻷﺳـﺎﺱ ﳌﻌﻈـﻢ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺘﻨـﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋـﻼﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻭﺍﺑـﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ.
ﺣـﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻌـﺎﱂ ﻧﻴﻠـﺰ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻋﲆ ﺟﺎﺋـﺰﺓ ﻧﻮﺑﻞ ﻋـﺎﻡ 1922ﻡ ﻭﺗﻢ ﲣﻠﻴـﺪ ﺇﻧﺠﺎﺯﺍﺗـﻪ ﰲ ﺇﺻﺪﺍﺭ ﺑﻌﺾ
ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺍﺑﻊ ﺍﻟﱪﻳﺪﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ . 2-12
2-12
2-1ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ
ﲢـﻮﻝ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﺗﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺸـﻒ ﻋﻦ ﹼ .9 ﳋﺺ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﻋﲆ .4
ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،101ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،100 ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ.
ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄـﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻺﺷـﻌﺎﻉ؟ ﺃﻳـﻦ ﻳﻘﻊ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻓﻴﻢ ﲣﺘﻠﻒ ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺍﺩ .5
ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ؟ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺠﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﺍﺕ ،ﻭﻓﻴﻢ ﺗﺘﺸﺎﺑﻪ؟
ﻧﺼـﻒ ﻗﻄـﺮ ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ .10 ﻓـﴪ ﻛﻴﻒ ﲢﻔﻆ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﲤﺘﺺ ﺫﺭﺓ ﹼ .6
1.5 × 10 -15 mﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒـﺎ .ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﻨـﺖ ﺭﺍﻏ ﹰﺒـﺎ ﰲ ﺑﻨـﺎﺀ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺿﻮﺀ؟
ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ،ﺑﺎﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻛﺮﺓ ﺑﻼﺳﺘﻴﻚ ﻳﺴـﻠﻚ ﺃﻳﻮﻥ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺫﺭﺓ .7
) (r = 5 cmﲤﺜـﻞ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻓﺄﻳـﻦ ﺗﻀـﻊ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﹰـﺎ ﰲ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟـﲔ ،ﻭﻧﺼـﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻷﻳﻮﻥ
ﻣﺴﺘﻮ n = 1؟ ﻫﻞ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻪ ﰲ ﻏﺮﻓﺔ ﺻﻔﻚ؟ ﺍﻷﺩﻧـﻰ ﻳﺴـﺎﻭ ،0.0265 nmﺍﻋﺘـﲈ ﹰﺩﺍ ﻋﲆ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ
ﺑﻮﺭ ،ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ؟
ﻭﺿﺢ ﻛﻴﻔﻴـﺔ ﺍﳊﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﲆ ﻃﻴﻒ .8
ﺍﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ ﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻣﺎ .ﻭﺿﺢ ﺃﺳﺒﺎﺏ ﻇﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ.
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46
The Quantum Model of the Atom 2-2اﻟﻨﻤﻮذج اﻟﻜﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﺬرة
ﱂ ﻳﻜﻦ ﺑﺎﻹﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﺗﻔﺴﲑ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻋﲆ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﳌﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻘﺒﻮﻟﺔ ﰲ
ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ؛ ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻣﺜﻼﹰ ،ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺴﺎﺭﻋﺔ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ،
ﺃﻭﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻮﺭ ﰲ
•
ﳑـﺎ ﻳـﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﱃ ﺇﳖﻴﺎﺭ ﴎﻳﻊ ﻟﻠـﺬﺭﺓ .ﻛﲈ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﺗﻘﻮﻝ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺪﻭﺭ ﻟﻪ
ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ.
ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﳏﺪﺩ ،ﺑﻨﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﻣﻌﲔ ،ﺗﺘﻌـﺎﺭﺽ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﳍﻴﺰﻧﱪﺝ .ﻓﻜﻴﻒ
• ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ.
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻭﺿﻊ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻋﲆ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﺘﲔ؟
• ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ.
• ﺧﺼﺎﺋـﺺ ﺿـﻮﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎت اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺴﺤﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻴﺔ
ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ.
From Orbits to an Electron Cloud
ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻲ
ﺗﺬﻛـﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺑﻖ ﺃﻥ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﺍﻗﱰﺡ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﺠﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺧﺼﺎﺋـﺺ ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ ،ﲤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻛﲈ
ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺟﺴﻴﻤﻴﺔ .ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﺯﲬﻪ ﺍﳋﻄﻲ m v
ﺍﻟﺴﺤﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻹﻛﱰﻭﻧﻴﺔ
ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ
___ = λﻭﺑﴬﺏ ﻃﺮﰲ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺑﻨﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻮ rﻧﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﲆ ﺑﺎﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔmv :
h
ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﱰﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﺮﺧـﻢ ﺍﻟﺰﺍﻭﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ، mvr = λ :ﻭﺑﺤﺴـﺐ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﻟﻠﺰﺧﻢ ﺍﻟﺰﺍﻭﻱ ﹰ
ﻗﻴﲈ __
hr
___ = ، mvrﻭﺑﻤﺴﺎﻭﺍﺓ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺘﲔ ﻧﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﲆn λ = 2πr : ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﺗﻌﻄﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ:
nh
ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﱰﺍﺑﻂ 2π
ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﳌﺤﻔﺰ ﺃﻱ ﺃﻥ ﳏﻴـﻂ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﰲ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ 2 π rﻳﺴـﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴـﺢ nﻣﴬﻭ ﹰﺑﺎ ﰲ
ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ،λﻭﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 2-13ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ .ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺴﺎﻭﻱ
ﺇﻳﺮﻥ ﴍﻭﺩﻧﺠﺮ ﻋﺎﻡ 1926ﻡ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ ﻟﻠﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ .ﻫﺬﻩ
ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳـﺔ ﱂ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋـﲆ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﺒﺴـﻴﻂ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ،ﻛﲈ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑـﻮﺭ ،ﻭﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺃﻥ
ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﻣﺴـﺎﺭ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﱂ ﻳﻜﻦ ﻳﺸـﺒﻪ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻛﺐ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺸـﻤﺲ .ﻛﲈ
ﺃﻥ ﻣﺒـﺪﺃ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻳﺸـﲑ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﺤﻴﻞ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻣـﻦ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﻭﺯﺧﻢ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ
ﺍﻟﻠﺤﻈﺔ ﻧﻔﺴـﻬﺎ ،ﻟﺬﺍ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻲ ﻳﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﺣﺘﲈﻟﻴﺔ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ
ﻓﻘـﻂ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺜـﲑ ﻟﻼﻫﺘﲈﻡ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤـﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ﺗﻨﺒﺄ ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺜـﺮ ﺍﺣﺘﲈﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﲔ
ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ ﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ،ﻫﻲ ﻧﺼﻒ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺮ ﻧﻔﺴـﻪ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗـﻢ ﺗﻮﻗﻌﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ
ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ.
n
n n=5n=3
=2.9
47
10 10
2-14
n=2
n=1
10 10
10 10
48
2-15
a a b
b
49
ﻭﻟﻜﻲ ﳛﺪﺙ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺜﺎﺭ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺘﺤﻘﻖ ﺍﻟﴩﻭﻁ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ :ﺃﻭﻻﹰ :ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ
ﻫﻨـﺎﻙ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺃﺧﺮ ﻣﺜﺎﺭﺓ .ﺛﺎﻧ ﹰﻴﺎ :ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﺜﺎﺭﺓ ﻟﻔﱰﺓ ﺯﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ ﳛﺪﺙ
ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺎﺩﻡ .ﺛﺎﻟ ﹰﺜﺎ :ﳚﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺗﻮﺟﻴﻬﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﲆ ﺇﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ
ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﺭﺓ.
ﰲ ﻋـﺎﻡ 1959ﻡ ،ﺗـﻢ ﺍﺑﺘﻜﺎﺭ ﺃﺩﺍﺓ ﺗﺴـﻤﻰ ﻟﻴﺰﺭ ،ﻭﻗـﺪ ﺣﻘﻘﺖ ﲨﻴﻊ ﺍﻟـﴩﻭﻁ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ
ﺿﻮﺀ ﻣﱰﺍﺑﻂ .ﻭﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﻟﻴﺰﺭ ﻫﻲ ﺍﺧﺘﺼﺎﺭ ﻟﻠﻌﺒﺎﺭﺓ "ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺜﺎﺭ
ﻟﻺﺷﻌﺎﻉ" .ﻭﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﺜﺎﺭﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺫﺭﺓ ﻟﻴﺰﺭﻳﺔ.
ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺜﺎﺭ ﺃﻭ ﺗﻀﺦ ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .2-17
ﺣﻴـﺚ ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﻟﻮﻣﻀﺔ ﻛﺜﻴﻔﺔ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ،ﺫﺍﺕ ﻃـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ﺃﻗﴫ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ
ﻟﻀـﺦ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺍﺕ .ﻭﺗﹸﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﻷﻗﴫ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﱪ ﺑﻮﺳـﺎﻃﺔ
ﺍﻟﻮﻣﻀـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﺗﺼﻄﺪﻡ ﺑﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ،ﻟﺘﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﺜﺎﺭﺓ .ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ ﺗﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﺇﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﺭﺓ
ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻷﺩﻧﻰ ﺑﺎﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻳﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺳـﻴﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ .ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ
2-17ﻋﻤﻠﻴـﺔ ﻻﻧﺒﻌـﺎﺙ ﻭﻣﻀﺔ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ ﺃﻭ ﻧﺒﻀﺔ ﻣـﻦ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ .ﻛﲈ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠـﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭﻳﺔ ﺃﻥ
ﺗﺜﺎﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﻣﻊ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺃﺧﺮ .ﻓﻔﻲ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﻟﻴﺰﺭ ﻫﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ– ﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻧﺸـﺎﻫﺪﻫﺎ ﻏﺎﻟ ﹰﺒﺎ
ﰲ ﳐﺘـﱪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺮﻳـﻎ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺜـﲑ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺼﻄﺪﻡ
ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴـﻮﻡ ﺍﳌﺜـﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻊ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻴـﻮﻥ ﻟﺘﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﺜﺎﺭﺓ ،ﻭﺗﺘﺤـﻮﻝ ﺇﱃ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻟﻴﺰﺭﻳﺔ .ﻭﺿﻮﺀ
ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮﺍ ،ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ﻋﲆ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻧﺒﻀﺎﺕ.ﹼﹰ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻋﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ
ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭﻳﺔ ﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﳏﺘﻮﺍﺓ ﻋﻦ
ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺣﴫ ﺗﻠـﻚ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﰲ ﺃﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺯﺟﺎﺟﻲ ﻋﲆ ﻃﺮﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﳌﺘﻘﺎﺑﻠﲔ
ﻣﺮﺍﻳﺎ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻳﺔ ،ﻭﺳـﻄﻮﺣﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻛﺴـﺔ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ .ﺇﺣﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ
ﺍﳌﺮﺍﻳـﺎ ﻋﺎﻛﺴـﺔ ﺑﻤﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﻳﺰﻳـﺪ ﻋـﲆ ،99.9%ﻭﺗﻌﻜـﺲ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ
ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻗﻂ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ ،ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﺍﳌﺮﺁﺓ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ ﻋﺎﻛﺴـﺔ ﺟﺰﺋ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ،ﻭﺗﺴـﻤﺢ
ﻟـ 1%ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻂ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﳌﺮﻭﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﳍﺎ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻨﻌﻜﺲ
ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﰲ ﺍﲡـﺎﻩ ﳖﺎﻳﺘﻲ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﻣﺮﺗـﺪﺓ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ
ﳏﺮﺭﺓ
ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﳌﺮﺍﻳﺎ ،ﻭﺗﺼﻄﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻌﻜﺴﺔ ﺑﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ،ﱢ
ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ
ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻛﻞ ﻋﺒﻮﺭ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﺮﺍﻳﺎ .ﻭﺑﺎﺳـﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﹼ
ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺛﻢ ﲣﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺧﻼﻝ
ﻣﺮﺁﺓ ﺟﺰﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﻌﻜﺎﺱ ،ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺔ ﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﻟﻴﺰﺭ .ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 2-18ﻳﻮﺿﺢ
ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﱪ.
50
2-18
ﻭﻷﻥ ﲨﻴﻊ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺛﺎﺭﺓ ،ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺼﻄﺪﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ،
ﻓﺈﻥ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﱰﺍﺑ ﹰﻄﺎ .ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻧﻔﺴـﻪ )ﺃﺣﺎﺩﻱ
ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻥ( ﺑﺴـﺒﺐ ﺍﻧﺘﻘـﺎﻝ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺑـﲔ ﺯﻭﺝ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،ﻭﰲ ﻧﻮﻉ
ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ .ﺍﳌﺮﺍﻳﺎ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﺍﺯﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ،
ﺗﻜـﻮﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻬﺔ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴـﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺃﺧﺮ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﻠﻴـﺰﺭ ﻻ ﻳﻨﺤﺮﻑ ﻣﻬﲈ ﺍﺑﺘﻌﺪ
ﻋﻦ ﻣﺼﺪﺭﻩ .ﻭﻷﻥ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻱ ﺻﻐﲑ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ،ﻻ ﻳﺘﺠﺎﻭﺯ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺷﻌﺎﻋﻪ ،2 mmﻓﺈﻥ
ﺍﻟﻀـﻮﺀ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﺎﱄ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﺎﻓﺔ .ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻊ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﻳﺔ ﻟﺘﺼﺒﺢ
ﻟﻴﺰﺭﻳـﺔ ،ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﺃﺧـﺮ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﺿﻮﺀ ﻟﻴﺰﺭ ﺑﻄـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ .ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ
ﺇﻋـﺎﺩﺓ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﻋﲆ ﻣﺪ ﻣﻌﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ.
Laser Applications ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎت اﻟﻠﻴﺰر
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺸـﻐﻞ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺗﺸـﻐﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺹ ﺍﳌﺪﻣﺞ CDﺃﻭ ،DVDﻓﺈﻧﻚ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ.
ﻭﺃﺟﻬـﺰﺓ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﻫﺬﻩ ،ﺗﺸـﺒﻪ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﰲ ﻣﺆﴍﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ،ﻭﻫـﻲ ﻣﺼﻨﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ
ﺻﻠﺒـﺔ ﺷـﺒﻪ ﻣﻮﺻﻠﺔ .ﻓﻤﺼـﺪﺭ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﰲ ﻣﺸـﻐﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺹ ﺍﳌﺪﻣـﺞ ﻣﺼﻨﻮﻉ ﻣـﻦ ﻃﺒﻘﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ
ﺯﺭﻧﻴﺨـﺎﺕ ﺍﳉﺎﻟﻴـﻮﻡ ) ،(GaAsﻭﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﻧﻴﺦ ﻭﺍﳉﺎﻟﻴـﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﻷﻟﻮﻣﻮﻧﻴـﻮﻡ ،GaAlAsﻭﻳﺒﻠﻎ
ﺳـﻤﻚ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭﻳﺔ 200 nmﻓﻘﻂ ،ﻭﻃـﻮﻝ ﻛﻞ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﻮﺭﺓ ) (1–2 mmﻓﻘﻂ.
ﻭﺗﻀﺦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺍﳌﻮﺻﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ ﺗﻴﺎﺭ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ،ﻭﺗﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ
ﻛﻠـﲈ ﺍﺭﺗـﺪﺕ ﺑـﲔ ﳖﺎﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻠـﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﺼﻘﻮﻟـﺔ .ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﳉـﺪﻭﻝ 2–1ﺑﻌﺾ ﻣﺼـﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ
ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ،ﻭﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ.
51
2-1
nm
248 krF
337 N2
420 InGaN
476.5488.0514.5 Ar
632.8 Ne
635680 GaAlAs
840–1350 GaAs
1064 Nd
10600 CO2
ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻠﺔ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺼﻪ ﺍﳌﻤﻴﺰﺓ ﻛﻌﺪﻡ ﺗﺸﺘﺘﻪ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻗﻄﻊ
ﻭﻛﻮﻥ ﺣﺰﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺿﻴﻘﺔ ﻭﻣﻮﺟﻬـﺔ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﺟﻌﻠﺘﻪ ﻳﺪﺧﻞ ﰲ ﺑﻌﺾ،ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻳﻠﺔ
.ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﻛﺎﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺎﻣﺔ ﺍﻷﻧﻔﺎﻕ ﻭﺍﻷﻧﺎﺑﻴﺐ
ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﺮﺍﻳﺎ، ﻗﺎﻣﻮﺍ ﺑﺘﺜﺒﻴﺖ ﻣﺮﺍﻳﺎ ﻋﲆ ﺳـﻄﺤﻪ،ﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ ﻫﺒﻂ ﺭﻭﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﻀﺎﺀ ﻋﲆ ﺳـﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﻘﻤـﺮ
ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺃﻣﻜﻦ ﺣﺴـﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﻓﺔ،ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻣﺖ ﻟﺘﻌﻜﺲ ﺣﺰﻡ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﺳـﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ
، ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﺘﺒﻊ ﻣﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻤﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ،ﺑـﲔ ﺍﻟﻘﻤﺮ ﻭﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ
.ﻭﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺘﻮﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺿﻴﺔ
ﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺷـﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﰲ ﺍﺗﺼـﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻷﻟﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺒﴫﻳﺔ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺳـﻠﻚ
ﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﳌﺴـﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﺑﺨﺴﺎﺭﺓ،ﺍﻟﻠﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺒﴫﻱ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻻﻧﻌﻜﺎﺳـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ
ﻭﻗﺪ ﺣﻠـﺖ ﺍﻷﻟﻴـﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺒﴫﻳﺔ ﻋﲆ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﳏﻞ ﺍﻷﺳـﻼﻙ.ﺑﺴـﻴﻄﺔ ﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻹﺷـﺎﺭﺓ
. ﺃﻭ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻟﺼـﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻴﻔﺰﻳﻮﻧﻴﺔ، ﻭﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﺎﺳـﻮﺏ،ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺳـﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﳌﻜﺎﳌـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻴﻔﻮﻧﻴـﺔ
2-19
52
2-20 ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﻷﺣﺎﺩﻱ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﻦ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ،ﳚﻌﻠﻬﺎ ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ
ﰲ ﺃﺟﻬـﺰﺓ ﺍﳌﻄﻴـﺎﻑ ﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻣﺎ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﻹﺛـﺎﺭﺓ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺃﺧﺮ ،ﺛﻢ
ﺗﻌـﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺳـﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ،ﻭﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﻃﻴ ﹰﻔﺎ ﳑ ﹼﻴ ﹰـﺰﺍ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ
ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﻭﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﲥﺎ.
ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺮﻛﹼﺰﺓ ﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺑﻄﺮﺍﺋـﻖ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﻭﰲ ﳎﺎﻻﺕ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ .ﻓﻔﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺐ ﻣﺜ ﹰ
ﻼ
ﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﰲ ﺇﻋـﺎﺩﺓ ﲢﺪﺏ ﻗﺮﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌـﲔ ﺇﱃ ﻭﺿﻌﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ .ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺇﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻪ ﰲ
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ،ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .2-19ﻭﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﺍﳉﺮﺍﺣﺔ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺩﻡ ﹰ
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﻟﻘﻄﻊ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻻﺫ ﻭﺗﻠﺤﻴﻢ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﻣ ﹰﻌﺎ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺤﺘﻤﻞ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ
ﹰ
ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻧﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﻧﻮﻭﻱ ﻹﳚﺎﺩ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻻ ﻳﻨﻀﺐ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ.
ﻣﺴﺠﻞ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﺟﺮﺍﰲ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺪﺓ ﹼ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﳍﻮﻟﻮﺟﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﳌﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ ،2-20ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ
ﻭﻃـﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﺻﺒﺢ ﺇﻧﺘـﺎﺝ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﳍﻮﻟﻮﺟﺮﺍﻡ ﳑﻜﻨﹰﺎ ﺑﻔﻀـﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﱰﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻟﻀﻮﺀ
ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ .ﻭﺑﺎﺳـﺘﻄﺎﻋﺔ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﳍﻮﻟﻮﺟﺮﺍﻡ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺻـﻮﺭ ﺛﻼﺛﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺑﻌﺎﺩ .ﻭﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ
ﺃﺧﺮ ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺃﺷـﺒﺎﻩ ﺍﳌﻮﺻـﻼﺕ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﳌﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ،ﻛﲈ ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ
ﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻫﺘﺰﺍﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﳊﺴﺎﺳﺔ.
2-2ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ
ﻭﺿـﺢ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻌﻤـﻞ ﻟﻴـﺰﺭ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﹼ .15 .11ﺃﻱ ﺃﺟﻬـﺰﺓ ﺍﻟﻠﻴـﺰﺭ ﰲ ﺍﳉـﺪﻭﻝ 2–1
ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺜﺎﺭ ﻋﲆ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺿﻮﺀ ﻣﱰﺍﺑﻂ؟ ﺍﲪـﺮﺍﺭﺍ )ﺿـﻮ ﹰﺀﺍ ﻣﺮﺋ ﹼﹰﻴـﺎ ﺫﺍ ﻃﻮﻝ
ﹰ ﺗﺒﻌـﺚ ﺿـﻮ ﹰﺀﺍ ﺃﻛﺜـﺮ
ﻣﺎ ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ .16 ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ﻛﺒﲑ( .ﻭﺃﳞﺎ ﻳﺒﻌﺚ ﺿﻮ ﹰﺀﺍ ﺃﺯﺭﻕ؟ ﻭﺃﳞﺎ ﻳﺒﻌﺚ
ﲡﻌﻠﻪ ﻣﻔﻴﺪﹰ ﺍ؟ ﺣﺰ ﹰﻣﺎ ﺿﻮﺋﻴﺔ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺭﺅﻳﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﲔ؟
ﺍﻓﱰﺽ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺗﻢ ﺍﳊﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﲆ ﺳـﺤﺎﺑﺔ .17 ﻭﺿﺢ ﻣﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ .12
ﺻﻐـﲑﺓ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ،ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﺧـﴬ ﻟﻀﺦ ﺿـﻮﺀ ﻟﻴﺰﺭ ﺃﲪـﺮ .ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﻻ ﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ
ﺑﺤﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ .ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻋـﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ؛ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻷﲪﺮ ﻟﻀﺦ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﻷﺧﴬ؟
ﻟﺘﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﺗﺴﺘﻬﻠﻚ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﻫﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﻣﺎ ﺃﻭﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻮﺭ ﰲ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ، .13
ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ؟ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻮﻗﻌﻪ ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ؟
ﻭﺿـﺢ ﳌـﺎﺫﺍ ﺗﻌـﺎﺭﺽ ﻧﻤـﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ .14
ﻟﻠـﺬﺭﺓ ﻣـﻊ ﻣﺒـﺪﺃ ﻋـﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳـﺪ ،ﺑﻴﻨـﲈ ﱂ ﻳﺘﻌـﺎﺭﺽ
ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻲ ﻣﻌﻪ؟
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إﻳﺠﺎد ﺣﺠﻢ اﻟﺬرة Finding the Size of an Atom
ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺇﺭﻧﺴـﺖ ﺭﺫﺭﻓـﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻹﺣﺼﺎﺋـﻲ ﻭﺍﻻﺣﺘﲈﻻﺕ ﻟﻠﻤﺴـﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻋﲆ ﲢﻠﻴـﻞ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﲡﺮﺑﺔ
ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟـﺎ ﻟﺼﻔﻴﺤﺔ ﺭﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﺐ ﻣﺴـﺘﺨﺪ ﹰﻣﺎ
ﹰ ﺻﻔﻴﺤـﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻫـﺐ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻴﻘﺔ .ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺳـﻮﻑ ﺗﺸـﻜﻞ
ﻭﻛﺆﻭﺳﺎ .ﺛﻢ ﲢﻠﻞ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺠﻚ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﲈﻻﺕ ﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺟﺴﻢ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺭﺅﻳﺘﻪ.ﹰ ﻛﺮﺍﺕ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ
ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﲈﻻﺕ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺟﺴﻢ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺭﺅﻳﺘﻪ؟
� ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳـﺪ ﺍﺣﺘﲈﻟﻴﺔ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﲑﺓ .1ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﳌﺴـﻄﺮﺓ ﻟﻘﻴـﺎﺱ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻭﻋـﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﺼﻨـﺪﻭﻕ ﻣﻦ
ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ. ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻞ .ﹼ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ.
.2ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﳌﺴـﻄﺮﺓ؛ ﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻗﻄـﺮ ﻓﻮﻫﺔ ﺇﺣـﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺆﻭﺱ.
� ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻲ ﺍﻋﺘﲈ ﹰﺩﺍ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﲈﻻﺕ.
ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﰲ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ.
ﹼ
.3ﺿـﻊ ﺍﻟﺼﻨـﺪﻭﻕ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻭﺳـﻂ ﺍﳌﻨﺸـﻔﺔ ﺍﳌﻄﻮﻳـﺔ ،ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﲤﺘﺪ
ﺍﳌﻨﺸﻔﺔ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ 30 cmﺣﻮﻝ ﺟﻮﺍﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺪﻭﻕ.
ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺪﻭﻕ. ﻋﺸﻮﺍﺋ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﻋﲆBﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ A
ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺙ Cﺍﻟﻮﺭﻗﻴﺔ D
ﺍﻟﻜﺆﻭﺱ E
ﺿﻊ F � I J K L M N
G .4 H.
.5ﻳﻘـﻮﻡ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺯﻣﻼﺋﻚ ﺑﺈﺳـﻘﺎﻁ 200ﻛﺮﺓ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ ﻋﺸـﻮﺍﺋ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﰲ
ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺪﻭﻕ .ﺗﺄﻛﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻮﺯﻉ ﺯﻣﻴﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﲑﺓ ﺑﺎﻧﺘﻈﺎﻡ
ﻋﲆ ﻣﺴـﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺪﻭﻕ .ﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﲑﺓ ﺻﻨﺪﻭﻕ ﻛﺮﺗﻮﻥ.
ﻗﺪ ﺗﺴﻘﻂ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺪﻭﻕ ﻋﲆ ﺍﳌﻨﺸﻔﺔ. ﺛﻼﺙ ﻛﺆﻭﺱ ﻭﺭﻗﻴﺔ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ ﻣﺘﲈﺛﻠﺔ.
.6ﺍﺣﺴـﺐ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﻘﻄﺖ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻜﺆﻭﺱ، 200ﻛﺮﺓ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ.
ﻭﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﰲ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ.
ﹼ ﻣﺴﻄﺮﺓ.
ﻣﻨﺸﻔﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻗﻄﻌﺔ ﻗﲈﺵ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ.
ﺍﺣﺴـﺐ ﻣﺴـﺎﺣﺔ ﺻﻨـﺪﻭﻕ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺗـﻮﻥ .ﻣﺴـﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .1
ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻄﻴﻞ ﺗﻌﻄﻰ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ:ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺣﺔ = ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ × ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺽ.
ﺍﺣﺴـﺐ ﻣﺴـﺎﺣﺔ ﻓﻮﻫﺔ ﺍﻟـﻜﺄﺱ ،ﺑﺎﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻄـﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ .2
ﻗﺴﺘﻪ .ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﻌﻄﻰ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ:
ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺣﺔ= π r2
ﺍﺣﺴـﺐ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻜﺆﻭﺱ؛ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﴬﺏ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ .3
ﺇﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺆﻭﺱ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﲇ ﻟﻠﻜﺆﻭﺱ.
ﺍﺣﺴـﺐ ﺍﻟﻨﺴـﺒﺔ ﺍﳌﺌﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﺸـﻐﻮﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺪﻭﻕ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺆﻭﺱ .4
ﺍﻟﺜـﻼﺙ ،ﻭﺫﻟـﻚ ﺑﻘﺴـﻤﺔ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴـﺔ ﻟﻠﻜـﺆﻭﺱ ﻋﲆ
ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺪﻭﻕ ،ﺛﻢ ﺍﴐﺏ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ . 100
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5 4 3 2
cm
cm
cm2
cm
cm2
3 3 3 3 3 3
2
cm
cm2%
200 200 200 200 200 200
cm2
3 3 3 3 3 3
cm2
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Atom Laser
ﻃﻮﺭﻭﺍ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔﻣﺆﺧﺮﺍ ﳍﺎ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﰲ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ؛ ﻓﻘﺪ ﹼ
ﹰ ﺗﻘﻨﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﹸﻃ ﹼﻮﺭﺕ
ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﻭﺍﻋﺪ .ﻓﺒﺨﻼﻑ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺼﺪﺭ ﻟﻘﺬﻑ ﻧﺒﻀﺎﺕ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ )ﺑـﲔ 100,000ﻭ 1000,000ﺫﺭﺓ(
ﺣﺰ ﹰﻣـﺎ ﺃﻭ ﻧﺒﻀﺎﺕ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﱰﺍﺑﻄﺔ ،ﻓـﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﱰﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻜﺎﺛﻒ ﺑﻮﺯ– ﺃﻳﻨﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﰲ ﺣﺰﻣﺔ.
ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳـﺔ ﺗﺼﺪﺭ ﺣﺰ ﹰﻣﺎ ﺃﻭ ﻧﺒﻀﺎﺕ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﱰﺍﺑﻄﺔ .ﻭﻛﲈ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ،ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻨﺒﻀﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﱰﺍﺑﻄﺔ
ﺳـﻴﺘﻀﺢ ﻻﺣ ﹰﻘﺎ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﱰﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﲣﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﰲ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﺗﺴﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ ﺳﻠﻮﻙ
ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﲤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ ،ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﺗﺘﺒﻊ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﳼ ﺇﱃ ﺃﺳﻔﻞ؛ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ.
ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﱰﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﹼ
ﺗﺄﺛـﲑ ﺍﳉﺎﺫﺑﻴﺔ .ﻭﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺗﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺑـﺮﻭﱄ ﻋﺎﻡ 1923ﻡ ﺃﻥ
ﻓـﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﱰﺍﺑﻄـﺔ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﻧﺒﻀﺔ ﲤﻴﻞ ﺇﱃ ﳉﻤﻴـﻊ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺧﺼﺎﺋـﺺ ﻣﻮﺟﻴـﺔ،
ﺍﻻﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺑﻌﻴﺪﹰ ﺍ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻨﺘﴩ ﺍﳊﺰﻣﺔ. ﻭﻃﻮﳍـﺎ ﺍﳌﻮﺟـﻲ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﺳـﺐ ﻋﻜﺴـ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﻣـﻊ
ﻭﰲ ﻋـﺎﻡ 1999ﻡ ﻭﺟﺪ ﻭﻟﻴـﻢ ﻓﻴﻠﺒﺲ ﻃﺮﻳﻘ ﹰﺔ ﻛﺘﻠـﺔ ﻭﴎﻋﺔ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﻢ ،ﻭﻫـﻮ ﻗﺼﲑ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ
ﻹﺭﺳـﺎﻝ ﻧﺒﻀـﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﱰﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﰲ ﺑﺤﻴـﺚ ﻳﺼﻌـﺐ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺘـﻪ ﻋﻨـﺪ ﺩﺭﺟـﺔ
ﺃﻱ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ،ﻭﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﻣﻨﻊ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﺸـﺎﺭ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﻓﺔ ،ﻟﻜﻦ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﱪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺗﻘﻞ
ﺑﻌﻴﺪﹰ ﺍ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻨﺘﴩ ﺍﳊﺰﻣﺔ .ﻭﺑﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﴎﻋﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﻳﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﻃﻮﳍﺎ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ.
ﻣﻦ ﺍﳊـﺰﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﲑﺓ ﺟـﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ،ﺍﺳـﺘﻄﺎﻉ ﻓﻴﻠﺒﺲ ﺑﺤﺚ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﳌﺎﻥ ﺃﻳﻨﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﻭﺑﻮﺯ ﰲ ﻋﺎﻡ 1920ﻡ
ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺣﺰﻣﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﱰﺍﺑﻄﺔ. ﰲ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﻮﺯﻭﻧﺎﺕ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﻮﻗﻌﺎ
ﺳـﻴﺘﻢ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺗﻜﺎﺛـﻒ ﺑـﻮﺯ– ﺃﻧﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﻹﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﺗﱪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺇﱃ
ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻴـﺰﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳـﺔ ﰲ ﺩﺭﺍﺳـﺔ ﺃﺩﻧﻰ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﳑﻜـﻦ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﻛﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ
ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﳌﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ ﻭﺍﳌﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺳـﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﳍـﺎ ﺍﻟﻄـﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ
ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻧﻔﺴـﺎﳘﺎ .ﺃﻱ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ
ﺍﳌﺎﺩﻳﺔ .ﻭﻳﺘﻮﻗـﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭﺍﺕ
ﺳﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﳍﺎ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻣﱰﺍﺑﻄﺔ .ﻭﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻏﲑ
106105ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﻣﻔﻴﺪﺓ ﰲ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ
ﺍﻟﺪﻗـﺔ ،ﻭﰲ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﻴﺔ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ. ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺗﻜﺎﺛﻒ ﺑﻮﺯ–ﺃﻳﻨﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ.
ﹸ
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﰲﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﹰ ﺇﻥ ﺃﻭﻝ ﺗﻜﺎﺛﻔﺎﺕ ﺑﻮﺯ– ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﺃﻧﺘﺠﺖ
ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻋـﺎﻡ 1995ﻡ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻗـﺎﻡ ﺑﺈﻧﺘﺎﺟﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﳌﺎﻥ
ﺇﻳـﺮﻙ ﻛﻮﺭﻧـﻞ ،ﻭﻛﺎﺭﻝ ﻭﻳﲈﻥ ،ﻭﻗـﺎﻡ ﺑﺈﻧﺘﺎﺟﻬﺎ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺑﺸـﻜﻞ ﻗﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺫﺏ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ،ﻭﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﻴﺔ.
ﻣﻨﻔﺼـﻞ ﺍﻟﻌـﺎﱂ ﻓﻮﳉﺎﻧـﺞ ﻛﻴـﱰﻝ ،ﺍﻟـﺬﻱ ﻗـﺎﻡ ﺑﺈﺟـﺮﺍﺀ ﺑﺤﺚ
ﺁﺧﺮ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﺿﻊ ﻋﻴﻨﺘﲔ ﻣﻨﻔﺼﻠﺘﲔ ﻟﺘﻜﺎﺛﻒ ﺑﻮﺯ–ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ
.1ﺍﺑﺤـﺚ ﰲ ﻣﺎﻫﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﲑﻣﻴﻮﻧـﺎﺕ .ﻭﻫـﻞ ﺇﺣﺪﺍﳘﺎ ﺑﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ ،ﻭﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻧﲈﻁ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ
ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻄﺎﻋﺘﻬﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺗﻜﺎﺛﻒ ﺑﻮﺯ– ﺃﻳﻨﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ. ﰲ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﺛﻔـﺎﺕ .ﻓﺬﻫـﺐ ﺇﱃ ﺗﺄﻛﻴـﺪ ﺃﻥ ﲨﻴـﻊ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﰲ
)ﺗﻮﺿﻴـﺢ :ﺍﻧﻈﺮ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻄﺒﻖ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺑﺎﻭﻝ ﰲ ﺍﻻﺳـﺘﺒﻌﺎﺩ ﺣﺎﻟـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﺛﻒ ﳍـﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻧﻔﺴـﺎﳘﺎ .ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ
ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻔﲑﻣﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ(. ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﺛﻒ ﻣﱰﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﲤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻛﲈ ﺗﻮﻗﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻮﺯ
.2ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﰲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻭﺃﻳﻨﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ.
ﺗﻔﺮﻳﻎ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ .ﺗﺮ ،ﻣﺎ ﺳﺒﺐ ﺻﺤﺔ ﺫﻟﻚ؟ ﺃﻋﻠﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﻛﻴﱰﻝ ﻭﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪﻭﻩ ﻋﺎﻡ 1997ﻡ
56
The Bohr Model of the Atom 2-1
ﻗﺬﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺇﺭﻧﺴـﺖ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ،ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﴪﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻋﲆ • ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ •
ﺻﻔﻴﺤﺔ ﺭﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﺐ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺘﻪ ﳌﺴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﺤﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻨﺘﺞ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻧﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ •
ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻓﺮﺍﻍ ،ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻮﻗﻊ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺛﻘﻴﻠﺔ ﻭﺻﻐﲑﺓ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ،ﻭﺫﺍﺕ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﰲ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ. ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ •
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻋﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﳎﻬﻮﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ. • ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ •
ﺇﺫﺍ ﻋﱪ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺃﺑﻴﺾ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻏﺎﺯ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻳﻤﺘﺺ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﺒﻌﺜﻬﺎ • ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ •
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺜﺎﺭ .ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻋﱪ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﻨﺸﻮﺭ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﺯ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﺮﺋ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ. ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﺛﺎﺭﺓ •
ﺃﻇﻬـﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﻧﻴﻠﺰ ﺑـﻮﺭ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﳍـﺎ ﻗﻴﻢ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ • ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ •
ﻣﻜﲈﺓ .ﻭﺃﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﰲ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ nﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ: ﻓﺈﳖﺎ ﹼ
13.6
____ En= -
n2 eV
• ﺍﻋﺘﲈ ﹰﺩﺍ ﻋﲆ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ،ﻳﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺑﲔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﲠﺎ ،ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
ﲤﺘﺺ ﺃﻭ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﻋﲆ ﺷـﻜﻞ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ )ﻣﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﻛﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ( .ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ
ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺘﲔ ﺍﻻﺑﺘﺪﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ.
| = |Ef-EiﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥE
• ﺍﻋﺘـﲈ ﹰﺩﺍ ﻋـﲆ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑـﻮﺭ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄـﺮ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﻪ ﻗﻴﻢ ﳏـﺪﺩﺓ ﻣﻜﲈﺓ.
ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ nﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﻳﻌﻄﻰ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ:
57
ﺇﻥ ﻣﺼـﺪﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﳉﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻠﻴـﺰﺭ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﱪﻱ .26
8 × 10-4 Wﻓﻘﻂ ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﺒﺪﻭ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺃﻛﻤـﻞ ﺧﺮﻳﻄـﺔ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴـﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴـﺔ ﻣﺴـﺘﺨﺪ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻣـﺎ ﻳﲇ: .18
ﻣﺼﺒﺎﺡ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ 100 W؟ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ،ﺃﻗﻄـﺎﺭ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ
ﻣﺎ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﺩﺕ ﺇﱃ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻪ ﰲ .27 ﺍﻟﺜﺎﺑﺘﺔ ،ﻧﻤـﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ،ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﻭﺍﻣﺘﺼـﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ،
ﺍﻟﻌﺮﻭﺽ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺋﻴﺔ؟ ﻓﺮﻕ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ.
ﳜﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻘﻴﺪ ﳌﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺇﱃ .28
ﺃﺧـﺮ .ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺆﺛـﺮ ﺫﻟﻚ ﰲ ﺍﻷﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﳍﺎ
ﺗﻨﺘﺠﻬﺎ؟ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ
ﲢﺪﺙ ﺍﻷﺿﻮﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﺸﲈﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ
.29 ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ
ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻗﺎﺩﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺲ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ
ﺗﺼﻄـﺪﻡ ﺑـﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻐـﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﻱ ﻟـﻸﺭﺽ ،ﺇﺫﺍ
ﻧﻈـﺮﺕ ﺇﱃ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﺿـﻮﺍﺀ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﻨﻈـﺎﺭ ﻃﻴﻔﻲ ﻓﻬﻞ ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﺴﺎﻭﻳﺔ
ﻓﴪ.ﺗﺸﺎﻫﺪ ﻃﻴ ﹰﻔﺎ ﻣﺘﺼﻼﹰ ،ﺃﻡ ﻃﻴ ﹰﻔﺎ ﺧﻄ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ؟ ﹼ
ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺚ ﺿﻮﺀ ﺃﺑﻴﺾ ﻣﻦ ﺳـﻄﺢ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ،ﻭﺷﺎﻫﺪﻩ .30
ﺷـﺨﺺ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻀـﺎﺀ ،ﻓﻬـﻞ ﻳﻈﻬـﺮ ﺍﻟﻄﻴـﻒ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻭﺿـﺢ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺣـﺪﺩ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﰲ .19
ﻓﴪ.
ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﺘﺼﻼﹰ؟ ﹼ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﺘﻤﺮﻛـﺰﺓ ﰲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘـﺔ ﺻﻐـﲑﺓ ﺟـﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ،ﻭﻟﻴﺴـﺖ
ﻫـﻞ ﺗﻌﺪﹼ ﻗﻄـﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻮﺩ ﻣﺜﺎﻻﹰ ﺟﻴـﺪﹰ ﺍ ﻟﻠﺘﻜﻤﻴﺔ؟ ﻫﻞ ﻳﻌﺪﹼ .31 ﻣﻨﺘﴩﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ.
ﻓﴪ. ﻛﻴـﻒ ﻓﴪ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑـﻮﺭ ﺗﻀﻤﲔ ﻃﻴـﻒ ﺍﻻﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ
ﺍﳌﺎﺀ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻛﺐ ﺍﻷﺭﴈ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ؟ ﹼ
.20
ﻟﻠﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟـﲔ ﺗـﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻃﻴـﻒ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌـﺎﺙ ﻧﻔﺴـﻬﺎ
ﺫﺭﺓ ﳍﺎ ﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ E4 ،ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ .32
ﻟﻠﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ؟
ﺍﻷﻋـﲆ ،ﻭ E1ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻷﺩﻧـﻰ .ﺇﺫﺍ ﺣﺪﺛﺖ
ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻻﺕ ﺑﲔ ﺃﻱ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﲔ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،ﻓﲈ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﻁ ﻗﻢ ﺑﻤﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ .ﻣﺎ ﺍﳌﺸـﻜﻼﺕ .21
ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﲠﺎ؟ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﲠﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ؟
ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺒﻌﺚ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﹰﺎ ﺑﺄﻋﲆ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ؟ ﺣﻠـﻞ ﻭﺍﻧﺘﻘـﺪ ﻧﻤـﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻟﻠـﺬﺭﺓ .ﻣـﺎ ﺍﻻﻓﱰﺍﺿﺎﺕ .22
ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﺭ ﻟﺘﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻪ؟
ﻭﺿـﺢ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﻨﺘـﺞ ﺍﻷﻃﻴﺎﻑ .23
ﺍﳋﻄﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺃﻧﺎﺑﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺍﳌﻔﺮﻏﺔ؟
ﺗﻔﺴـﲑﺍ ﻟﻠﻄﻴـﻒ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ
ﹰ ﻛﻴـﻒ ﻗﺪﹼ ﻡ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ .24
ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ؟
ﻓـﴪ ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﲣﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻷﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﳋﻄﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺃﻧﺎﺑﻴﺐ ﹼ .25
ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺮﻳﻎ ﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟـﲔ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻷﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ
ﻋﻦ ﺃﻧﺎﺑﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺮﻳﻎ ﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ.
58
ﺫﺭﺓ ﻛﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻣﺜﺎﺭﺓ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ .E2ﺍﺻﻄﺪﻡ ﲠﺎ .39 .33ﻳﺒـﲔ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ ،2-21ﺩﺧﻮﻝ ﻓﻮﺗـﻮﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻪ 6.2 eV
ﻓﻮﺗـﻮﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺘـﻪ ،1.20 eVﻓﺎﻣﺘﺼﺘﻪ .ﺇﱃ ﺃﻱ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻓﴪ.
ﺫﺭﺓ ﺯﺋﺒﻖ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ .ﻫﻞ ﲤﺘﺼﻪ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ؟ ﹼ
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺗﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ؟ ﺍﻧﻈﺮ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .2-22
ﺫﺭﺓ ﻛﺎﻟﺴـﻴﻮﻡ ﻣﺜﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ .E6ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ .40
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﲥﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ 0.00
)E9 (-1.56
E2؟ ﺍﺭﺟﻊ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .2-22
)E8 (-1.57
)E7 (-2.48
)E6 (-2.68
)E5 (-3.71
eV
)E11= (0
)E4 (-4.95
)E10= (-0.5 )E3 (-5.52
)E9= (-0.59 )E2 (-5.74
)E8= (-0.76
)E7= (-0.9
eV
)E6= (-0.92
)E5 (-1.46
)E4= (-1.53
)E1 (-10.38
)E3= (-1.95
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 2-21
)E2= (-3.15 ﻳﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ .34
ﺍﳌﺜـﺎﺭﺓ ﺧـﻼﻝ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ .ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤـﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﻠﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ؟ ﺇﺫﺍ ﹸﻣﻨﺤﺖ
)E1= (-6.08 ﻛﻤﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺇﱃ ﺫﺭﺓ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟـﺔ ﺍﻻﺳـﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ،ﻓﲈ
ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳛﺪﺙ؟
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 2-22 ﻗﺎﺭﻥ ﺑﲔ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ ﺍﳌﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ﻭﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ. .35
59
ﺍﺣﺴـﺐ ﻧﺼـﻒ ﻗﻄـﺮ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻮ ﻟـﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﻲ .50 ﺫﺭﺓ ﻫﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﻣﺜـﺎﺭﺓ ﺇﱃ .n = 3ﻭﻓﻖ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ، .44
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ E5ﻭ E6ﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ. ﺃﻭﺟﺪ ﹼﹰ
ﻛﻼ ﳑﺎ ﻳﲇ:
.aﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮ.
.bﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻭﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ.
ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 2-23ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺇﺳﻘﺎﻁ .51
.cﺍﻟﺘﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﳌﺮﻛﺰﻱ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ.
ﻃﻴـﻒ ﻣﺼﺒـﺎﺡ ﻏﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒـﻖ ﺫﻱ ﺍﻟﻀﻐـﻂ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱄ ﻋﲆ
.dﴎﻋـﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﻣـﺪﺍﺭﻩ )ﻗـﺎﺭﻥ ﺑـﲔ ﻫـﺬﻩ
ﺣﺎﺋـﻂ ﰲ ﻏﺮﻓـﺔ ﻣﻈﻠﻤﺔ .ﻣﺎ ﻓـﺮﻭﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻟﴪﻋﺔ ﻭﴎﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ(.
ﺍﳋﻄﻮﻁ ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ؟
2-2ﻧﻤﻮذج اﻟﺬرة اﻟﻜﻤﻲ
CD ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻟﻴﺰﺭﺍﺕ ﺯﺭﻧﻴﺨﺎﺕ .45
ﺍﳉﺎﻟﻴﻮﻡ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺷﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﰲ ﻣﺸﻐﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺹ ﺍﳌﺪﻣﺞ.
ﺇﺫﺍ ﺑﻌﺚ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ ،840 nm
ﻓﲈ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ eVﺑﲔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ؟
436 nm 546 nm 579 nm ﹸﺃﺩﺧـﻞ ﻟﻴﺰﺭ GaInNiﺑﲔ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﻔﺼﻮﻟﺔ .46
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 2-23 ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻫﺎ ،2.90 eVﺃﺟﺐ ﻋﲈ ﻳﺄﰐ:
ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ .52 .aﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ؟
ﺍﳌﺮﺋﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗـﻢ ﻭﺻﻔﻬﺎ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺴـﺄﻟﺔ ،51ﺗﺴـﺘﻤﺮ ﺫﺭﺓ .bﰲ ﺃﻱ ﺟﺰﺀ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﻳﻘﻊ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ؟
ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒـﻖ ﰲ ﺑﻌـﺚ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﺣﺘـﻰ ﺗﺼـﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺎﻟـﺔ ﻳﻨﺒﻌـﺚ ﻟﻴـﺰﺭ ﺛـﺎﲏ ﺃﻛﺴـﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑـﻮﻥ ﺑﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺃﺷـﻌﺔ .47
ﺍﻻﺳـﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ .ﻣﻦ ﺧـﻼﻝ ﺍﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ 2-21ﺣﺪﺩ ﲢﺖ ﲪـﺮﺍﺀ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻪ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ .ﻣـﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
ﻣـﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﺮﺋﻴﺔ ﺃﻡ ﻻ .ﻓﴪ ﺫﻟﻚ. ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ eVﺑﲔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭﻳﺔ؟ ﺍﺭﺟﻊ ﺇﱃ
ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ .2-1
HeNe ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﺻﻨـﻊ ﺍﻟﻠﻴـﺰﺭﺍﺕ HeNe .48
ﺍﻛﺘـﺐ ﺑﺤ ﹰﺜﺎ ﻋـﻦ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺗﻄـﻮﺭ ﻧﲈﺫﺝ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ .ﻭﺍﺻ ﹰﻔﺎ .53 ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﺑﻮﺻﻔﻬﺎ ﻣﺆﴍﺍﺕ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﺍﳌﺤﺎﴐﻭﻥ،
ﻛﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﺼﺎﺭ ،ﻭﳏﺪ ﹰﺩﺍ ﺃﻭﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻀﻌﻒ ﻟﻴـﺰﺭﺍ ﻋﻨـﺪ ﺍﻷﻃـﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛـﺔ:
ﺑﺤﻴـﺚ ﺗﻨﺘـﺞ ﹰ
ﻟﻜﻞ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ. .632.8 nm، 543.4 nm ،1152.3 nm
ﻳﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﺆﴍ ﻟﻴﺰﺭ ﺃﺧﴬ ﺿﻮ ﹰﺀﺍ ﻃﻮﻟﻪ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ 532 nm .54 .aﺃﻭﺟﺪ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺑﲔ ﻛﻞ ﻭﺿﻌﲔ ﻣﺘﻀﻤﻨﲔ ﰲ
ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺑﺤ ﹰﺜﺎ ﰲ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺰﻣﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ.
ﺍﳌﺆﴍﺍﺕ ،ﻭﺻﻒ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻪ .ﻭﺣﺪﹼ ﺩ ﻣﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺰﺭ .bﺣﺪﺩ ﻟﻮﻥ ﻛﻞ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﻲ.
ﻋﲆ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻧﺒﻀﺎﺕ ﺃﻡ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ.
ﻳﺪﺧـﻞ ﻓﻮﺗـﻮﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺘـﻪ 14.0 eVﺫﺭﺓ ﻫﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﰲ .49
ﺟﻬـﺪ ﺍﻹﻳﻘﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻡ ﻻﺳـﺘﻌﺎﺩﺓ ﲨﻴﻊ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ .55 ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺳـﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﻓﻴﺆﻳﻨﻬـﺎ .ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ
ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜـﺔ ﻣـﻦ ﻓﻠـﺰ ،7.5 Vﻣﺎ ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ؟
ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻮ ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﳉﻮﻝ؟
60
ﳊـﻞ ﺍﳌﺴـﺄﻟﺘﲔ 5ﻭ 6ﺍﺭﺟـﻊ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺮﺳـﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺿﻴﺤـﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺒﲔ أﺳﺌﻠﺔ اﺧﺘﻴﺎر ﻣﻦ ﻣﺘﻌﺪد
ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﳌﺮ ﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ.
اﺧﺘﺮ رﻣﺰ اﺟﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﻴﺤﺔ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ:
-0.38 eV
-0.54 eV
E6
E5 ﺃﻱ ﻧـﲈﺫﺝ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﻵﺗﻴـﺔ ﺗﻌﺘﻤـﺪ ﻋﲆ ﲡﺮﺑـﺔ ﺻﻔﻴﺤﺔ .1
-0.85 eV E4
ﺍﻟﺬﻫﺐ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﻟﺮﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ؟
-1.51 eV E3 Bﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ Aﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻮﺭ
Dﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻲ Cﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺗﻮﻣﺴﻮﻥ
ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺯﺋﺒﻖ ﺿﻮ ﹰﺀﺍ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺘﻪ ،405 nmﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ .2
-3.40 eV E2
ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺑﲔ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮﻳﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ؟
3.06 eV C 0.22 eV A
)E6 = (-2.68
)E5 = (-3.71
6.15 × 1014 Hz C 2.55 × 1014 Hz A
)E4 = (-4.95
1.08 × 1015 Hz D 4.32 × 1014 Hz B )E3 = (-5.52
)E2 = (-5.74
اﺳﺌﻠﺔ اﻟﻤﻤﺘﺪة
.7ﺣﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻄـﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﻀﻮﺀ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌـﺚ ،ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺇﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ
ﺇﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴـﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ n = 5
)E1 = (-10.38
ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ n = 2؟
400 nm C 167 nm A
502 nm D 251 nm B
ﺃﻱ ﺍﳉﻤﻞ ﺍﻵﺗﻴﺔ ﻳﻌﺪﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ﻏﲑ ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺔ؟ .4
ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﹰﺎ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﺳـﺆﺍﻻﹰ ﻟﻴـﺲ ﻟﺪﻳﻚ ﻓﻜﺮﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺇﺟﺎﺑﺘﻪ، Aﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﲠﺎ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﻜﲈﺓ.
ﻭﺣﺘـﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻘﺮﺃ ﺍﻟﺴـﺆﺍﻝ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﺮﺍﺕ ﻗـﺪ ﻻ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ Bﻣﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻣﻌﺮﻭﻓﺔ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ.
ﻋﻨـﺪﻙ ﻓﻜﺮﺓ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ .ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺴـﺆﺍﻝ ﻣﻦ Cﲢـﺪﺩ ﺳـﺤﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﳛﺘﻤﻞ ﺃﻥ
ﻧـﻮﻉ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻴـﺎﺭ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩ ،ﻓﺮﻛﱢﺰ ﻋﲆ ﺟﺰﺀ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴـﺆﺍﻝ ﺗﻮﺍﺟﺪ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ.
ﹺ
ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺜﻦ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻋﺪﺩ ﳑﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳋﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ، ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﺷﻴ ﹰﺌﺎ ﻋﻨﻪ،
Dﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﺮﺓ ﻣﻊ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ
ﻭﺍﺧﱰ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﳋﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﺒﻘﻴﺔ ،ﻭﺍﻧﺘﻘﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﺁﺧﺮ.
ﺩﻱ ﺑﺮﻭﱄ.
61
ﺑﻌﺪ دراﺳــﺘﻚ ﻟﻬﺬا اﻟﻔﺼﻞ
ﺳﺘﻜﻮن ﻗﺎد ًرا ﻋﻠﻰ
ﻣﻜﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻭﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ• ﻭﺻﻒ ﹼ
ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤـﻼﻝ ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﰲ ﻫـﺬﻩ
ﺍﳌﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ.
ﹼ
• ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ
ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ.
• ﺩﺭﺍﺳـﺔ ﻛﻴﻔﻴـﺔ ﺇﻧﺘـﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﳌﺸـﻌﺔ
ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ.
• ﻓﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﱰﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﺎﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﲈﺩﺓ.
اﻫﻤﻴﺔ
ﻟﻠﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ،
ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻷﺑﺤﺎﺙ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﺔ ،ﻭﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ،
ﻭﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ.
ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﳌﺸـﻌﺔ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ
ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﻟﻠﺪﻣﺎﻍ ،ﻭﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ
ﻟﻠﺘﺸﺨﻴﺺ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻲ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ.
ﱢ
ﻓﻜﺮ ◀
ﻛﻴـﻒ ﺗﺴـﺎﻋﺪ ﺍﻷﺷـﻌ ﹸﺔ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜـﺔ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋـﺮ
ﺍﳌﺸـﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠـﲈ ﹶﺀ ﻭﺍﻷﻃﺒـﺎﺀ ﻋﲆ ﺗﺘﺒـﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ
ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﲡﺮﻱ ﰲ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ؟
62
The Nucleus 3-1اﻟﻨﻮاة
ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ،ﻭﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ.
• ﻋﺪﺩ
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻮﺍﺓ.
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ
ﻓﻴﻢ ﺗﺘﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﲠﺎ ﴍﻳﻂ ﺫﻭ
•
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
•
ﻭﺟﻬﲔ ﻻﺻﻘﲔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ؟
ﰲ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﰲ ﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ.
A
ﻏ ﹼﻠـﻒ ﺍﳌﺤﻴـﻂ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟـﻲ ﻟــ) (6-3ﺃﻗـﺮﺍﺹ
A B
B CC D
D EE FF G
G H
H II JJ K M N
K LL M N
.1
ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ،ﺑﺎﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﴩﻳـﻂ ﺍﻟﻼﺻـﻖ ﺫﻱ
ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻳﺪﺓ )ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﲑ( ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﺍﻟﻮﺟﻬـﲔ ،ﺛـﻢ ﻛﺮﺭ ﺍﻟﴚﺀ ﻧﻔﺴـﻪ ﻟــ) (6-3ﺃﻗﺮﺍﺹ
ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳋﺸـﺐ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻷﻟﻮﻣﻨﻴـﻮﻡ ﳑﺎﺛﻠﺔ ﳍﺎ ﰲ ﺍﳊﺠﻢ .ﲤﺜﻞ
ﻧﻘﺺ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﻐﺎﻧـﻂ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ،ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﲤﺜﻞ ﺍﻷﻗـﺮﺍﺹ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ
ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ.
ﱂ ﻳﺜﺒـﺖ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺇﺭﻧﺴـﺖ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﺑﻞ ﺭﺗﹼﺐ ﺍﳌﻐﺎﻧﻂ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﻗﻄﺎﲠﺎ ﺍﻟﺸﲈﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ. .2
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﳌﺒﻜﺮﺓ ﲠﺪﻑ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻬﺎ. ﺃﺟﺮ ﹰ ﺻـﻒ ﺍﻟﻘـﻮﺓ ﺍﳌﺆﺛـﺮﺓ ﰲ ﺑﺮﻭﺗـﻮﻥ ﰲ ﺃﺛﻨـﺎﺀ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﻪ ﺇﱃ .3
ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﳘﻴﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺪﺭﻙ ﺃﻥ ﲡﺎﺭﺏ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻳﺘﻼﻣﺴﺎ.
ﺃﺟﺮﺍﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﺑﻌﺪﻩ ﱂ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﺮﺍﻗﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﺒﺎﴍﺓﹰ؛ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺻـﻒ ﺍﻟﻘـﻮﺓ ﺍﳌﺆﺛـﺮﺓ ﰲ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﰲ ﺃﺛﻨـﺎﺀ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﻪ ﺇﱃ .4
ﺍﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻫﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻮﺻﻞ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻳﺘﻼﻣﺴﺎ.
ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﻮﻥ .ﺗﺬﻛﹼﺮ ﺃﻥ ﻓﺮﻳﻖ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺃﺟﺮ ﺑﻌﻨﺎﻳﺔ ﻗﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ
ﻻﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺍﺻﻄﺪﻣﺖ ﺑﴩﳛﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﺐ.
ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﻧﺤﺮﺍﻓﺎﺕ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻔﺴﲑﻫﺎ ،ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﲥﺒـﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺮ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺒﺘﻌﺪ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﺍ
ﻓﺮﺍ ﹰﻏﺎ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﲢﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﲔ ﺃﺣﺪﳘﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﻣﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺗﺰﻳﺪ ﻋﲆ ﻧﺼﻔﻲ ﻗﻄﺮﳞﲈ.
ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺻﻐﲑ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ﺫﻱ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﻭﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﻭﺗﱰﻛﺰ
ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺪ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﴩﻳﻂ ﺍﻟﻼﺻﻖ؟
ﻓﻴﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ،ﻭﳏﺎﻁ ﺑﺈﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻬﻤﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ.
ﺍﻟﻘـﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳـﺔ ﻣﺘﺴـﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ
ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺑﻴﻜﺮﻝ ﻋﺎﻡ 1896ﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻁ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ .ﻫﻞ ﻳﺼﻒ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﻝ ﻣﺎ ﳛﺪﺙ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ؟
ﺗﻮﺟـﻪ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ
ﹼ
ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻞ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ. ﲢﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﺮﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﻟﺐ ﻋﲆ ﻋﺪﺩ
ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻳﺰﻳﺪ ﻋﲆ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ .ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﺴـﻠﻚ
ﻋﻨـﴫﺍ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﹰ ﺍ
ﹰ ﺛـﻢ ﺍﻛﺘﺸـﻒ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣـﺎﺭﻱ ﻭﺑﻴﲑ ﻛﻮﺭﻱ
ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﲢﺪﺙ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ؟
ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻓﺮﺍ ﻟﻠﺒﺎﺣﺜﲔ ﰲ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ
ﹰ ﻋﻨﴫﺍ
ﹰ )ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻳﻮﻡ( ،ﻭﺟﻌﻼ ﻣﻨﻪ
ﺃﻧﺤـﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻌـﺎﱂ؛ ﳑﺎ ﺃﺛﺮ ﺩﺭﺍﺳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺸـﺎﻁ ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻋﻲ .ﺛﻢ
ﺍﻛﺘﺸـﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺸـﺎﻁ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ
ﲢﻮﻳـﻞ ﻧـﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺇﱃ ﻧـﻮﻉ ﺁﺧـﺮ ،ﻭﻣﻦ ﺛـﻢ ،ﻓﺈﻥ
ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﺰﺍﺀ ﺃﺻﻐﺮ .ﺛﻢ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﻻ ﺑﺪ ﺃﳖﺎ ﹼ
ﻛﻞ ﻣـﻦ ﺇﺭﻧﺴـﺖ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ،ﻭﻓﺮﻳﺪﺭﻙ ﺳـﻮﺩﻱ ﺍﻟﻨﺸـﺎﻁ
ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ )ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ(.
63
Description of the NucIeus وﺻﻒ اﻟﻨﻮاة
ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﲆ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ،
ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﻣﺸـﺤﻮﻧﺔ ﺑﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﻓﻘﻂ؟ ﺗﻢ ﹼ ﻫﻞ ﹼ
ﻭﺣﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺷـﺤﻨﺘﻬﺎ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﲡﺎﺭﺏ ﺗﺸﺘﹼﺖ ﺍﻷﺷـﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻨﻴﺔ .ﻭﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ
ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ،ﻭﺃﳖﺎ ﻣﺴـﺆﻭﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ .ﻭﺍﻓﱰﺿﺖ
ﺇﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﺴﺆﻭﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳉﺰﺀ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻗﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻭﻓﴪﺕ ﻫﺬﻩ
ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺿﻴﺔ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺎ ﻭﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻢ
ﻓـﺈﻥ ﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻮﺍﺟﺪ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ .ﻭﰲ ﻋﺎﻡ 1932ﹼ
ﺣـﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺍﻻﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻱ
ﺟﻴﻤﺲ ﺷـﺎﺩﻭﻳﻚ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﺸـﻜﻠﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺍﻛﺘﺸـﻒ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﻣﺘﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺗﺴـﺎﻭﻱ ﻛﺘﻠﺘﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ
ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗـﻮﻥ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ .ﻭ ﹸﻋﺮﻑ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ،ﻭﻫﻮ ﺍﳌﺴـﺆﻭﻝ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ
ﺍﳌﻔﻘﻮﺩﺓ ﻟﻠﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺷﺤﻨﺘﻬﺎ
ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻫﻮ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﻴﺪ ﺍﳌﺸﺤﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ .ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ Z
ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ﻫﻮ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ .ﻟﺬﺍ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺷـﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﴬﻭ ﹰﺑﺎ
ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ )ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻋﺪﺩ ﹼﹰﻳﺎ(.
= Z×eﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ
ﻭﻟﻜــﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺗﺰﻳﺪ ﺣـﻮﺍﱄ 1800ﻣﺮﺓ ﻋﲆ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ؛ ﻭﻛﺘﻠﺔ
ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺃﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ 1u؛ ﺣﻴﺚ uﻭﺣـﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠـﺔ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﻳـﺔ ،ﻭﺗﻌﺎﺩﻝ
،1.66 × 10-27 kgﻭﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺮﻳﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻮﺍﺓ؛ ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﴐﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ A
)ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ( ﰲ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ .u
ª A×uﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ
ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳـﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﳊﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ؛ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻭﺟﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﻨﻮﺍﺓ
ﻗﻄـﺮﺍ ﻳﺴـﺎﻭﻱ 10-14 mﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ .ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﻠـﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺃﻛﱪ 10,000ﻣﺮﺓ
ﹰ
ﻣﻦ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ.
ﺣﻴﺰﺍ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓﻭﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﲢﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﲆ ﻛﻞ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺗﺸﻐﻞ ﹰ
ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳊﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﺸﻐﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺲ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﴘ .ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻣﺮﻛﹼﺰﺓ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻏﲑ ﹸﻣﺘﺨ ﱠﻴﻠﺔ؛
ﻓﻜﺜﺎﻓﺘﻬﺎ 1.4 × 1018 kg/m3ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ .ﻓﺈﺫﺍ ﺍﻓﱰﺿﻨﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺳﻨﺘﻴﻤﱰ ﻣﻜﻌﺐ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ
ﻓﺴﻮﻑ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻃﻦ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ.
ﻫﻞ ﻟﺠﻤﻴﻊ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﻌﺪد اﻟﻜﺘﻠﻲ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ؟
?Do all elements have the same mass numbers
ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭﻱ -ﻻﺣﻆ ﺍﳌﻠﺤﻖ ﺹ -128ﺳﺘﻼﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ
ﳍـﺎ ﻋـﺪﺩ ﻛﺘﲇ Aﻗﺮﻳﺐ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ ،ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺮﻏـﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺭﻭﻥ ،10.8 uﻓﻠﻮ
ﻛﺎﻧـﺖ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ 1 uﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ،
ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺎ ،ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ.ﹰ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻷﻱ ﺫﺭﺓ ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﺪ ﹰﺩﺍ
ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺎ ،ﺗﻢ ﺣﻠﻪ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ
ﹰ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺰ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﰲ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻻ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻋﺪ ﹰﺩﺍ
ﻣﻄﻴـﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ .ﻟﻘﺪ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﺖ ﻛﻴﻒ ﹸﻳﻈﻬـﺮ ﻣﻄﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ
64
ﻼ ﱂ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺑﻘﻌﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﺑﻞ ﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ ﹰ
ﻛﺘﻼ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ .ﻓﻔﻲ ﲢﻠﻴﻞ ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻧﻘﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻥ ﻣﺜ ﹰ
ﺑﻘﻌﺘـﺎﻥ ﻋﲆ ﺷﺎﺷـﺔ ﻣﻄﻴـﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ .ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻘﻌﺘﺎﻥ ﻧﺎﲡﺘـﺎﻥ ﻋﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﳐﺘﻠﻔـﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ .ﻭﻗﺪ
ﻭﺟﺪﺕ ﺫﺭﺓ ﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ ﳍﺎ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ،20 uﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ .22 uﺇﻥ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ
ﲢﺘـﻮﻱ ﻋﲆ ﻋـﴩﺓ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻭﻋـﴩﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ،ﻟﻜـﻦ ﻭﺟﺪ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺑﻴﻨﲈ
ﲢﺘﻮﻱ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻋﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻥ ﻋﲆ 10ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ ﻧﻮﺍﲥﺎ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻋﺎ ﺃﺧﺮ ﲢﺘﻮﻱ ﻧﻮﺍﲥﺎ
ﻋﲆ 12ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﹰﺎ .ﻫﺬﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﻳﺴﻤﻴﺎﻥ ﻧﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻥ .ﻭﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻳﺪﺓ.
ﻭﲨﻴﻊ ﻧﻮﻳﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﳍﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﳍﺎ ﺃﻋﺪﺍ ﹰﺩﺍ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ،
ﻋﻠﲈ ﺑﺄﻥ ﲨﻴﻊ ﻧﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﻛﲈ ﰲ ﻧﻮﻳﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﻭﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ ﺍﳌﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ،3-1ﹰ
ﺍﳌﺘﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﳍﺎ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻭﳍﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻲ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ.
ba
1p 1p 1p
0n 1n 2n
b
2p 2p
1n 2n
2p 2p
1n 2n
ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳌﻘﻴﺴـﺔ ﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻥ ﻫـﻲ ،20.183 uﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﻤﺘﻮﺳـﻂ
ﻛﺘﻠـﺔ ﻧﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻃﺒﻴﻌ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ .ﻭﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﻔﺮﺩﺓ ﻟﻠﻨﻴﻮﻥ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻟﻌـﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﺤﺴـﻮﺑﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺘﻮﺳـﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﻟﻠﻨﻴﻮﻥ
ﻟﻴﺴـﺖ ﻛﺬﻟـﻚ .ﻭﳌﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﺃﺷـﻜﺎﻝ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﺗﻨﺘـﺞ ﻃﺒﻴﻌ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ
ﻗﻴـﺎﺱ ﻛﺘـﻞ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺑﺎﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺟﻬـﺎﺯ ﻣﻄﻴـﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ،ﻭﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺃﺣـﺪ ﻧﻈﺎﺋﺮ
ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑـﻮﻥ ﻛﺮﺑـﻮﻥ ،12-ﺑﻮﺻﻔﻬﺎ ﻭﺣـﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳـﺔ؛ ﻓﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪﺓ u
__ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ 12- ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ
1
12
ﻭﻟﻮﺻﻒ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﲑ ،ﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ Zﺍﳌﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﻋﻦ ﻳﺴـﺎﺭ ﺭﻣﺰ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ،ﻟﻴﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ
ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ،ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﻳﻜﺘﺐ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ Aﻋﻦ ﻳﺴـﺎﺭ ﺭﻣﺰ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﻟﻴﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ،
ﺑﺤﻴـﺚ ﻳﺄﺧـﺬ ﻫـﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﱰﻣﻴـﺰ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ AZX؛ ﺣﻴـﺚ Xﺭﻣـﺰ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ .ﻓﻴﻜﺘـﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑـﻮﻥ 12-
ﻣﺜ ﹰ
ﻼ ، 126Cﻭﻳﻜﺘﺐ ﻧﻈﲑﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﺬﺍﻥ ﻋﺪﺩﳘﺎ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ 10ﰲ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ 1020Neﻭ .1022Ne
ﺍﻷﻋـﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﻴـﺔ ﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﻫﻲ 234ﻭ 235ﻭ ،238ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ﻟﻠﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﻫﻮ ،92ﻣﺎ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ .1
ﻛﻞ ﻧﻈﲑ؟
؟ 200
80
.2ﻣﺎ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺰﺋﺒﻖ Hg
ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺭﻣﻮﺯ ﻧﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﲢﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﲆ ﺻﻔﺮ ،ﻭﻭﺍﺣﺪ ،ﻭﺍﺛﻨﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ. .3
65
ﻣﻌﺎ؟
ﻣﺎ اﻟﺬي ﻳﺤﺎﻓﻆ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﻨﻮاة ً
?What holds the nucleus together
ﺗﺮﺗﺒـﻂ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﳌﺤﻴﻄﺔ ﺑﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ﻧﺘﻴﺠـﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻗﻮﺓ
ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺫﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ .ﻭﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﻭﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ
ﻣﺘﻌﺎﺩﻟـﺔ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ،ﻓﻘـﺪ ﻳﻜـﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻗـﻊ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴـﺒﺐ ﻗـﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓـﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ﺑﲔ
ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﺒﺎﻋﺪ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ .ﻭﻷﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻻ ﳛﺪﺙ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻗﻮﺓ ﲡﺎﺫﺏ ﻣﺘﺒﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻭﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﳚﺐ
ﺃﻥ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ.
The Strong Nuclear Force اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ
ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ )ﺍﻟﺸﺪﻳﺪﺓ( ،ﻭﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ
ﺍﳌﻮﺟـﻮﺩﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺮﻳﺒﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺑﻌﺾ .ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺗﺰﻳﺪ ﻋﻦ 100ﻣﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻮﺓ
ﺍﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ .ﺇﻥ ﻣﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﻗﺼﲑ ،ﻭﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻓﻘﻂ،
ﺃﻱ 1.4 × 10-15 mﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ .ﻭﻫﻲ ﻗﻮﺓ ﲡﺎﺫﺏ ،ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺑﲔ
ﻭﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ.
ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ،ﹰ
ﺗﺴـﻤﻰ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﻭﲢﺎﻓﻆ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﲆ
ﺑﻘـﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ .ﻭﻹﺧـﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻜﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﳚﺐ ﺑﺬﻝ ﺷـﻐﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﻐﻠﺐ
ﻋﲆ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺫﺏ ،ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺸـﻐﻞ ﻳﻀﺎﻑ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ .ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ
ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ .ﻭﻳﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
ﻃﺎﻗـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻔﺮﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﹼ
ﻟﻠﻨـﻮﺍﺓ ﺇﱃ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﺭﺑﻂ ﻧﻮﻭﻳﺔ .ﻭﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻴﺔ ﳍﺎ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻗﻞ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﻃﺎﻗـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﲨﻴﻌﻬﺎ 4.2×1042
ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺳﺎﻟﺒﺔ.
Binding Energy of the Nucleus ﻃﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﺮﺑﻂ اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ
ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠـﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺘﺎﻥ .ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﲑ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺑـﲔ ﺃﻳﻨﺸـﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﺃﻥ ﹼﹰ
ﹼ
ﻋﲆ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
ﺣﻴﺚ ﺇﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﻛﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﲢﻮﳞﺎ .ﻟﺬﺍ ﳚﺐ
ﺃﻥ ﺗﻀﺎﻑ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ.
ﻼ ﲢـﻮﻱ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴـﻮﻡ 24Heﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﲔ ﻭﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﲔ .ﻭﻛﺘﻠـﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ،1.007276 u ﻓﻤﺜـ ﹰ
ﻭﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ،1.008665 uﻓﺈﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﻛﺘﻞ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﲔ
ﻭﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﲔ ﻓﺴﻮﻑ ﺗﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺃﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،4.031882 uﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﻴﻖ ﹸﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﺃﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ
ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴـﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻴـﺔ 4.002603 uﻓﻘﻂ .ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠـﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴـﻮﻡ ،ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻞ
ﺍﳌﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﳍﺎ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ ،0.029279 uﻭﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﲔ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﻛﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﹼ
ﺍﳌﻔﺮﺩﺓ ﺍﳌﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻴﺔ ﳍﺎ ﻧﻘﺺ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ.
66
ﺗﻘﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﻋﺎﺩ ﹰﺓ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﻭﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻔﻴﺪ ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﹰﺎ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ
ﻟـ (1.6605 × 10-27 kg) 1uﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﳉﻮﻝ.
E = mc2
= (1.6605 × 10-27 kg ) (2.9979 ×10 8 m/s)2
= 1.4924 × 10-10 kg. m2/s2
= 1.4924 × 10-10 J
ﻛﲈ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻭﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺃﺧﺮ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ.
)E = (1.4924 × 10-10 J)(l eV/1.60217 ×10-19 J
= 9.3149 ×10 8 eV
= 931.49 MeV
ﺃﻱ ﺃﻥ 1uﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺗﻜﺎﻓﺊ 931.49 MeVﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ.
ﻳﺒﲔ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 3-2ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﻋﲆ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﺇﻥ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ
ﻏﺎﻟ ﹰﺒـﺎ ﺑﻘـﻮﺓ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﳋﻔﻴﻔﺔ ،ﻭﺗﺼﻞ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻗﴡ ﺣﺪ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ
ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ،56ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺤﺪﻳﺪ .Feﻭﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺪ 5626 Feﻣﻦ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﻳﺔ
ﺍﺳـﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍ ،ﻛﻠﲈ ﺍﻗﱰﺏ ﻋﺪﺩﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ
ﹰ ﺗﺮﺍﺑ ﹰﻄـﺎ ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﺼﺒـﺢ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ
ﻟﻠﺤﺪﻳـﺪ .ﻭﺍﻷﻧﻮﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﻋﺪﺍﺩﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﻴﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌـﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﻟﻠﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﻗﻞ
ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍ.
ﹰ ﺗﺮﺍﺑ ﹰﻄﺎ ،ﻟﺬﺍ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﻗﻞ
ﲢﻮﻝﳛـﺪﺙ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﻭﻱ ﻃﺒﻴﻌ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ،ﺇﺫﺍ ﲢﺮﺭﺕ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋـﻞ ،ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﹼ
ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﻋﺪﺩﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺪ ﺇﱃ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺃﻗﺮﺏ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻧﻴﺎ
ﹰ
ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼ ﻧﻮﻭ ﹼﹰﻳﺎ ﻃﺒﻴﻌ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﳛﺪﺙ ﳍﺎ. ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺤﻨﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﲏ ﻋﻨﺪ ،A = 56ﻓﺈﻥ
ﻼ ﻳﺘﺤـﻮﻝ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟـﲔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻤﺲ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺠﻮﻡ ﺍﻷﺧـﺮ ﺇﱃ ﻫﻴﻠﻴـﻮﻡ ﻭﻛﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﻭﺑﻌﺾ ﻓﻤﺜـ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﺍﻷﺛﻘﻞ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ ﰲ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﲢﺮﺭ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ،ﻣﻮﻟﺪﺓ ﺇﺷﻌﺎ ﹰﻋﺎ ﻛﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ.
4
3
2
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
1
ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ =؟ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪﺓ= 1.007825 u
ﻧﻘﺺ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ =؟ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ = 1.008665 u
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﱰﻳﺘﻴﻮﻡ =؟ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﱰﻳﺘﻴﻮﻡ = 3.016049 u
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ 931.49 MeV =1 u
2
68
ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﳌﺒﻴﻨﺔ ﺃﺩﻧﺎﻩ ﳊﻞ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ،1.007825 uﻭﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ،1.008665 uﻭ 1u = 931.49 MeV
ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ،12.0000 uﺍﺣﺴﺐ: 12
6
.4ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥ C
ﰲ ﳎﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺑﺪﺃ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﻨﴫ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻳﻮﻡ ﺍﳌﺸـﻊ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﺐ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﴩﻳﻦ ﻋﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ
ﻣﻦ ﺍﻛﺘﺸـﺎﻓﻪ .ﻭﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻣﺖ ﻣﺴـﺎﺭﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗـﻮﻥ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﺔ ،ﺑﻌـﺪ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ
ﻣﻦ ﺍﺧﱰﺍﻋﻬﺎ .ﻭﺑﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﻌﺴـﻜﺮﻱ ﻟﻼﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ )ﺍﻧﻘﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﻳﺔ( ﻭﻣﺎ ﺯﺍﻝ ﲢﺖ
ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﻳـﺮ ،ﺣﺘﻰ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳـﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﺒﻌﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴـﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ
ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻋﴩ ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ.
3-1ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ
ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺗﲔ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺴﺄﻟﺔ 9ﳍﺎ ﻧﻘﺺ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ؟ .11 ﻻﺣـﻆ ﺃﺯﻭﺍﺝ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴـﺔ 136 C ، 126 C:ﻭ .8
ﰲ ﻋﺎﻡ 1896ﻡ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺑﻴﻜﺮﻝ ﺑﻤﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﲢﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﲆ ﻋﻨﴫ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﻓﻮﺟﺊ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻭﺟﺪ
ﺃﻥ ﻟـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﺟﺮﺍﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﻐﻄـﻲ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ،ﻭﲢﺠﺐ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﻋﻨﻪ ﺃﺻﺒﺢ
ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺃﻧﲈﻁ ﻟﻼﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ
ﺛﻼﺛﺔ
•
ﺿﺒﺎﺑ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ،ﻭﺩﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﺒﺎﰊ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻋﲆ ﺃﻥ ﻧﻮ ﹰﻋﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺷـﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﻗﺪ ﻧﻔﺬﺕ
ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ.
ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺤـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻐﻄﻴﻪ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﻭﺟﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺑﻌـﺾ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ ﻏﲑ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴـﻮﻡ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺗﻪ
• ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﻧﻮﻭﻳﺔ.
ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﲆ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﺷﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻓﺬﺓ .ﻭﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻄﻠﻖ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ
ﻛﻤﻴـﺔ ﺍﳌـﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﳌﺸـﻌﺔ
•
ﺗﺴﻤﻰ )ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﳌﺸﻌﺔ( .ﻭﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻗﻴﻞ ﺇﳖﺎ ﺗﻀﻤﺤﻞ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ
ﺍﳌﺘﺒﻘﻴـﺔ ،ﻭﻧﺸـﺎﻃﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﻌـﺪ ﻓﱰﺓ
ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍ ،ﺗﻠﻘﺎﺋ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ.
ﹰ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍ ،ﺇﱃ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ
ﹰ ﺗﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺃﻗﻞ
ﺯﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ.
Radioactive Decay اﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼل اﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ • ﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣـﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﻭﻱ
ﻭﺍﻻﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ.
ﰲ ﻋـﺎﻡ 1899ﻡ ،ﺍﻛﺘﺸـﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺭﺫﺭﻓﻮﺭﺩ ﻭﺭﻓﺎﻗﻪ ﺃﻥ ﻋﻨﴫ ﺍﻟـﺮﺍﺩﻭﻥ ﻳﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺗﻠﻘﺎﺋ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ
• ﻋﻤﻞ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ.
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﺃﺧﻒ ﻭﺇﱃ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﻫﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ ﺧﻔﻴﻔﺔ .ﻭﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻧﻔﺴـﻪ ﺍﻛﺘﺸـﻒ ﹰ
ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ،ﹸﻓﺼﻞ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻋﺘﲈ ﹰﺩﺍ ﻋﲆ ﻗﺪﺭﲥﺎ ﻋﲆ ﺍﺧﱰﺍﻕ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﻃﻠﻖ
ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﺳـﻢ ﺇﺷـﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ) αﺃﻟﻔﺎ( ،ﻭ ) βﺑﻴﺘﺎ( ﻭ ) γﺟﺎﻣﺎ( .ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺇﻳﻘﺎﻑ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﳌﺸﻌﺔ
ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﺻﻄﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﺼﻔﻴﺤﺔ ﺭﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺭﻕ ،ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﻳﻠﺰﻡ ﺳﻤﻚ 6 mmﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻟﻮﻣﻨﻴﻮﻡ ﻹﻳﻘﺎﻑ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ
ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ،ﻭﻳﻠﺰﻡ ﺳﻤﻚ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺳﻨﺘﻤﱰﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺻﺎﺹ ﻹﻳﻘﺎﻑ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ. ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ
ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ
ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﻫﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ ،42 Heﻭﻳﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﲆ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ
ﻋﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻒ
ﻣﻦ ﺃﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺸﻌﺔ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ .ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ 42Heﻫﻮ ،4ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ﻟﻪ ،2
ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻃﻴﺔ
ﻓﻌﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻄﻠﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻋﺪﺩﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ Aﻳﻨﻘﺺ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ ،4ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﻳﻨﻘﺺ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ Z
ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ
238
ﻳﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ U
ﻓﻴﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﺇﱃ ﻋﻨﴫ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ .ﻭﻋﲆ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﻝ ﹼ ﹼ ﳍﺎ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ ،2
92
ﺍﻻﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ
234ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ. ﺇﱃ ﺛﻮﺭﻳﻮﻡ Th
90
ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﳌﺘﺴﻠﺴﻞ
ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋـﻦ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﻨﺒﻌـﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ .ﻻ ﲢﺘـﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ
ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ،ﻓﻤﻦ ﺃﻳﻦ ﺗﺄﰐ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ؟ ﳛﺪﺙ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ
ﺇﱃ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ .ﰲ ﲨﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﳏﻔﻮﻇﺔ ،ﻟﺬﺍ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ
ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ؛ ﻓﻌﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﲢﺪﺙ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﻳﺘﺤﻮﻝ
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ .ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﺗﻨﺘﻬﻲ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﲥﺎ N ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺇﱃ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﹰ
ﻭﻋﺪﺩ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﲥﺎ Zﻣﺘﺤﻮﻟﺔ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﲥﺎ ،N–1ﻭﻋﺪﺩ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﲥﺎ ،Z+1
ﻣﻊ ﻇﻬﻮﺭ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺁﺧﺮ ﻳﺪﻋﻰ ﺃﻧﺘﻲ )ﺿﺪﻳﺪ( ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﻮ 00vﻣﺮﺍﻓ ﹰﻘﺎ ﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ.
ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ .ﻭﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ
ﻋﻦ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ .ﻭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻻ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ﻟﻠﻨﻮﺍﺓ
ﺍﳌﻀﻤﺤﻠﺔ .ﻭﻳﺮﺍﻓﻖ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﺃﻭ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻠﺨﻴﺺ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ
ﺍﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﻟﻺﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﰲ ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ .3-1
ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺮﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﻳﺔ.
ﲤﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﺍﳌﺸﻌﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼﻻﺕ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﹼ
ﻼ ﳜﻀﻊ ﺇﱃ 14ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎ ﹰﺛﺎ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺮﺻﺎﺹ 82 Pbﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﺮ.
206
ﻓﺎﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ 23892 Uﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﻣﺜ ﹰ
70
3– 1
γ β α
4
He
2
71
2
ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻻﺕ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
222
86
، 226ﻳﺒﻌﺚ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ؛ ﻟﻴﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻭﻥ Rn
88
ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻳﻮﻡ ﺍﳌﺸﻊ Ra .a
209
83
ﻳﺒﻌﺚ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ،ﻭﺃﻧﺘﻲ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﻮ ﻟﻴﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺒﺰﻣﻮﺙ Bi .bﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺮﺻﺎﺹ ﺍﳌﺸﻊ ، 20982Pb
1
ﻫﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﳑﻜﻦ؟ 226
+ 222ﺟﺴﻴﻢ Ra→ α Rn .a
88 86
= 24Heﺟﺴﻴﻢ α
ﻫﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﳑﻜﻦ؟ 209
Pb→ 209 .bﺃﻧﺘﻲ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﻮ+ﺟﺴﻴﻢ Bi + β
82 83
2
226
88
Ra→ 42He+ 222
86
Rn α 42He .a
209
82
Pb→ 209
83
Bi+ -10e + 00 v vβ -01e .b
3
،4 + 222 = 226 .aﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﳏﻔﻮﻅ.
،0 + 0 + 209 = 209 .bﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﳏﻔﻮﻅ.
،88=2+86 .aﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﳏﻔﻮﻇﺔ.
،82=83-1+0 .bﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﳏﻔﻮﻇﺔ.
ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﺍﳌﺸﻊ 23492Uﺇﱃ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﻳﻮﻡ ، 23090Thﺑﺎﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ. .14
ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ،ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﻳﻮﻡ ﺍﳌﺸﻊ ، 23090Thﺇﱃ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻳﻮﻡ ﺍﳌﺸﻊ ، 22688Raﺑﺎﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ. .15
ﻳﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺮﺻﺎﺹ ﺍﳌﺸﻊ ، 21482Pbﺇﱃ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺒﺰﻣﻮﺙ ﺍﳌﺸﻊ ، 21483Biﺑﺎﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﻭﺃﻧﺘﻲ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﻮ .ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ. .16
ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﺃﻭ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ،ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ ﺍﻷﻳﴪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ ﺗﻀﻤﺤﻞ
ﺇﱃ ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ ﺃﺧـﺮ ،ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺸـﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﰲ
ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ،ﳛﺪﺙ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺼﻄﺪﻡ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﻣﻊ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ
ﹼ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ ﺍﻷﻳﻤﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ .ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺁﺧﺮ ﻋﲆ
ﻳﻨﺘـﺞ ﻋﻨﻪ ﻏﺎﻟ ﹰﺒﺎ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﺧﺮ ،ﻛﲈ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟـﺔ . 126 C+ 11H² 137Nﻭﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ
ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﻣﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ ،ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﰲ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸـﺔ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﺍﻻﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﻻﺣ ﹰﻘﺎ
ﰲ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ.
72
3
ﻋﻨﺪ ﻗﺬﻑ ﻏﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﱰﻭﺟﲔ ﺑﺠﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻳﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ .ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﺍﳉﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ؟
1
ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻮﻟﺪ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ 4
ﻧﻴﱰﻭﺟﲔ = ، 147Nﺃﻟﻔﺎ = He
2
2
ﻼ 1600ﺳﻨﺔ .ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻛﻞ 1600ﺳﻨﺔ ﻳﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﻓﻌﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻒ ﻟﻨﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻳﻮﻡ 22688Raﻣﺜ ﹰ
3/4
1/2 ﻧﺼـﻒ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻄﺎﺓ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻳﻮﻡ 22688Raﺇﱃ ﻋﻨﴫ ﺁﺧﺮ ،ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻭﻥ ،ﻭﺑﻌﺪ 1600ﺳـﻨﺔ
1/4 ﺃﺧﺮ ﻳﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻳﻮﻡ ﺍﳌﺘﺒﻘﻴﺔ .ﺃﻱ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﺮﻭﺭ 3200ﺳﻨﺔ ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﺭﺑﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ
0
1 2 3 4 5 ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻴـﺔ .ﻭﰲ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺑـﻞ ،ﺗﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﻟﻮﻧﻴﻮﻡ 210 -ﺇﱃ ﺭﺑﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻴﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ
276ﻳﻮ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ.
73
ﻣـﻦ ﺧـﻼﻝ ﺃﻋـﲈﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﺼـﻒ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎﺋـﺮ ﺍﳌﺨﺘـﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﰲ 3-2
ﺍﳉـﺪﻭﻝ .3-2ﺇﺫﺍ ﻋﺮﻓـﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴـﺔ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﲈﺩﺓ ﺍﳌﺸـﻌﺔ
ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻴـﺔ ،ﻭﻋﻤـﺮ ﻧﺼﻔﻬﺎ ،ﻓﺈﻧﻚ ﺗﺴـﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺣﺴـﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ
ﺍﳌﺘﺒﻘﻴﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻌﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻋﲈﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻒ. β 12.3yr 3
H
)N= N0 (1/2 ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺒﻘﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﺍﳌﺸﻊ:
1
n
β 5730yr 14
C
6
ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻥ Nﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺒﻘﻴﺔ ﻭ N0ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻭ nﻋﺪﺩ β, γ 5.272yr 60
27
Co
10.6h
ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴـﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺒﻘﻴـﺔ ﺗﺴـﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴـﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﴬﻭﺑـﺔ ﰲ ﻧﺼﻒ β 212
82
Pb
0.7s
ﻣﺮﻓﻮﻋﺔ ﻷﺱ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻓﱰﺍﺕ ﻋﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﻧﻘﻀﺖ. α 194
84
Po
3-5
189F
189 F
- -
--
75
Nuclear Fission اﻻﻧﺸﻄﺎر اﻟﻨﻮوي
ﺃﻧﺘﺞ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﳌﲔ ﺃﻧﺮﻳﻜﻮ ﻓﲑﻣﻲ ،ﻭﺃﻣﻴﻠﻴﻮ ﺳﲑﺟﻲ ﰲ ﺍﻳﻄﺎﻟﻴﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ 1934ﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ
ﺍﳌﺸﻌﺔ ﺍﳉﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺑﻘﺬﻑ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ؛ ﳑﺎ ﻳﺴ ﹼﺒﺐ ﺍﻧﻘﺴﺎﻣﻬﺎ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻮﺍﺗﲔ ﺃﺻﻐﺮ ،ﻭﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ
ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ،ﻭﻳﺴـﻤﻰ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﺴـﺎﻡ ﻟﻠﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻮﺍﺗﲔ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺍﻻﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﺩﺭﻙ
ﻳﻜﻮﻥ
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﹼﻣﺼﺪﺭﺍ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﹰ
ﹰ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﲑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﺇﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺃﻻ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻻﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ
ﺃﺳﻠﺤﺔ ﻣﺘﻔﺠﺮﺓ.
ﳛـﺪﺙ ﺍﻻﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﻭﻱ ﻟﻠﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ،ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻨﺸـﻄﺮ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﻧﻈـﲑ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴـﻮﻡ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻮﺍﰐ ﻋﻨﴫﻱ
ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﻳﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﺘﻮﻥ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻗﺬﻓﻬﺎ ﺑﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﻄﻲﺀ .ﻭﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ:
1
0
n+ 235
92
U² 36
92
Kr+ 141
56
Ba+3 10n+200 MeV
ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺇﳚﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ ﺑﺤﺴﺎﺏ ﻛﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻃﺮﰲ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ.
ﻓﻔـﻲ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴـﻮﻡ ،235 -ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴـﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ ﺍﻷﻳﻤـﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺃﻗﻞ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ
0.215 uﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄـﺮﻑ ﺍﻷﻳﴪ .ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﳌﻜﺎﻓﺌـﺔ ﳍـﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠـﺔ ﻫـﻲ × 3.21
،10-11 Jﺃﻭ ،2.00 × 102 MeVﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻋﲆ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻻﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ.
ﺍﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭﺍ ﻧﻮﻭ ﹼﹰﻳﺎ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻻﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭ ﳛـﺮﺭ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ،
ﹰ ﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ ﹸﳛﺪﺙ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ
ﺍﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭﺍ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﹰ ﺍ ،ﻭﻫﻜﺬﺍ .ﻭﺗﺴـﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﺴـﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﰲ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ
ﹰ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻳﺴـﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺃﻥ ﹸﳛﺪﺙ
ﺍﻻﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﳌﺘﻜـﺮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴـﺒﺐ ﲢﺮﻳﺮ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﺍﻻﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ
ﺍﳌﺘﺴﻠﺴﻞ .ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .3-6
3-6
235U
1n
0 235U
92
235-
92 Kr
92 36
1n
0
1n 1n 141Ba 1n
0 92 Kr 0 56 0
36
1n 235U
235U 235U 0 92
92 92 Kr
92 36
1n
0
1n
0 235U
92
141Ba 1n
1n 56 0
0
1n
0
76
Nuclear Reactors اﻟﻤﻔﺎﻋﻼت اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ
ﻹﺣـﺪﺍﺙ ﺗﻔﺎﻋـﻞ ﻣﺘﺴﻠﺴـﻞ ﻣﺴـﻴﻄﺮ ﻋﻠﻴـﻪ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡـﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻻﻏﺮﺍﺽ
I J K L M N ﺍﻟﺴـﻠﻤﻴﺔ ،ﲢﺘـﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎﻋـﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﺍﳌﻨﺸـﻄﺮ ﺑﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﻣﻨﺎﺳـﺐ؛ ﻓﻤﻌﻈﻢ
J K L M N 50
ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴـﻮﻡ 23592Uﺗﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺑﴪﻋﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ،
50 ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﴪﻳﻌﺔ .ﻭﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ
ﻳﻮﺟـﺪ ﻃﺒﻴﻌ ﹼﹰﻴـﺎ ﳛﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﲆ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ 1%ﻣﻦ ﻧﻈـﲑ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ 23592Uﻭﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ 99%ﻣﻦ ﻧﻈﲑ
ﻧﻈﲑﺍ
ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ، 92Uﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﲤﺘﺺ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ 92Uﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﹰﺎ ﴎﻳ ﹰﻌﺎ ﻓﺈﳖﺎ ﻻﺗﻨﺸﻄﺮ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﹰ
238 238
50 .1 ﺟﺪﻳﺪﹰ ﺍ ، 23992Uﺇﻥ ﺍﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ 23892Uﻳﻤﻨﻊ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﱃ
.2 235
92
235ﺍﻻﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭﻳﺔ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭ U 92
ﺫﺭﺍﺕ U
ﻏﲑ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﲆ ﺇﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﺍﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ ﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺮ ﻣﻦ . 92U
235
ﻟﻠﺴـﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻳﻔﺘﺖ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﺇﱃ ﻗﻄﻊ ﺻﻐـﲑﺓ ﺗﻮﺿﻊ ﰲ ﻣﻬﺪﺉ ،ﻭﻫﻲ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ
ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﻄـﺊ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﴪﻳﻌﺔ .ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺼﻄـﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺬﺭﺓ ﺧﻔﻴﻔـﺔ ،ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﻨﻘﻞ ﻋﺰﻣﻪ
ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺘـﻪ ﺇﱃ ﺗﻠـﻚ ﺍﻟـﺬﺭﺓ .ﻭﲠـﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻓـﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗـﺮﻭﻥ ﳜﴪ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ .ﻭﻫﻜﺬﺍ ﻓـﺈﻥ ﺍﳌﻬﺪﺉ
2 .3 ﻳﺒﻄـﺊ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﲑ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﴪﻳﻌﺔ ،ﺇﱃ ﴎﻋﺎﺕ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻋﻨﺪﻫﺎ ﺍﻣﺘﺼﺎﺻﻬﺎ ﺑﺴـﻬﻮﻟﺔ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ
ﺑﻮﺳـﺎﻃﺔ 23592Uﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻣﻊ . 23892Uﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻷﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻄﻴﺌﺔ ،ﺗﺰﻳﺪ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺪ
ﻼ ﺁﺧﺮ .ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻮﺍﻓﺮﺕ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻈﲑﻛﺒﲑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﺣﺘﲈﻝ ﺍﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ 23592Uﻭﻗﺪ ﳛﺪﺙ ﺗﻔﺎﻋ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ 23592Uﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻨﺔ ،ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﳛﺪﺙ ﺗﻔﺎﻋ ﹰ
ﻼ ﻣﺘﺴﻠﺴﻼﹰ .ﻭﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ
ﻋﻠﲈ ﺑﺄﻥ
ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻼﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﲣﺼﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ؛ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺈﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ . 92Uﹰ
235
3-8
Nuclear Fusion اﻻﻧﺪﻣﺎج اﻟﻨﻮوي
ﰲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴـﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣـﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﺗﻨﺪﻣﺞ ﺃﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﺧﻔﻴﻔـﺔ؛ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺃﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﺃﺛﻘـﻞ ﻭﺗﺘﺤﺮﺭ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ
ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻛﲈ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .3-9ﺩﺭﺳـﺖ ﺳﺎﺑ ﹰﻘﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻷﺛﻘﻞ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺭﺑﻄﻬﺎ
ﺃﻛـﱪ ،ﻭﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺘﻬﺎ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﻛﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﳍﺎ .ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺺ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ
ﳛﺪﺩ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ.
ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﲢﺪﺙ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻤﺲ ﻫﻲ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻋﲆ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ؛ ﻭﻣﻦ ﺃﻣﺜﻠﺘﻬﺎ
ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺳﻠﺴـﻠﺔ )) (Iﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ -ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ( ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻨﺪﻣﺞ ﺃﺭﺑﻊ ﺃﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﻫﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ )ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ(
ﺧـﻼﻝ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﺮﺍﺣـﻞ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ ﺫﺭﺓ ﻫﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﺣـﺪﺓ .ﺇﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺃﺭﺑﻌـﺔ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ
ﻛﺘﻠـﺔ ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ 4 -ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡـﺔ ،ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻜﺎﻓﺌـﺔ ﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻋﲆ ﺷـﻜﻞ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ
ﺣﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ .ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ،25 MeVﻭﺑﺎﳌﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ
ﻣـﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺤـﺮﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻲ ﳉﺰﻱﺀ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﺖ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺎﺩﻝ ،20 eV
ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ ،ﻧﺠﺪ ﺃﳖﺎ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻣﺮﺓ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ. 78
4 He
3-9 2H
1
2
2
1
ﺗﻨﺪﻣـﺞ ﻧـﻮﺍﰐ ﺫﺭﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟـﲔ 11Hﻹﻧﺘـﺎﺝ ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ ﻧﻈـﲑ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟـﲔ ) ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻮﺗﺮﻳـﻮﻡ ( H
1
1
H + 11H ² 21H + +10e + 00v
3
2
He ﺛـﻢ ﺗﻨﺪﻣـﺞ ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ ﺩﻳﻮﺗﺮﻳـﻮﻡ ﻣـﻊ ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ ﻫﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟـﲔ ﻹﻧﺘـﺎﺝ ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ ﻧﻈـﲑ ﺍﳍﻠﻴـﻮﻡ
1
1
H+ 21H² 23He+γ
ﻭﳛﺪﺙ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﻥ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺑﻘﺎﻥ ﻣﺮﺗﲔ ﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺟﺴﻴﻤﲔ 23Heﻳﻠﺰﻣﺎﻥ ﻹﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ:
3
2
He+ 32He² 24He+2 11H
3-2ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ
ﺍﺣﺴـﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺤـﺮﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ .28 ﻛﻴـﻒ ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻨﺒﻌـﺚ .24
ﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣﺎﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺲ: ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻧﺒﻌـﺎﺙ ﺑﻴﺘـﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﱂ ﲢﺘـﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ ﻋﲆ
1
1
H+ 11H² 21H+ +10e+ 00v ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ؟
ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺑﻮﺍﻋﺚ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﰲ ﻛﻮﺍﺷـﻒ .29 210
84
.25ﳜﻀﻊ ﻧﻈـﲑ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﻟﻮﻧﻴﻮﻡ Po
ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺧـﲔ .ﻓﻴﻮﺿـﻊ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﻋﲆ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺃﻟـﻮﺍﺡ ﺍﳌﻜﺜﻒ. ﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ .ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ.
ﻭﺗﺼﻄـﺪﻡ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔـﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻠـﻮﺡ ﺍﻵﺧـﺮ ،ﻭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺮﺻـﺎﺹ ﻭﺍﻗ ﹰﻴـﺎ ﻣـﻦ .26
ﻓﴪ ﻭﺗﻨﺒﺄ
ﻟﺬﻟـﻚ ﻳﺘﻮﻟﺪ ﻓﺮﻕ ﰲ ﺍﳉﻬﺪ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﺣﲔ .ﹼ ﺧﻴﺎﺭﺍ ﺟﻴﺪﹰ ﺍ ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻥ
ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻉ .ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻋﺘﺒـﺎﺭﻩ ﹰ
ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﺣﲔ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﻪ ﺟﻬﺪ ﻣﻮﺟﺐ ﺃﻛﱪ. ﻣﻬﺪﺋﹰﺎ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ؟
ﳛﺘﻮﻱ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻧﺪﻣﺎﺟﻲ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻋﲆ .27
ﻧـﻮﺍﰐ ﺩﻳﻮﺗﲑﻳﻮﻡ ، 21Hﻭﳛﺘﻮﻱ ﺟـﺰﻱﺀ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻮﺗﲑﻳﻮﻡ
ﻋـﲆ ﺫﺭﰐ ﺩﻳﻮﺗﲑﻳـﻮﻡ .ﳌـﺎﺫﺍ ﻻ ﻳﺘﻌـﺮﺽ ﺍﳉﺰﻳﺌـﺎﻥ
ﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣﺎﺝ؟
79 www.obeikaneducation.com
The Building Blocks of Matter 3-3وﺣﺪات ﺑﻨﺎء اﻟﻤﺎدة
ﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ ﺩﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﻭﺍﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺑﻮﺳـﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﴪﻋـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ،ﻛﺎﻥ
ﻋﻠﻴﻬﻢ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻣﺸـﻌﺔ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﳎﺮﺑﻮﻥ ﺁﺧﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﺷﻌﺔ
ﻋﻤـﻞ ﻣﺴـﺎﺭﻋﺎﺕ
•
ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻧﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﱂ ﺗﻔﻬﻢ ﺑﺼـﻮﺭﺓ ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﳌﺠﺮﺍﺕ .ﰲ
ﻭﻛــﻮﺍﺷـﻒ
ﻮﺍﺷـﻒ
ــﻮﺍﺷـﻒﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ،ﻭﻛــ
ﻭﻛــ
ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ 1930ﻡ ﹸﻃﻮﺭﺕ ﺃﻭﻝ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﳐﺘﱪﻳﺔ ﺍﺳـﺘﻄﺎﻋﺖ ﻣﺴﺎﺭﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﻭﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ
ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ.
ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻟﺘﻜﺴﺒﻬﺎ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻻﺧﱰﺍﻕ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﳍﺪﻑ .ﻭﰲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺍﳊﺎﴐ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺟﻬﺎﺯﺍﻥ
ﺍﻟﻨﻤـﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ
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ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﳘﺎ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﳋﻄﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻨﻜﺮﻭﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﺘﻈﻢ.
ﻟﻠﲈﺩﺓ ،ﻭﺗﻔﴪ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺣﺎﻣﻼﺕ
Linear Accelerators اﻟﻤﺴﺎرﻋﺎت اﻟﺨﻄﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ.
ﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﳋﻄـﻲ ﳌﺴـﺎﺭﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ،ﻭﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﺭﻉ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﳌﺠﻮﻓﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺣﺠـﺮﺓ ﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﳐﻠﺨﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﻐـﻂ .ﻭﺍﻷﻧﺎﺑﻴﺐ ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﺔ ﹼ ﺳﻠﺴـﻠﺔ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻷﻧﺎﺑﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ
ﺑﻤﺼـﺪﺭ ﺟﻬﺪ ﻣﺘﻨـﺎﻭﺏ ﻋﺎﱄ ﺍﻟﱰﺩﺩ ،ﻛـﲈ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .3-10ﺗﹸﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﰲ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ
ﺃﻳﻮﲏ ،ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻄﺒﻖ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺳﺎﻟﺐ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﺔ ﻟﻪ ﺗﺘﺴﺎﺭﻉ. ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ
ﻭﻧﺘﻴﺠـﺔ ﻟﻌﺪﻡ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﳎﺎﻝ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺏ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻪ ﺑﴪﻋﺔ ﺣﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ
ﺛﺎﺑﺘـﺔ .ﻭﻳﻌـﺪﻝ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺍﻷﻧﺒـﻮﺏ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﳉﻬـﺪ؛ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺼـﻞ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺇﱃ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺝ
ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﻴـﺪﺓ ﻟﻪ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ ﻳﺼﺒﺢ ﺳـﺎﻟ ﹰﺒﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴـﺒﺔ ﻟﻸﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ .ﻓﻴﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﻌﻴﻔﺔ
ﺍﳌﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻔﺠـﻮﺓ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻷﻧﺎﺑﻴﺐ ﻋﲆ ﻣﺴـﺎﺭﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﺇﱃ ﺩﺍﺧﻞﹼ ﺍﳌﺠـﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋـﻲ
ﺍﻷﻧﺒـﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ .ﺗﺴـﺘﻤﺮ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﺘﺴـﺎﺭﻉ ﺑـﲔ ﻛﻞ ﺯﻭﺝ ﻣﻦ
3-10
ﺍﻷﻧﺎﺑﻴﺐ .ﺗﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ 105 eVﺑﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﻛﻞ ﺗﺴـﺎﺭﻉ .ﻭﰲ ﳖﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﺭﻉ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ
3.3km
ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻗﺪ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺒﺖ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﻼﻳﲔ ﺃﻭ ﺑﻼﻳﲔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ.
ﻭﻫﻨـﺎﻙ ﻃﺮﺍﺋـﻖ ﺃﺧﺮ ﳑﺎﺛﻠﺔ ﺗﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﳌﺴـﺎﺭﻋﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ .ﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﻫـﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ a 20 GeV
ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭﻋﺎﺕ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﲆ ﺗﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺸﺤﻮﻧﺔ ﻓﻘﻂ.
b
a b
80
a
The Synchrotron اﻟﺴﻨﻜﺮوﺗﺮون
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺼﻨﻊ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﺻﻐﺮ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﳌﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ؛ ﳉﻌﻞ ﻣﺴﺎﺭ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ
ﺩﺍﺋﺮ ﹼﹰﻳﺎ .ﰲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻜﺮﻭﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺗﻔﺼﻞ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺍﻻﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﳌﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ ﺑﻤﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺗﺴﺎﺭﻉ ،ﻛﲈ ﰲ
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .3-11bﰲ ﺍﳌﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﻴﻤﺔ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﳉﻬﺪ ﺍﳌﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱄ ﺍﻟﱰﺩﺩ ﻳﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ،
ﺇﻥ ﺷـﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ ﻭﻃﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﺭ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭﳘﺎ؛ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﺗﺼﻞ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺇﱃ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ
ﺍﳌﺠـﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋـﻲ ﺍﳌﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺒﻂ ،ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﺠﺎﻝ ﻋﲆ ﺗﺴـﺎﺭﻋﻬﺎ .ﺇﻥ ﺇﺣﺪ
ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻟﺴـﻨﻜﺮﻭﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﺨﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﰲ ﳐﺘﱪ ﻣﺴـﺎﺭﻉ ﻓﲑﻣﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﻃﻨﻲ
ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺮﺏ ﻣﻦ ﺷـﻴﻜﺎﺟﻮ ﺍﳌﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ ،3-11aﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺼﻞ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺇﱃ
b . (1012 eV) 1 TeVﻳﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ،ﻭﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﰲ ﺍﲡﺎﻫﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﻌﺎﻛﺴﺔ
ﰲ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﻱ )ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﻟﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﻟﻜﻦ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﻛﺴﺔ(
ﻓﺘﺘﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﺍﻷﺷﻌﺔ ﰲ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ،ﻭﺗﺪﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ.
81
ﳛﺘﻮﻱ ﺃﻧﺒـﻮﺏ ﻋﺪﹼ ﺍﺩ ﺟﺎﳚـﺮ– ﻣﻮﻟﺮ ﺍﳌﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ 3-13
ﻋـﲆ ﺃﺳـﻄﻮﺍﻧﺔ ﻧﺤﺎﺳـﻴﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺷـﺤﻨﺔ ﺳـﺎﻟﺒﺔ .ﻳﻮﺿـﻊ ﰲ ﳏﻮﺭﻫﺎ ﻗﻄـﺐ ﻣﻌﺪﲏ
ﻣﻮﺟـﺐ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ،ﺑﺤﻴـﺚ ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﻓـﺮﻕ ﺍﳉﻬﺪ ﺍﳌﻄﺒﻖ ﻋـﲆ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺐ ﻭﺍﻷﺳـﻄﻮﺍﻧﺔ
ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﳛﺪﺙ ﻋﻨﺪﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺮﻳﻎ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻘﺎﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﺸـﺤﻨﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻮﻣﻀﺔ .ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ
ﻳﺪﺧﻞ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﻣﺸﺤﻮﻥ ﺃﻭ ﺃﺷـﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻷﻧﺒﻮﺏ ﻳﺆ ﱢﻳﻦ ﺫﺭﺓ ﻏﺎﺯ ﺑﲔ ﺃﺳﻄﻮﺍﻧﺔ
ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻄﺐ ،ﻓﻴﺘﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﻷﻳﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺐ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﰲ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺃﺳﻄﻮﺍﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ،
ﲢـﺖ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﳉﻬﺪ ،ﻭﻳﺘﺴـﺎﺭﻉ ﺇﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻘﻄـﺐ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺐ .ﻭﺣﺮﻛﺔ
82
0
-1 e Antimatter ﺿﺪﻳﺪ اﻟﻤﺎدة
ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ 1920ﻡ ﺗﻮﻗﻊ ﺑﺎﻭﱄ ﺩﻳﺮﺍﻙ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺑﻜﻞ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ.
ﻭﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﳌﻮﺟـﺐ ﺍﻟـﺬﻱ ﻳﺴـﻤﻰ ﺑﻮﺯﺗـﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﺜـﺎﻝ ﻋـﲆ ﺿﺪﻳـﺪ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﻢ ،ﻟﻺﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ
ﺇﺷﺎﺭﰐ ﺷﺤﻨﺘﻴﻬﲈ ﻣﺘﻌﺎﻛﺴﺘﺎﻥ .ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ
ﹶﹾ ﻭﻟﻠﺒﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﻭﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﺎﳘﺎ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ
ﻳﺼﻄـﺪﻡ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ،ﻭﺑﻮﺯﺗـﺮﻭﻥ ﻣ ﹰﻌﺎ ﻓﺈﻥ ﹼﹰ
ﻛﻼ ﻣﻨﻬﲈ ﹸﻳﻔﻨﻲ ﺍﻵﺧـﺮ ،ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﲆ
ﺷﻜﻞ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ .ﻛﲈ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .3-16
0
+ 1e
Particles اﻟﺠﺴﻴﻤﺎت
3-16
ﺇﻥ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﻒ ﻋﺎﻡ 1930ﻡ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺑﺴﻴ ﹰﻄﺎ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﻳﺔ؛ ﻓﺎﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ
ﻭﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﳏﺎﻃﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ .ﺛﻢ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻴﻘﺔ ﻟﻼﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ
ﻋﲆ ﺗﺸـﻮﻳﺶ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﺒﺴﻄﺔ .ﻓﺒﻴﻨﲈ ﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻭﺃﺷﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ
ﺍﳌﺸـﻌﺔ ﻃﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﺃﺣﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﳌﻀﻤﺤﻠﺔ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺑﻤﺪ ﻭﺍﺳﻊ
ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺎﺕ .ﻗﺪ ﻳﻈﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺃﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﲔ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻗﺒﻞ
ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤـﻼﻝ ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ .ﻭﺍﳊﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﺪ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺳـﻊ ﻟﻄﺎﻗﺎﺕ
ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﻧﺒﻬﺖ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﻧﻴﻠﺰ ﺑﻮﺭ ﺇﱃ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﺁﺧﺮ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ
3-17 ﺃﻥ ﻳﺸـﺎﺭﻙ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﻭﻱ ،ﻭﳛﻤﻞ ﺟﺰ ﹰﺀﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ .ﺗﻮﻗـﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﳌﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﻭﱄ ﻋﺎﻡ 1931ﻡ
2_ 1_ ﻭﻓﲑﻣﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ 1934ﻡ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﻣﺘﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﻏﲑ ﻣﺮﺋﻲ ﻳﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻊ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﺃﻃﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻓﲑﻣﻲ
3 3
ﺍﺳـﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨـﻮ ،ﻭﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﰲ ﺍﻹﻳﻄﺎﻟﻴﺔ "ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﺻﻐﲑ ﻣﺘﻌﺎﺩﻝ" .ﻭﻟﻜـﻦ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ
ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻷﻧﺘﻲ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﻮ ﻭﱂ ﻳﻼﺣﻆ ﻣﺒﺎﴍﺓ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ 1956ﻡ .ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﺃﺧﺮ
ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﺧﺮ ،ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﳌﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺒﺪﻭ ﻛﺈﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺛﻘﻴﻞ ،ﻭﻗﺪ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﻒ ﻋﺎﻡ 1937ﻡ.
ﻭﰲ ﻋﺎﻡ 1935ﻡ ﺍﻓﱰﺽ ﻳﻮﻛﺎﻭﺍ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﲪﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺍﻍ،
u
ﲤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻛﲈ ﳛﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ .ﻭﰲ ﻋﺎﻡ 1947ﻡ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﻒ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﳌﻔﱰﺽ
2e
3 u ﻭﻫﻮ ﺑﻴﻮﻥ .ﻭﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﺃﻧﻪ ﱂ ﻳﻜﻦ ﳛﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ ،ﻟﻜﻨﻪ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻧﻮ ﹰﻋﺎ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﹰ ﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ.
d
1
23 e ﻟﻘﺪ ﻧﺘﺞ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﻋﲆ ﻣﺴﺎﺭﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﳌﺰﻳﺪ ﻋﻦ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﺧﺮ
e
3 ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ،ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺫﻭ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﺘﻮﺳـﻄﺔ ﻭﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﺫﻭ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ .ﻭﲢﻤﻞ
ﺷﺤﻨﺎﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺳﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻻ ﲢﻤﻞ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ،ﻭﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﻟﻪ ﻓﱰﺓ ﺣﻴﺎﺓ ،10-23sﻭﻟﺒﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ
ﻓﱰﺓ ﺣﻴﺎﺓ ﻏﲑ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ .ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺃﺧﺮ ﺳـﺌﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﻓﲑﻣﻲ ﺃﻥ ﳛﺪﺩ ﻣﺴﺎﺭ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﻣﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ
u
ﹴ
ﻓﻌﻨﺪﺋﺬ ﺳﺄﻛﻮﻥ ﻋﺎﱂ ﻧﺒﺎﺕ". ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ،ﻓﺄﺟﺎﺏ "ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﺳﺘﻄﻌﺖ ﺃﻥ ﺃﺗﺬﻛﺮ ﺃﺳﲈﺀ ﲨﻴﻊ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ
23 e
d The Standard Model اﻟﻨﻤﻮذج اﻟﻤﻌﻴﺎري
d 1
1 3
e ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺎ ﰲ ﺃﻭﺍﺧﺮ ﻋﺎﻡ 1960ﻡ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ
ﹰ ﻟﻘﺪ ﺃﺻﺒﺢ
e
3 ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻣﻦ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﻻ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﻔﺼﻞ ﻭﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ،ﻛﲈ ﰲ ﺃﻭﻟﻴﺔ .ﺑﻞ ﹼ
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .3-17ﻭﺗﻨﺘﻤﻲ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﺎﺕ ﺇﱃ ﻋﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﻟﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ .ﻭﻳﻌﺰ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ
ﺍﳉﻮﻫﺮﻱ ﺑﲔ ﻫﺬﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﲔ ) ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ ( ﺇﱃ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻭﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﳛﻤﻠﻬﺎ
u ±
d ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ.ﻭﻳﻌﺘﻘﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﲈﺀ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺛﻼﺙ ﻋﺎﺋﻼﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻴﺔ :ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ
23 e 1 e ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ،ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ.
ﻭﺣﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ) ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﻭﻧﺎﺕ ( ،ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﻣﻦ ﹼ
3
ﻭﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﻳﻮﻧﺎﺕ.
83
106 3-18
Z
105
W
104 ude
csµ
103
(MeV)
102
btτ
101
100
101
107
mc2
E
108
109
ﻭﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ.ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻥ ﻳﺴـﻤﻰ ﻣﻴﺰﻭﻧﹰﺎ ﹰ،ﺍﳌﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﻭﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻙ
ﻭﺍﻟـﺰﻭﺝ ﹼ
ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺤﺘﻤﻞ، ﻳﺴـﻤﻰ ﺑﻨﺘﺎﻛﻮﺍﺭﻙ، ﻭﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ،ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﹼ
ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ. ﻭﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺳﺘﺔ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﻭﺳﺘﺔ ﻟﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ.ﻣﺆﺧﺮﺍ ﹰ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺪ ﺷﻮﻫﺪ
ﻼ ﲢﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﺣﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺗﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮ؛ ﻓﻤﺜ ﹰ،ﻭﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﺸـﻜﻞ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ
ﻭﲢﻤـﻞ ﺍﳉﻠﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺜﲈﻧﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﻘـﻮ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﺗﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﰲ،ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ
. ﺃﻣﺎ ﺟﻠﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﻌﻴﻔﺔ ﻓﻬﻲ ﻣﺘﻀﻤﻨﺔ ﰲ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ.ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﻳﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﳌﻴﺰﻭﻧﺎﺕ
ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻠﺨﻴﺺ. ﺍﺳـﻢ ﻳﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﲆ ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﳉﺎﺫﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﱂ ﻳﻜﺘﺸـﻒ ﺣﺘـﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ،ﺍﳉﺮﺍﻓﻴﺘـﻮﻥ
.3-19، 3-18 ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﲤﺜﻞ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻠﲔ
3-19
I II III
u c t
up charm top
H
1/2 1/2 1/2 125.6G
d
down 1/2
s
charm 1/2
b
bottom 1/2
g
gluon 1
higgs
-1 -1 -1
0.511Mev 105.7Mev 1.777Gev
e µ γ
w w
<2.2ev 0 <0.17Mev 0 <15.5Mev 0 80.4Gev 91.2Gev
+- +-
e µ t
e-neutrino 1/2
µ-neutrino 1/2 t-neutrino 1/2 1 1
84
Protons and Neutrons اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻮﻧﺎت واﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮوﻧﺎت
ﻧﻤـﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﻳﺼـﻒ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ) ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ( ﺑﻮﺻﻔﻬـﺎ ﲡﻤ ﹰﻌـﺎ ﻣﻦ
ﻣﻜـﻮﻥ ﻣـﻦ ﺛﻼﺛـﺔ ﻛـﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ،ﻓﻴﺘﻜـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﺛﻨﲔ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ .ﻭﻛﻞ ﻧﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴـﻮﻥ ﹼ
ﻛـﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﺃﻋـﲆ ) uﺷـﺤﻨﺔ (+ __32 eﻭﻛـﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﺃﺳـﻔﻞ ﻭﺍﺣـﺪ ) dﺷـﺤﻨﺔ ،(- __3 eﻭﻳﻌـﱪ ﻋـﻦ
1
ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗـﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻣـﺰ p = uud؛ ﻓﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗـﻮﻥ ﻋﺒـﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﺷـﺤﻨﺔ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻛـﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ:
[__32 + __32 + (- __31)] e= +e
ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﺃﻋﲆ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻭﺍﺛﻨﲔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﺃﺳﻔﻞ ﻭﻳﻌﱪ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻣﺰ
n = udd؛ ﻓﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺻﻔﺮ:
[ __32 + (- __31) + (- __31)] e=0
ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﻣﺸـﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﺮﺓ ﺍﳌﻨﻔـﺮﺩﺓ؛ ﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﻘﻴﻬـﺎ ﳎﺘﻤﻌﺔ ﻣ ﹰﻌﺎ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ
ﺃﻛـﱪ ﻛﻠـﲈ ﺍﻧﺪﻓﻌﺖ ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﺭﺍﻛﺎﺕ ﻣﺒﺘﻌـﺪﺓ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌـﺾ .ﰲ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ ،ﺗﻌﻤـﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ
ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﻛﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺑﺾ ،ﻓﻬﻲ ﻻ ﺗﺸـﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﺃﺿﻌﻒ ﻛﻠﲈ ﲢﺮﻛﺖ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ
ﻣﺒﺘﻌـﺪﹰ ﺍ ﺑﻌﻀﻬـﺎ ﻋـﻦ ﺑﻌـﺾ .ﻭﺗﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻘـﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳـﺔ ﰲ ﻧﻤـﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﺑﻮﺳـﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﳉﻠﻮﻧﺎﺕ.
اﻟﺘﺤﻮﻻت ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ واﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
Conversions Between Mass and Energy
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻮ ﹼﻟﺪ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻓﻨﺎﺀ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺃﻳﻨﺸﺘﺎﻳﻦ ﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓﺆ
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ .E = mc2ﺇﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ 9.11 + 10-31 kgﻭﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ.
3-20 ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻭﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻣ ﹰﻌﺎ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺣﺴﺎﲠﺎ ﻛﲈ ﻳﲇ:
)E = 2 (9.11 × 10-31 kg)(3.00 × 108 m/s
2
)E = (1.64 × 10-13 J) (1 eV/1.60 × 10-19 J
1.02 MeVﺃﻭE = 1.02 × 106 eV
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻭﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻔﻨﻲ ﺃﺣﺪﳘﺎ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ،ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺇﺷـﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ .ﺗﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺸـﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺍﺛﻨﲔ .31
ﻣﻦ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ،ﻓﻜﺎﻧﺖ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﺣﺪﻫﺎ 225 keVﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ،357 keVﻣﺎ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ؟
ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ،1.008665 uﺃﻭﺟﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ: .32
ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﺮ ﻷﺷﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﱃ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺯﻭﺝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻭﺃﻧﺘﻲ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ. .b
ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳌﻴﻮﻥ ، 0.1135 uﻭﻫﻮ ﻳﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻭﺯﻭﺝ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﻮ.ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ؟ .33
ﺣﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻭﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ،ﻓﻴﺘﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﰲ ﺍﳊﺎﻝ ﻣﻊ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺁﺧﺮ ،ﻭﻳﻔﻨﻲ ﻛﻞ
ﻣﻨﻬﲈ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ،ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻋﺎﻥ ﺃﻭ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ،ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻘﻞ ﻋﻦ 1.02 MeV
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﻟﻪ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ .ﻳﺘﲈﺛﻞ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﻛﻞ ﻛـﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﻭﻛﻞ ﻟﺒﺘﻮﻥ ﹰ
ﻣﻊ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﻣﺎ ﻋﺪﺍ ﺷـﺤﻨﺘﻴﻬﲈ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﻢ ﻣﻌﺎﻛﺴﺔ .ﻓـﺎﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻙ
ﻼ ﺷـﺤﻨﺘﻪ ،+__23 eﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﺭﺍﻙ ﺍﻷﻋﲆ uﺷـﺤﻨﺘﻪ ،-__23 eﻭﺷـﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻷﻋـﲆ uﻣﺜـ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗـﻮﻥ uudﺗﺴـﺎﻭﻱ +1ﻭﺷـﺤﻨﺔ ﺿﺪﻳـﺪ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗـﻮﻥ u u dﺗﺴـﺎﻭﻱ -1ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ
ﻛﻼ ﻣﻨﻬﲈ ﻳﻔﻨﻰ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ،ﻭﻳﺘﺤﻮﻻﻥ ﺇﱃ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺃﻭ ﺇﱃ ﺯﻭﺝ ﻳﺼﻄﺪﻡ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﻢ ﻭﺿﺪﻳﺪﻩ ﻓﺈﻥ ﹼﹰ
ﻣﻦ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﻭﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ ﺃﺧﻒ ﻭﺇﱃ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ .ﻭﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﲇ ﻟﻠﻜـﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ
ﰲ ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﻥ ﺛﺎﺑـﺖ؛ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﻮﺟـﺪ ﺃﻭ ﺗﻔﻨﻰ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﻮﺻﻔﻬﲈ ﺯﻭﺝ ﺟﺴـﻴﻢ
ﻭﺿﺪﻳـﺪ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﻢ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺃﺧﺮ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺣﺎﻣـﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻭﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﳉﺮﺍﻓﻴﺘﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ
ﻭﺍﳉﻠﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﻭﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻌﻴﻔـﺔ ،ﻗـﺪ ﺗﻮﺟـﺪ ﺃﻭ ﺗﻔﻨـﻰ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻨـﺎﻙ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﻴـﺔ.
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ؛ ﻓﻠﻀﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺗﺴـﺎﻭﻱ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ، ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﻟﻠﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﹰ
ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺷـﺤﻨﺘﻪ ﺳـﺎﻟﺒﺔ ،ﻭ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺃﻛﱪ 1836ﻣﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻠـﺔ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ .ﻭﻫﻜﺬﺍ ،ﻓﺈﻥ
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣـﺔ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺯﻭﺝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻭﺿﺪﻳـﺪ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﻧﺴـﺒ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ
ﻭﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﺯﻭﺝ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻭﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺃﻭﻝ ﻣﺮﺓ ﰲ ﺑﺎﺭﻛﲇ ،ﰲ ﻛﺎﻟﻴﻔﻮﺭﻧﻴﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ 1955ﻡ.
ﻳﻀﻤﺤﻞ 23892Uﺑﺎﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻭﺑﺎﻧﺒﻌﺎﺛﲔ ﻣﺘﺘﺎﻟﻴﲔ ﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﻭﻳﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻈﲑ ﻟﻠﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ.
ﻭﺿﺢ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ. ﹼ .1
ﺍﳌﺘﻜﻮﻥ.
ﹼ .2ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﻟﻠﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ
86
3-21
e-
W-
W →e vd→ uW-
- -
d d
u d u u W-
ν±
ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ ﻳﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﲑ ﺑﺈﻃﻼﻕ ﺑﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﲢﺪﺙ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺷـﺒﻴﻬﺔ ﺑﺎﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ .ﻭﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ
ﻣـﻦ ﺃﻧﻪ ﱂ ﻳﻼﺣﻆ ﺍﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺍﳊﺮ ،ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﻟﻠﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺤﻮﻝ
ﺇﱃ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﻊ ﺇﻃﻼﻕ ﺑﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ +01eﻭﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﻮ 00 vﻛﲈ ﻳﲇ:
1
1
P² 1on+ +10e+ 00 v
87
a b c
3-22ﻣﺮﺓ ﻋﺎﻡ 1979ﻡ .ﻭﲤﺖ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﻭﻧﺎﺕ W+ﻭ W-ﻭ Z°ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻣﺒﺎﴍﺓ ﺃﻭﻝ ﻣﺮﺓ ﻋﺎﻡ 1983ﻡ.
ﻼ ﺃﻥ ﹼﹰ
ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﺎﺕ ﻭﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﺎﺕ ﻋﺪﻳﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻘﺪ ﺳﺎﺩ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻘﺎﺩ ﻃﻮﻳ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻷﺧﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻄﺖ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺲ ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﺃﻇﻬﺮﺕ
ﻛﺜﲑﺍ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺃﻱ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﻣﻌﺮﻭﻑ.ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﺎﺕ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ .ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﺃﻗﻞ ﹰ
1987A
Testing the Standard Model اﺧﺘﺒﺎر اﻟﻨﻤﻮذج اﻟﻤﻌﻴﺎري
ﺗﺴـﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻼﺣﻆ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻠﲔ 3-19 ، 3-18ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﻨﻔﺼﻞ
ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳉﻴﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻭﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳉﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﲏ ﺇﱃ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺃﺟﻴﺎﻝ .ﻓﺎﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺍﳌﺤﻴﻂ ﺑﻨﺎ ﹼ
ﺗﺼﻮﺭ ﻫﻴﻐﺰ ﺃﻥ ﳎﺎﻻﹰ
aﻭﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳉﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ .ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳛﺪﺩ ﻛﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ؟ ﹼ
ﻳﺴـﻤﻰ ﳎﺎﻝ ﻫﻴﻐﺰ ﻳﻨﺸـﺄ ﻋﻦ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﻫﻴﻐﺰ ،ﻭﺃﻥ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﲡﺪ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﲢﺖ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ cb
ﻼ ﻳﻼﻗﻲ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﲆ ﻇﻬﻮﺭ ﻣﺎ ﻧﺴـﻤﻴﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﻢ ،ﻓﺎﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻣﺜ ﹰ
ﺻﻐﲑﺓ ﻓﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ ،ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻓﻴﻼﻗﻲ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﻓﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ.
ﺇﻥ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌـﺔ ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺔ؛ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ
ﺍﻟﻘﻮ ﺑﺸـﻜﻞ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ،ﻭﻗﺪ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﳍﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺗﺒﻌ ﹰﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺎﻓﺎﺕ،
ﻭﺣﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻮ ﳍﺎ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ،ﻭﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﲈﺛﻞ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ؛ ﻓﻤﺜ ﹰ
ﻼ ﺍﻟﻘﻮ
ﺑﲔ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺸﺤﻮﻧﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ﹸﲢﻤﻞ ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﻛﲈ ﲢﻤﻞ
ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﻭﻧﺎﺕ Wﻭ Zﺍﻟﻘﻮ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﻌﻴﻔﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ.
ﻭﺍﻟﻘـﻮ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴـﺔ ﺗﺆﺛـﺮ ﰲ ﻣـﺪ ﻭﺍﺳـﻊ؛ ﻷﻥ ﻛﺘﻠـﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺻﻔـﺮ ﹰﺍ ،ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﺍﻟﻘـﻮ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ
ﺍﻟﻀﻌﻴﻔﺔ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﰲ ﻣﺴـﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﻗﺼﲑﺓ؛ ﻷﻥ ﻛﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﻭﻧﺎﺕ Wﻭ Zﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﻧﺴـﺒ ﹼﹰﻴﺎ .ﺗﺸـﲑ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ
ﺍﻟﻔﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﺠﻢ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻌﺮ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺪﻭﺙ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻠﲔ ﻣﺘﲈﺛﻠﲔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻻﻧﻔﺠﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﻤﻴﺔ
ﺍﳍﺎﺋﻠـﺔ ،ﻛﺘﻠـﻚ ﺍﳌﻮﺿﺤـﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ .3-22ﺃﻣـﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳـﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﻴـﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺄﺻـﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻥ
ﻓﺘﺘﻮﻗـﻊ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺗﲔ ﻛﺎﻧﺘـﺎ ﻣﺘﲈﺛﻠﺘﲔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﺤﻈﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺒﻜﺮﺓ ﻟﻠﻜﻮﻥ .ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺴـﺒﺐ ،ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻮ
ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮ ﺍﻟﻀﻌﻴﻔﺔ ﻣﺘﺤﺪﺗﲔ ﰲ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺿﻌﻴﻔﺔ.
ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻧﻔﺴـﻬﺎ ﺗﺒـﲔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋـﺎﻡ 1970ﻡ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻮ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻘـﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻀﻌﻴﻔﺔ
ﻣﺘﺤﺪﺗﺎﻥ ﺑﻮﺻﻔﻬﺎ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺿﻌﻴﻔﺔ .ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻮﺻﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻵﻥ ﺇﱃ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ،ﻭﻻ ﻳﺰﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻏﲑ ﻣﻜﺘﻤﻞ .ﻭﻣﺎ ﺯﺍﻟﺖ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺗﺘﻄﻮﺭ ،ﻭﻳﺘﻢ
ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻵﻥ .ﻭﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻻﲢﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺫﺏ ﲢﺘﺎﺝ
ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﺰﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ.
88
ﻭﻗﺪ ﻇﻬﺮ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻙ ﻛﺒﲑ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﻋﲆ ﺍﳌﺠﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ
ﺻﻐﲑﺍ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﻥ .ﻭﺍﳉﺰﺀ ﺍﻷﻛﱪﹰ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻘـﻂ ﺟﺰ ﹰﺀﺍ
ﺗـﻢ ﻭﺻﻔﻬـﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ ،ﹼ
ﻣـﻦ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺷـﻜﻠﺖ ﺍﳌـﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﳌﻌﺘﻤﺔ؛ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳـﻤﻴﺖ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻷﳖﺎ ﻻ ﺗﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻣـﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ
ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻳﺔ ،ﻣﺎﻋﺪﺍ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺫﺏ .ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺫﻟﻚ ،ﻓﺈﳖﺎ ﺗﺒﺪﻭ ﻛﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﻌﺘﻤﺔ ،ﻭﻗﻮﺓ ﻏﲑ
ﻣﻌﺮﻭﻓﺔ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﲆ ﺗﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﲤﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻥ.
ﺗﻜـﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﺗﺘﺼﻞ
ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳـﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﻨﺎﻫﻴـﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﹼ
ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﻥ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺍﻋﺘﺎﺩ
ﻣﺒـﺎﴍﺓ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﺤـﻮﺙ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺒـﲑﺓ ﻭﺍﳌﺠﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﹼ
ﻓﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴـﻮ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻴـﺔ ،ﻭﻋﻠـﲈﺀ ﺍﻟﻜـﻮﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻧـﻮﺍ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﻳﺘﲔ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﺎﻛﺴـﺘﲔ ﳌﻘﻴﺎﺱ
ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ .ﻭﺍﻵﻥ ﻳﺘﺴـﺎﺀﻟﻮﻥ ﻣ ﹰﻌﺎ" :ﻣﺎ ﻭﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳـﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ؟" .ﻗﺪ
ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻌﻮﻥ ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺴﺆﺍﻝ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ.
3-3ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ
ﺍﺑﺤـﺚ ﰲ ﳏـﺪﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻤـﻮﺫﺝ .37 ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﳛﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗـﻮﻥ ﺇﱃ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ .34
ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺪﺍﺋﻞ ﺍﳌﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ. ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻟﻘﺬﻑ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ؟
ﺗﺄﻣﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ. .38 ﺗﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ ﻣﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﳐﺘﱪ .35
u → d + W+ﻭ W+ → e+ +v ﻓﲑﻣﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 3-11ﰲ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﻋﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻋﺔ.
ﻛﻴـﻒ ﻳﻤﻜـﻦ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﲈ ﻟﺘﻔﺴـﲑ ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤـﻼﻝ ﻣﺎ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﳌﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ ﰲ ﻣﻐﺎﻧﻂ ﺍﻻﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ؟
ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴـﻮﻥ ﺍﻟـﺬﻱ ﻳﻨﺘـﺞ ﻋـﻦ ﺍﻧﺒﻌـﺎﺙ
ﻳﻮﺿـﺢ ﺍﻟﺸـﻜﻞ 3-20ﺇﻧﺘـﺎﺝ ﺃﺯﻭﺍﺝ .36
ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﺗـﺮﻭﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﻮ؟ ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ
ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ-ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ .ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﺗﻨﺤﻨﻲ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭﺍﺕ
ﻧﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﺪﻻﹰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ.
ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻴﺔ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻧﺤﻨﺎﺀ ﺯﻭﺝ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻳﺔ؟
90
cpm cpm
92
The Nucleus 3-1
ﺇﻥ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ .Z • ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ •
ﺇﻥ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ .A • ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ •
ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﳍﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﻋﺪﺩ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ. • ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ •
ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻣ ﹰﻌﺎ.
ﺗﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﹼ • ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻳﺪﺓ )ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﲑ( •
ﲢﺴـﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﺑﺤﺴـﺎﺏ ﻧﻘﺺ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ،ﻭﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﲔ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ • ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ •
ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻭﺑﻌﺪﻩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ •
E= mc2
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ •
• ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ ﻟﻨﻘﺺ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ. ﻧﻘﺺ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ •
Nuclear Decay and Reactions 3-2
ﺗﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﺮﺓ ﻣﺘﺤﻮ ﹼﻟﺔ ﺇﱃ ﻋﻨﴫ ﺁﺧﺮ. • ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﳌﺸﻌﺔ •
ﹸﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﺍﻹﺷـﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ،ﻫﻲ :ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ) (αﻭﻫﻲ • ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ •
ﺃﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﻫﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ ،ﻭﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ،ﻭﻫﻲ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﴪﻋﺔ ،ﻭﺃﺷـﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ) ،(γﻭﻫﻲ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ •
ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ.
ﺃﺷﻌﺔ ﹼ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ •
ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ،ﻻ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ،Aﻭﻻ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ .Z • ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ •
ﰲ ﺍﻻﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﺗﻨﻘﺴﻢ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻮﺍﺗﲔ ﺃﺻﻐﺮ ﻭﻳﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ. • ﻋﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻒ •
ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﻟﺘﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ. • ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻃﻴﺔ •
ﻋﻤـﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻒ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﲑ ﺍﳌﺸـﻊ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻡ ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻋـﺪﺩ ﺃﻧﻮﻳﺘﻪ .ﺑﻌﺪ ﻋﺪﺩ nﻣﻦ • ﺍﻻﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ •
ﻓﱰﺍﺕ ﻋﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻒ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ= N (1/2)n :ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺒﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﳌﺘﺴﻠﺴﻞ •
ﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ
0
•
• ﺇﻥ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﺿﻤﺤﻼﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﺍﳌﺸﻌﺔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﲤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻃﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻋﻴﺔ.
The Building Blocks of Matter 3-3
ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﳋﻄﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻨﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ. • ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ •
ﻳﺴـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺟﺎﳚﺮ– ﻣﻮﻟﺮ ،ﻭﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺴـﺤﺎﺑﺔ ،ﻭﻛﻮﺍﺷﻒ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻷﺧﺮ ،ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻳﻦ • ﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ •
ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻋﻦ ﺷﺤﻦ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻋﺒﻮﺭﻫﺎ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ. ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ •
ﺗﺒﺪﻭ ﻛﻞ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺃﳖﺎ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ. • ﺣﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ •
ﺗﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺃﺧﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺣﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ. • ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺝ •
ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺣﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ. • ﺍﻟﻘـــﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﻭﻳـﺔ •
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺘﺤﺪ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﳌﲈﺛﻠﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺟﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺗﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻛﺘﻠﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﺇﱃ • ﺍﻟﻀﻌﻴﻔﺔ
ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺃﻭﺇﱃ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺃﺧﻒ -ﺯﻭﺝ ﻣﻦ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ.
93
ﻣـﺎ ﺍﻟـﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺆﺩﻳـﻪ ﺍﳌﻬﺪﺉ ﰲ .48
ﻣﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻻﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ؟
ﻧ ﹼﻈﻢ ﺍﳌﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺧﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ :ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ .39
ﺍﻻﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﻭﻱ ﻭﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣـﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨـﻮﻭﻱ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺘـﺎﻥ .49 ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ ،ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ،ﺃﺷﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ،ﺣﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ،
ﻣﺘﻌﺎﻛﺴﺘﺎﻥ .ﻛﻴﻒ ﲢﺮﺭ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﲈ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ؟ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺑﻮﺯﻭﻧﺎﺕ ،W
ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﻻ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﳋﻄﻲ .50 ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﺎﺕ ،ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺟﻠﻮﻧﺎﺕ.
ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ؟
ﰲ ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋـﻼﺕ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴـﺔ )ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳـﺔ، .51
ﺍﻟﻀﻌﻴﻔـﺔ ،ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴـﻴﺔ ،ﺍﳉﺎﺫﺑﻴـﺔ( ﺗﺸـﺎﺭﻙ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ
ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ؟
ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ .a ﺃﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﺃﻣـﺜﻠـــــــــﺔ
ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ
ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ .b
ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﻮ .c
3-2اﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼل اﻟﻨﻮوي واﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼت اﻟﻨﻮوﻳﺔ ﰲ ﺃﻱ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺘﲔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺘﲔ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﺃﻛﱪ: .b
ﺍﻧﺸـﻄﺎﺭ ﻛﻴﻠﻮﺟﺮﺍﻡ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻧﻮﻳـﺔ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ،
ﻋﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻒ ﻟﻨﻈﲑ ﻣﻌﲔ ،3.0 dayﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﳌﺌﻮﻳﺔ .65
ﺃﻡ ﺍﻧﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﻛﻴﻠﻮﺟﺮﺍﻡ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳍﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﲔ؟
ﻟﻠﲈﺩﺓ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﺘﺒﻘﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ:
ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﲣﺘﻠﻒ ﺇﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﳉﺰﺃﻳﻦ aﻭ b؟ .c
9.0 day .b؟ 12 day .c؟ 6.0 day .a؟
ﺍﻛﺘـﺐ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟـــﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳــﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻠـــﺔ ﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ .66
ﻟﻠﻨﻈﲑ . 22286Rn
3-1اﻟﻨﻮاة
. .67ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﲑ Kr
89
36
ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺫﺭﺓ 10947 Ag؟ ﻭﻣﺎ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻪ؟
ﻣﺎ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﹼ .59
ﺃﻛﻤﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ: .68
ﻣﺎ ﺭﻣﺰ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﲑ )ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ( .60
Ac → He+ ____ .a ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻣﻦ 30ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﹰﺎ ﻭ 34ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﹰﺎ؟
ﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺯﻧﻚ ﹼ
225 4
89 2
227
88
→ Ra 0
-1
e + ___+____ .b 32ﻟﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻧﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻫﺎ 31.97207 u .61ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﱪﻳﺖ S
16
65
29
Cu+ 10n² ___ ² 11p+_____ .c ﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ:
235
92
U+ 10n² 40
96
Zr+3( 10n)+____ .d ﻧﻘﺺ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﲑ؟ .a
ﻋﻨﺪﻣـﺎ ﹸﻳﻘـﺬﻑ ﻧﻈـﲑ ﺍﻟﺒـﻮﺭﻭﻥ 115Bﺑﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ .69 ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﱪﻳﺖ؟ .b
ﻳﻤﺘﺺ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﹰﺎ ﻭﻳﻄﻠﻖ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﹰﺎ ،ﺃﺟﺐ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻷﺳـﺌﻠﺔ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻧﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻥ؟ .c
ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
ﻛﺘﻠـﺔ ﻧﻮﻭﻳـﺔ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻫـﺎ 12
N ﻟﻨﻈـﲑ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﱰﻭﺟـﲔ .62
ﺍﳌﺘﻜﻮﻥ؟ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ
7
ﹼ .a 12.0188 uﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ:
ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ. .b ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻧﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻥ؟ .a
ﺍﻟﻨﻈﲑ ﺍﳌﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﺸﻊ ،ﻭﻳﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ .c ﺃﳞـﲈ ﳛﺘـﺎﺝ ﺇﱃ ﻃﺎﻗـﺔ ﺃﻛـﱪ :ﻓﺼـﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﻥ .b
ﺑﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ .ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ. ﻣـﻦ ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ 127Nﺃﻭ ﻣﻦ ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ 147N؟ ﻋﻠﲈ ﺑﺄﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ
ﺧـﻼﻝ ﺗﻔﺎﻋـﻞ ﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣـﺎﺝ ،ﻳﺘﺤـﺪ ﺩﻳﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧـﺎﻥ ، 21H .70 147Nﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ 14.00307 u
ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴﻮﻡ ، 32Heﻣﺎ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﻢ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺒﺘﻌـﺪ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧـﺎﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﺒـﺎ ﺍﻟﺸـﺤﻨﺔ ﰲ ﻧـﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﳍﻴﻠﻴـﻮﻡ .63
ﺗﻜﻮﻥ؟
ﹼ ﺃﺣﺪﳘـﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﻣﺴـﺎﻓﺔ 2.0 × 10-15 mﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ.
ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻋﻤـﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻒ ﻟﻨﻈـﲑ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﻟﻮﻧﻴﻮﻡ 20984Poﻳﺒﻠﻎ .71 ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻗﺎﻧـﻮﻥ ﻛﻮﻟـﻮﻡ ،ﻹﳚـﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻘـﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ
103ﺳـﻨﺔ ،ﻓﻜﻢ ﺗﺴﺘﻐﺮﻕ ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻫﺎ 100 gﺣﺘﻰ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺎﻓـﺮ ﺑـﲔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧـﲔ .ﺳـﻮﻑ ﺗﻌﻄﻴـﻚ ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺑـﺔ
ﺗﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﻟﻴﺒﻘﻰ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ 3.1 g؟ ﻣﺆﴍﺍ ﻋﻦ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻳﺔ.
ﹰ
95
ﻣﺎ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻄﻌﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻫﺬﺍ .d ﰲ ﺇﺣﺪ ﺣﻮﺍﺩﺙ ﳐﺘﱪ ﺃﺑﺤﺎﺙ ،ﺍﻧﺴﻜﺐ ﻧﻈﲑ ﻣﺸﻊ .72
ﺍﻟﺘﺴﺎﺭﻉ؟ ﻋﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻒ ﻟﻪ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺃﻳﺎﻡ .ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺛﲈﻧﻴﺔ ﺃﺿﻌﺎﻑ
ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﻰ ﺍﳌﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﲠﺎ .ﻛﻢ ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻨﺘﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﻮﻥ
ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻌﻮﺍ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻮﻝ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﱪ؟
ﻛﻞ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺃﻥ ﲤﺘﺺ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ.ﺍﻓﱰﺽ .78
3-3وﺣﺪات ﺑﻨﺎء اﻟﻤﺎدة
ﺃﻧﻪ ﻻ ﺗﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺛﺎﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ،ﺃﻛﻤﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ
ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ: ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﺃﻋﲆ؟
ﻣﺎ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﹼ .73
14
7
N+ 4He²___ .a
2
ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ
ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﻣﻌﺎﻛﺴﺔ ﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻙ .ﹼ .74
27
Al+ 42He²___ .b ﺑﻴﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﺃﻋﲆ ﻭﻣﻦ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﻛﻮﺍﺭﻙ ﺃﺳﻔﻞ .ud
ﻣﺎ ﺷﺤﻨﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻥ؟
13
ﻷﺷـﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﺯﺧﻢ .ﻭﺯﺧﻢ ﺷـﻌﺎﻉ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﺫﻱ .81 ﺃﻭﺟﺪ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﻋﲆ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﻳﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗـﺔ Eﻳﺴـﺎﻭﻱ ،E/cﺣﻴـﺚ cﴎﻋـﺔ ﺍﻟﻀـﻮﺀ. ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ .ddu .a
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﺯﻭﺝ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ-ﺑﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺇﱃ ﺃﺷـﻌﺔ ﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ .u ud .b
ﻛﻼ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﺧـﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﳚـﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻧﺎﺟﺎﻣـﺎ ﻓـﺈﻥ ﹼﹰ
ﳏﻔﻮﻇـﲔ .ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﳎﻤـﻮﻉ ﻃﺎﻗـﺎﺕ ﺃﺷـﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣـﺎ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﺍﻟﺴـﻨﻜﺮﻭﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﰲ ﳐﺘﱪ ﻓﲑﻣﻲ ،2.0 km .77
ﺗﺴـﺎﻭﻱ 1.02 MeVﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﹼ
ﻛﻞ ﻣـﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺯﺗـﺮﻭﻥ ﻭﺗﺘﺤـﺮﻙ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﺗـﺪﻭﺭ ﺩﺍﺧﻠـﻪ ﺑﴪﻋـﺔ
ﻭﺍﻹﻟﻜـﱰﻭﻥ ﻣﺒﺪﺋ ﹼﹰﻴـﺎ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺳـﻜﻮﻥ ،ﻓﻜﻢ ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﴎﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺍﻍ ﺗﻘﺮﻳ ﹰﺒﺎ ،ﺃﺟﺐ ﻋﲈ ﻳﲇ:
ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﻭﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺯﺧﻢ ﺇﺷـﻌﺎﻋﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ؟ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﳛﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﺣﺘﻰ .a
ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺯﻭﺝ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ–ﺑﻮﺯﺗـﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﺒﺪﺋ ﹼﹰﻴـﺎ .82 ﻳﻜﻤﻞ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ.
ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟـﺔ ﺳـﻜﻮﻥ ،ﻭﻳﺴـﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻀﻤﺤـﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ .bﺗﺪﺧـﻞ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧـﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﻠﻘـﺔ ﺑﻄﺎﻗـﺔ 8.0 GeV
ﺇﺷـﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺟﺎﻣـﺎ ،ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺇﺷـﻌﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺟﺎﻣـﺎ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﻓﺘﻜﺘﺴـﺐ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ 2.5 MeVﰲ ﻛﻞ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ .ﻣﺎ ﻋﺪﺩ
ﳍﺎ ﻃﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﺴـﺎﻭﻳﺔ ،ﻓﻜﻴﻒ ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﲡﺎﻫﺎﲥﺎ ﺍﻟـﺪﻭﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﳚـﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﻗﺒـﻞ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺼﻞ
ﻭﺿﺢ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﺳﻢ.ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﻴﺔ؟ ﹼ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﺇﱃ 400.0 GeV؟
ﻣـﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻨﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﲢﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﻟﻴﻬـﺎ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ .c
ﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﺘﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺇﱃ 400.0 GeV؟
96
33 ﹸﻳﻄﻠﻖ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻧﺪﻣﺎﺟﻲ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸـﻤﺲ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ .83
97
ﻳﺒـﲔ ﺍﻟﺮﺳـﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺿﻴﺤـﻲ ﺃﺩﻧﺎﻩ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﰲ ﺣﺠﺮﺓﹼ .7 أﺳﺌﻠﺔ اﺧﺘﻴﺎر ﻣﻦ ﻣﺘﻌﺪد
ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺎﻋـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺘـﺞ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻀﻤﺤﻞ ﺃﺷـﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﺇﱃ اﺧﺘﺮ رﻣﺰ اﺟﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﻴﺤﺔ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ:
ﺑﻮﺯﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﻭﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ .ﳌﺎﺫﺍ ﻻ ﺗﻐﺎﺩﺭ ﺃﺷﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭ؟
ﻛـﻢ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ،ﻭﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ .1
ﰲ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻜﻞ 2860Ni 60 -؟
28 32 28 A
32 28 28 B
ﺗﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﺃﺷـﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﺑﴪﻋﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﹼﹰ ﺍ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﺴـﺎﺭﺍﲥﺎ A 28 32 32 C
ﻟﻜﻲ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻓﻬﺎ. 28 28 32 D
ﺃﺯﻭﺍﺝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺴـﻴﲈﺕ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻐﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭﺍﺕ B
ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳛﺪﺙ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ: .2
ﰲ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺎﻋﺔ. 212
Pb² 212 Bi+e+v
82 83
ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻤﺘﻠﻚ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻳﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺋﻞ C
ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ C ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ A
ﻭﻳﻐﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﳌﺴـﺎﺭ ،ﻭﺃﺷـﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ﻋﺪﻳﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﻓﻌﻠ ﹰﻴﺎ. Dﻓﻘﺪ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ Bﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ
ﺃﺷﻌﺔﺟﺎﻣﺎﻣﺘﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋ ﹰﻴﺎ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚﻓﻼﺗﺆﻳﻦﺍﻟﺴﺎﺋﻞ. D
ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﳜﻀﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﻟﻮﻧﻴﻮﻡ 214- .3
ﻧﻈـﲑ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﻟﻮﻧﻴﻮﻡ 210 -ﻟﻪ ﻋﻤﺮ ﻧﺼﻒ ،138 dayﻣﺎ .8 21084Poﻻﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ؟
ﻣﻘـﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴـﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺒﻘﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻴﻨـﺔ 2.34 kgﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﺮﻭﺭ 210
Pb C 206
Pb A
ﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺃﻋﻮﺍﻡ؟
85 82
210
Pb D 208
Pb B
1.51 g C 0.644 mg A
80 82
98
ﻣﺼﺎدر ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻟﺐ
• دﻟﻴﻞ اﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎت
• اﻟﺠﺪاول
• اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت
• اﻟﺠﺪول اﻟﺪوري ﻟﻠﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ
99
.Iﺍﻷﺳﺲ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮ ﻭﺍﳉﺬﻭﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﳌﻄﻠﻘﺔ Exponents٫ Powers٫ Roots٫ and Absolute value
ﺍﻷﺳﺲ Exponents
ﺍﻷﺱ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﻋﺪﺩ ﳜﱪﻙ ﺑﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﳌﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ aﻛﻌﺎﻣﻞ ،ﻭﻳﻜﺘﺐ ﺍﻷﺱ ﻋﲆ ﺻﻴﻐﺔ ﺭﻣﺰ ﻋﻠﻮﻱ ،ﻓﻔﻲ
ﺍﳊﺪ ،anﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ aﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻭﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ nﺍﻷﺱ.
ﻭﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﳌﻘﺪﺍﺭ anﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻧﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ aﺃﻭ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ aﻣﺮﻓﻮﻉ ﻟﻠﻘﻮﺓ .n
ﺍﻷﺱ
an
ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﻻ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻷﺱ ،ﻭﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﹰ
ﺗﻌﺒﻴﺮﺍ ﺁﺧﺮ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ.
ﻓﻤﺜﻼ v0ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻟﺘﻌﺒﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ ،0ﻭﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﻳﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺟﺰ ﹰﺀﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ.
ﺍﻷﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺐ ﻷﻱ ﺭﻗﻢ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺻﻔﺮﻱ ، aﻭﻷﻱ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ ، n
) a = ( a1 ) ( a2 ) ( a3 ) … ( an
n
100
ﻭﻳﻌﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭﻱ ¸√ ،ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ .ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺃﺣﺪ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﻴﻪ ﺍﻻﺛﻨﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﻴﻦ .ﹼ
ﺃﻥ ﻳﻌﺒﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ﺑﺎﻷﺱ 1
__ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ . √b¸ = b 2ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻹﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ. ﹸ ﹼ
1
__
2
ﺑﺴﻂ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻵﺗﻴﺔ:
ﺃﻣﺜﻠﺔ :ﹼ
¸√
= a2¸¸¸√
(a) (a) = a
¸ = √(3) (3) = 3
√9 ¸¸¸
¸√
= 64 (8.0) (8.0) = 8.0
¸¸¸¸¸√ ﺻﻔﺮﺍ ﻋﻦ ﻳﻤﲔ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺻﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﴩﻳﺔ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﻺﺑﻘﺎﺀ ﻋﲆ ﺭﻗﻤﲔ ﻣﻌﻨﻮﻳﲔ.
ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﹰ
38.44 = 6.200
¸¸¸√ ﺿﻊ ﺻﻔﺮﻳﻦ ﻋﻦ ﻳﻤﲔ ﺇﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻟﻺﺑﻘﺎﺀ ﻋﲆ ﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ.
39 =6.244997 = 6.2
¸√ ﻗﺮﺏ ﺇﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻟﻺﺑﻘﺎﺀ ﻋﲆ ﺭﻗﻤﲔ ﻣﻌﻨﻮﻳﲔ.
ﹼ
√ ﺃﻱ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﲈﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ ،3ﻋﻦ ﺍﳉﺬﺭ
3
ﺇﻥ ﺍﳉﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻌﻴﺒﻲ ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺃﺣﺪ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻪ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺔ .ﻭﻳﻌﱪ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ﺍﳉﺬﺭﻱ ¸
_1 ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﰲ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﺃﺱ 1
__ ﻛﲈ ﰲ . √b¸ =b3
3
ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻌﻴﺒﻲ .ﻛﲈ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﲤﺜﻴﻞ ﺍﳉﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻌﻴﺒﻲ ﹰ
3
ﺑﺴﻂ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﳉﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻌﻴﺒﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﹼ
(5.00)(5.00)(5.00) = 5.00
3
¸¸√
= 125 ¸¸¸¸¸¸¸√
3
3
¸¸¸√
39.304 = 3.4000
ﻣﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺒﻴﺔ
.1ﺃﻭﺟﺪ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻛﻞ ﺟﺬﺭ ،ﻭﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ ﹼ
ﻗﺮﺏ ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻗﺮﺏ ﻣﺌﺔ.
676 .c
¸¸√ 22 .a
¸√
3
√ ¸¸¸
46.656 .d 3
√ ¸¸
729 .b
.2ﹼ
ﺑﺴﻂ ﺍﳉﺬﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﲈﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ﺍﳉﺬﺭﻱ:
¸¸√
9t6 .b ¸¸¸√
16a2b4 .a
.3ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﳉﺬﻭﺭ ﺍﻵﺗﻴﺔ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﺳﻴﺔ:
1
___
a
¸√
.b ¸√
n3 .a
101
ﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﹼﹰ
ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ b ، aﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻧﺎ ﺃﺭﻗﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ.
ﺿﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﻮ :ﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺿﺮﺏ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﺍﺟﻤﻊ ﺍﻷﺳﺲ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
(am) (an) = am+n
ﻗﺴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮ :ﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻗﺴﻤﺔ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺡ ﺍﻷﺳﺲ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
am/an = am–n
ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻣﺮﻓﻮﻋﺔ ﻟﻘﻮﺓ :ﻻﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻣﺮﻓﻮﻋﺔ ﻟﻘﻮﺓ ،ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﻭﺍﺿﺮﺏ ﺍﻷﺳﺲ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ
ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ(am)n = a mn :
ﻭﻗﺴﻢ ﺃﺱ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺱ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﻣﺮﻓﻮﻋﺔ ﻟﻘﻮﺓ :ﻹﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﺟﺬﺭ ﻣﺮﻓﻮﻉ ﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﹼ
ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔam = am/n :
n
√ ¸
ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻟﺤﺎﺻﻞ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ :ﻹﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻟﺤﺎﺻﻞ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ aﻭ ، bﺍﺭﻓﻊ ﻛﻠﻴﻬﻤﺎ ﻟﻠﻘﻮﺓ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ،ﺛﻢ ﺃﻭﺟﺪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺿﺮﺑﻬﻤﺎ ﹰ
ﻣﻌﺎ،
ﻛﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ (ab)n = anbn
ﻣﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺒﻴﺔ
ﹰ
ﻣﺴﺘﻌﻤﻼ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻷﺳﺲ. .4ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ
.x √x¸ 10.d.c √t¸3 .b x2 t / x3 .a
2
a×10n
ﺍﳊﺪ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ10 102
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﻳﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺰﻳﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ 10ﺃﻭ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ 1ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ
ﻼ ﺗﻜﺘﺐ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ،6.73 × 10-28 kgﻭﺗﻜﺘﺐ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺀ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ،ﻭﺣﺴﺎﺑﻬﺎ .ﻓﻤﺜ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ 1.000×103 kg/m3ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ 1000ﺗﻤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ،
ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ .ﻭﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﻌﻨﺪ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺀ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ 1000 kg/m3ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﺸﻴﺮ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ
ﺭﻗﻤﺎ ﻣﻌﻨﻮ ﹼﹰﻳﺎ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﹰ ﺍ ،ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ .ﻟﻘﺪ ﺳﺎﻋﺪﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﻴﻖ
ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﹰ
ﻟﻸﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ.
ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﲑﺓ ،ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺲ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺒﺔ Large Numbers - Using Positive Exponents
ﺇﻥ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ ﻟﻠﻘﻮﺓ 10ﺗﺸﺒﻪ ﺗﻤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﻚ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺯﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻳﺴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ )ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ
ﻻ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ،aﺳﺎﻟﺒﺔ( ﺃﻭ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ )ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ( .ﻭﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺣﺪﺩ ﺃﻭ ﹰ
،1≤ a <10ﺛﻢ ﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺯﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ aﻟﻐﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ .ﺛﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﻛﻘﻮﺓ
ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ .10ﻭﺗﺒﻴﻦ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ eﻟﻸﺳﺲ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ 2.4 e+11=2.4×1011ﻭﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻵﻻﺕ
ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ Eﻟﺘﺒﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﻷﺱ ﺃﻭ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﻏﺎﻟ ﹰﺒﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺷﺔ ﻣﻮﺿﻊ ﻣﺨﺼﺺ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺃﺣﺠﺎﻡ ﺻﻐﻴﺮﺓ
ﻧﺴﺒﻴﺎ ﻟﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻷﺳﺲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ.
ﹼﹰ
ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﺍﻛﺘﺐ 7‚530‚000ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ.
ﺇﻥ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ aﻫﻲ ) 7.53ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻳﻤﻴﻦ ﺃﻭﻝ ﺭﻗﻢ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺻﻔﺮﻱ ( ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﺳﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ .7.53×10
n
7‚530‚000 = 7.53×106 ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺳﺘﺔ ﻣﻨﺎﺯﻝ ﻋﴩﻳﺔ ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻫﻲ 6
103
ﻻ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ، 1 ≤ a < 10 ، aﺛﻢ ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺯﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﺒﺘﺪﺋﹰﺎ ﻣﻦﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺣﺪﺩ ﺃﻭ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ aﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ.
ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﻗﻮ ﹰﺓ ﻟﻸﺳﺎﺱ . 10ﺇﻥ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺿﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺳﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﻣﻤﺎﺛﻞ ﺗﻤﺎ ﹰﻣﺎ ﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ
ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﻓﻘﺔ.
ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﺍﻛﺘﺐ 0.000000285ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ
ﺇﻥ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ aﻫﻲ ) 2.85ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﺗﻘﻊ ﻋﻦ ﻳﻤﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺮﻱ( ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺳﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ .2.85×10n
0.000000285 = 2.85×10-7 ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﺳﺒﻌﺔ ﻣﻨﺎﺯﻝ ﻋﴩﻳﺔ ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻫﻲ– 7
ﻭﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ،ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ ،aﻭﻗﻢ ﺑﺈﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺃﺻﻔﺎﺭ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻳﺴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ .a
ﻭﺣﺮﻙ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ aﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﻨﺎﺯﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﺴﺎﺭ.
ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﹼ
1.6 × 10-4 = 00001.6 × 10-4 = 0.00016 ﻣﺜﺎﻝ:
104
ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺘﺎ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺮﺡ ﺇﻥ ﺇﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﻭﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﺡ ﻟﻸﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﺪﱟ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ؛ ﻷﻥ ﻗﻮ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ
10ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ ﻟﻜﻲ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺟﻤﻊ ﺃﻭ ﻃﺮﺡ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ .ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺤﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ
ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺘﻪ ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺔ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻸﺳﺎﺱ ،10ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻮ ﻟﻸﺳﺎﺱ 10ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﻓﺎﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺯﻳﻌﻴﺔ ﻟﻸﻋﺪﺍﺩ.
ﺑﺴﻂ
ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﹼ
(3.2×105) + (4.8×105) = (3.2+4.8) ×105 ﲨﻊ ﺍﳊﺪﻭﺩ
ﹼ
= 8.0×105 ﺍﲨﻊ ﺍﳊﺪﻭﺩ
ﺑﺴﻂ
ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﹼ
)(3.2×105) + (4.8×104) = (3.2×105)+ (0.48×105 ﺃﻋﺪ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ 4.8×104ﻋﲆ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ 0.48×105
= (3.2+0.48) ×105 ﲨﻊ ﺍﳊﺪﻭﺩ
ﹼ
= 3.68×105 ﺍﲨﻊ ﺍﳊﺪﻭﺩ
= 3.7×105 ﹰ
ﻣﺴﺘﻌﻤﻼ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﳉﻤﻊ /ﺍﻟﻄﺮﺡ ﻟﻸﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﳌﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ. ﻗﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ
ﹼ
ﻣﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺒﻴﺔ
.8ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﺑﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ،ﹼ
ﻭﻋﺒﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺑﺪﻻﻟﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ.
(2.4×103) + (8.0×104).b (5.2×10-4) (4.0×108) .a
.IIIﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ Equations
ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ Order of Operations
ﻳﻔﺴﺮ ﻛﻞ ﺷﺨﺺ ﺍﺗﻔﻖ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﻮﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻋﺪ ،ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﹼ
ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ .ﺍﺗﹼﺒﻊ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﻳﺪ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺗﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻲ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ
ﺻﻴﻐﺔ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ.
.1ﹼ
ﺑﺴﻂ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﺑﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻤﻴﻌﻴﺔ ،ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺳﻴﻦ ) ( ،ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮﺳﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻘﻮﻓﻴﻦ ] [ ،ﻭﺍﻷﻗﻮﺍﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﺰﺩﻭﺟﺔ } {،
ﻭﺃﻋﻤﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺴﺮ.
.2ﻗﺪﹼ ﺭ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺬﻭﺭ.
.3ﻧ ﹼﻔﺬ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ ﻭ /ﺃﻭ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻴﺴﺎﺭ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ.
.4ﻧ ﹼﻔﺬ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﻭ /ﺃﻭ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﺡ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻴﺴﺎﺭ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻴﻦ.
ﺑﺴﻂ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ:ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﹼ
4+3 (4–1)– 23 = 4+3 (3) – 23 ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ :ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺓ 1
=4+3 (3) – 8 ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ :ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺓ 2
=4+9–8 ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ :ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺓ 3
=5 ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ :ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺓ 4
105
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺧﻄﻮﺓ ﺑﺨﻄﻮﺓ .ﻓﻌﻨﺪ ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﺋﻞ
ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻻ ﺗﺠﺮﻱ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺮﻳﺐ ﻟﻠﺮﻗﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﻟﻸﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻴﺔ .ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﺎﺑﺎﺕ
ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﺑﻴﺮ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺴﻂ ﻭﺗﻌﺎﺑﻴﺮ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻡ ﻋﻠﻴﻚ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺴﻂ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻡ ﺑﻮﺻﻔﻬﻤﺎ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺘﻴﻦ
ﻣﻨﻔﺼﻠﺘﻴﻦ ،ﺛﻢ ﺟﺪ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺠﺮﻱ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻗﺴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺴﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻡ ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ /ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ
ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻟﺤﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻲ ﻟﻸﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ.
ﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ Solving Equations
ﻃﺒﻖ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ
ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺎ .ﻭﻋﻨﺪ ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﹼ ﹰ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎ
ﹼﹰ ﺗﻌﺒﻴﺮﺍ
ﺇﻥ ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺇﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺠﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﻭﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓﺆ ،ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻃﺒﻘﺖ ﺃ ﹼﹰﻳﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺣﺪ ﻃﺮﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻭﺟﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻄﺒﻖ ﺍﻟﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ
ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ.
ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺯﻳﻌﻴﺔ ﻷﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ c ، b ، aﻳﻜﻮﻥ:
a (b+c) =ab+ac a (b–c) =ab–ac
ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺯﻳﻌﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ:
)3 (x + 2) = 3 x + (3) (2
=3x+6
ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺘﺎ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺮﺡ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺎﺕ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﺕ ﻛﻤﻴﺘﺎﻥ ﻭﺃﺿﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﺃﻭ ﻃﺮﺡ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻠﻴﻬﻤﺎ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺎﺕ
ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺠﺔ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﹰ
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ.
ﹰ
ﻣﺴﺘﻌﻤﻼ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ x – 3 = 7
x–3 = 7
x–3+3=7+3
x=10
ﹰ
ﻣﺴﺘﻌﻤﻼ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﺡ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ t + 2 = -5
t+2=–5
t+2–2=–5–2
t=–7
ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺘﺎ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺎﺕ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺿﺮﺑﺖ ﺃﻭ ﻗﺴﻤﺖ ﻛﻤﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺘﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ/ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ،ﻓﺴﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺎﺕ
ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺠﺔ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﹰ
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ.
ac=bc
a
__ b
__
c = c , for c ≠ 0
ﹰ
ﻣﺴﺘﻌﻤﻼ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ 1
__ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ a = 3
4
1a=3
__
4
) (__14 a ) ( 4 ) = 3 ( 4
a = 12
106
6 n = 18
6n
___ 18
__
6
= 6
n=3
ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ 2 t + 8 = 5 t – 4ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ t
2t+8=5t–4
8+4=5t–2t
12 = 3 t
4=t
ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑ Isolating aVariable
ﺃﻱ ﻟﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ -ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻓﺘﺮﺽ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮ ،ﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ -ﹾ
ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺃﺣﺪ ﻃﺮﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﻤﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ .1
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﺍﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ) Pﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ( ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻟﻲ.
PV=nRT
PV
___
V
nRT
____ =
V
ﻗﺴﻢ ﻃﺮﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ V
ﹼ
V
__ ( P
V
nRT
____ = )
V
__ (
V
V
ﺟﻤﻊ )
ﹼ
P= VnRT
____ V=1
__
V
ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻋﻦ
ﻣﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺒﻴﺔ
.9ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻵﺗﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ .x
b+x
.d
____ = a
c 2 + 3 x = 17 .a
2x+3
_____
6= x .e x – 4 = 2 – 3x .b
ax + bx + c = d .f x+4
____ = t – 1
3
.c
107
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ vﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﻦ ﻟﻘﻤﺮ ﻳﺪﻭﺭ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ.
GmEm
______ = mv2
____
r r2
rGmEm
______ = mv2
____
r r2
ﺍﺿﺮﺏ ﻃﺮﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻛﻠﻴﻬﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ r
Gm m r =1
______ = mv2
r
E __
r ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻋﻦ
GmEm
______ = mv2
____
m rm ﻗﺴﻢ ﻃﺮﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ . m
ﹼ
Gm ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻋﻦ m = 1
____ = v2
r
E ___
m
v2 = ±
¸√ ¸¸√
_
Gm
r
E
ﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﺮﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ
_√ = v
¸¸
ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﺮﻋﺔ.
Gm E
r
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻢ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﺒﺎﻩ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺳﺘﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻪ .ﻷﻧﻨﺎ ﻗﻤﻨﺎ ﺑﺤﻞ
ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﺮﻋﺔ ،vﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻖ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ،ﻭﺃﻧﺖ ﺑﺤﺎﺟﺔ ﹰ
ﺃﻳﻀﺎ
ﻼ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﻟﻸﺧﺬ ﺑﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﻣﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﺳﺘﻌﻄﻴﻚ ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ ،ﻓﻤﺜ ﹰ
ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ﻟﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ tﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺗﺸﻴﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺑﺪﺀ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺪﺭﺳﻬﺎ.
ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ Quadratic Equations
ﻣﺮﻓﻮﻋﺎ
ﹰ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﹰ ﺍ
ﹰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ، ax2 + bx + c = 0ﺣﻴﺚ ،a ≠ 0ﻭﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ
ﻣﺮﻓﻮﻋﺎ ﻟﻸﺱ . 1ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺣﻠﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻞ ﹰ ﻟﻠﻘﻮﺓ )ﺍﻷﺱ( 2ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ
ﺑﻴﺎﻧﻴﺎ .ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ b = 0ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ xﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ .ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﻲ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺳﻤﺔ ﹼﹰ
ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺑﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺑﻊ ،ﺛﻢ ﺇﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻃﺮﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ.
ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ Quadratic Formula
ﺇﻥ ﺣﻠﻮﻝ ﺃﻱ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺇﻳﺠﺎﺩﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺣﻠﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ،ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ﺣﻴﺚ ،a ≠ 0ﺗﻌﻄﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
__ = x
¸¸¸¸√ -b ±
b -4ac 2
2a
ﻭﻛﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ،ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻢ ﺍﻷﺧﺬ ﺑﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﻣﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺣﻠﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺗﻌﻄﻴﻚ ﺍﻟﺤﻞ
ﻼ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ .ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺬﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺑﺼﺪﺩ ﺣ ﹼﻠﻬﺎ .ﻓﻌﺎﺩ ﹰﺓ ﹸﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺇﻫﻤﺎﻝ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻟﻜﻮﻧﻪ ﺣ ﹼﹰ
ﻏﺎﻟ ﹰﺒﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﺣﺎﻓﻆ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺫﻫﻨﻚ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ.
108
ﻣﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺒﻴﺔ
.10ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻵﺗﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ .x
4x2 – 19 = 17
12 – 3x2 = – 9
x2 – 2x – 24 = 0
24x2 – 14x – 6 = 0
)2(20.5 m
__________ = a ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ 2ﻋﺪﺩ ﺩﻗﻴﻖ ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻟﻦ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ
(5.00 s)2
_=a
1.64 m
2
ﻣﺜﻞ ﻭﻗﺮﺏ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ
ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﹼ
s
ﺃﻭ ﻣﺜﻞ a = 1.64 m/s 2
ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﺃﺧﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻉ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ،ﻣﻦ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ
ﺍﻟﺪﻗﺎﺋﻖ ﻣﺜ ﹰ
ﻼ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺍﻧﻲ ،ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻜﺎﻓﺊ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ . 1
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﺟﺪ ∆ xﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ v0=67 m/sﻭ . ∆ t = 5.0 minﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ∆ x = v0 ∆ t
60 s = 1
______
1 min
∆x = v0 ∆ t
67 m
_____ = ∆x
s ) ( 5.0 1min ) ( 160mins
________ ______ ﺍﺿﺮﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ) ( 160mins
______
∆ x = 20100 m = 2.0×104 m ﻗﺮﺏ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺭﻗﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﻌﻨﻮﻳﻴﻦ .ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﺛﻢ ﹼ
60 sﻭ 1 minﻣﻀﺒﻮﻃﻴﻦ ﻭﺩﻗﻴﻘﻴﻦ ،ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻟﻦ ﻳﺆﺛﺮﺍ ﻓﻲ
ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ.
109
ﻣﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺒﻴﺔ
.11ﺑﺴﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ 4.0×102 m
___________ = ∆t
16 m/s ﹼ
.12ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺠﻬﺔ ﻟﻘﻄﻌﺔ ﻗﺮﻣﻴﺪ ﺳﺎﻗﻄﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﻀﻲ ، 5.0 sﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ
a = - 9.80 m / s2ﻭ .v = a ∆ t
.13ﺃﻭﺟﺪ ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺿﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ( 321scm ) ( 160mins ) ( 601hmin ) ( 1001 mcm ) :
______ ______ _______ ________
ﹼ
ﺳﺠﻞ ﺍﻷﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻤﺒﻴﺔ ﺗﻢ ﻗﻄﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ 100.00 mﺧﻼﻝ .9.87 sﻣﺎ .14ﻓﻲ
ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻠﻮﻣﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺳﺎﻋﺔ؟
= m+m+__21 m ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺃﻋﻄﺖ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ mﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈﻥ dfﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ m
ﻭﻳﻄﺒﻖ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻷﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻀﻬﺎ ﺑﺪ ﹰ
ﻻ ﻣﻦ ﹼ ﻳﻄﺒﻖ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻞ __12ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺃﻋﻼﻩ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ،
ﻻ ﹼ
ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻟﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻬﻞ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ __2ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺒﺪﺃ ﺑﺈﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ.
1
110
ﺍﺳﺘﻌﲈﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﲏ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ Grahping Data to Determine Relationships
ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﳋﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻵﺗﻴﺔ ﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺭﺳﻮﻡ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﻴﺔ:
.1ﺍﺭﺳﻢ ﳏﻮﺭﻳﻦ ﻣﺘﻌﺎﻣﺪﻳﻦ.
ﻣﺴﺘﻌﻤﻼ ﺃﺳﲈﺀ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ.ﹰ ﻭﻋﲔ ﳏﻮﺭ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﲈ .2ﺣﺪﹼ ﺩ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺑﻌﺔ ،ﹼ
ﻋﲔ ﻣﺪ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﻐﲑ ،ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﳌﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﳌﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻟﻜﻞ ﳏﻮﺭ ،ﺛﻢ ﺣﺪﹼ ﺩ ﻭﺭ ﱢﻗﻢ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﻳﻴﺲ. .3ﹼ
ﺑﻴﺎﻧﻴﺎ.
ﻋﲔ ﻛﻞ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﹼﹰ .4ﹼ
.5ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺒﺪﻭ ﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﺔ ﻋﲆ ﺧﻂ ﻣﺴـﺘﻘﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺍﺭﺳـﻢ ﺍﳋﻂ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻼﺀﻣﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ .ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻻ ﺗﻘﻊ
ﹰ
ﺑﺴـﻴﻄﺎ ،ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻳﻤﺮ ﺑﺄﻛﱪ ﻋﺪﺩ ﳑﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ .ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻻ ﻳﺒﺪﻭ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺃﻱ ﻣﻴﻞ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﻴﺎ
ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ ﻋﲆ ﺧﻂ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺍﺭﺳـﻢ ﻣﻨﺤﻨﻰ ﹼﹰ
ﻻﲡﺎﻩ ﻣﻌﲔ ﻓﻼ ﺗﺮﺳﻢ ﹼﹰ
ﺧﻄﺎ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻨﺤﻨﹰﻰ.
.6ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﻋﻨﻮﺍ ﹰﻧﺎ ﻳﺼﻒ ﺑﻮﺿﻮﺡ ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﲏ.
ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻻﺭ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻻﺭ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﻨﻲ
500
Extrapolating
450
400
350
250
200
150
100
ﺣـﲔ ﺃﻥ ﻋﻤﻠﻴـﺔ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺗﻘﻊ ﺧـﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ
ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺔ ﺗﺴـﻤﻰ ﺍﻻﺳـﺘﻘﺮﺍﺀ .ﺇﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﳋﻂ ﺍﳌﻤﺜﻞ
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭﺍ. ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﻣﺴﺘﻌﻴﻨﹰﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﲏ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻴﻔﺎﺀ ﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﹼ
)ﺍﻟﺴ ﹾﻌﺮ( ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟـ 50ﹰ
ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮﺍ ﻳﺼﻞ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﲈ.
ﹼﹰ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭﺍ( ،ﺛﻢ ﺍﺭﺳﻢ ﹼﹰ
ﺧﻄﺎ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭﺍ 60 ،ﹰ
ﹰ ﺣﺪﺩ ﻧﻘﻄﺘﲔ ﻋﲆ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ 40) 50
ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭﺍ( ﻋﲆ ﺍﳌﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻷﻓﻘﻲ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻳﺘﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳋﻂ ﺍﳌﺮﺳﻮﻡ ،ﺛﻢ ﺍﺭﺳﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ
ﻣﺘﻘﻄﻌﺎ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﹼﹰﻳﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ) 50ﹰ
ﹰ ﺍﺭﺳﻢ ﺍﻵﻥ ﹼﹰ
ﺧﻄﺎ
ﺩﻭﻻﺭﺍ.
ﹰ ﺃﻓﻘﻴﺎ ﻳﺼﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﺃﳼ .ﺳﻮﻑ ﲡﺪ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﺘﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﻣﻌﻪ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ 131ﺃﻭ 132
ﻣﺘﻘﻄﻌﺎ ﹼﹰ
ﹰ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﹼﹰ
ﺧﻄﺎ
ﻣﺘﻘﻄﻌﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ) 1100ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ( ﻋﲆ ﺍﳌﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻷﻓﻘﻲ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻳﺘﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳋﻂ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺭﺳﻤﺘﻪ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ،
ﹰ ﺍﺭﺳﻢ ﹼﹰ
ﺧﻄﺎ
ﺩﻭﻻﺭﺍ.
ﹰ ﺃﻓﻘﻴﺎ .ﺳﺘﺠﺪ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﺘﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﺃﳼ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ 290
ﻣﺘﻘﻄﻌﺎ ﹼﹰ
ﹰ ﺛﻢ ﺍﺭﺳﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﹼﹰ
ﺧﻄﺎ
ﺗﻔﺴﲑ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﲏ ﺍﳋﻄﻲ Interpreting Line Graph
ﻳﻮﺿـﺢ ﺍﻟﺮﺳـﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴـﺎﲏ ﺍﳋﻄـﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗـﺔ ﺍﳋﻄﻴـﺔ ﺑـﲔ
ﻣﺘﻐﲑﻳﻦ .ﻭﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻧﻮﻋﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺳـﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﳋﻄﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ
ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻊ
112
ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ
y = mx + b
ﺑﻴﺎﻧﻴﺎ ﻗﻢ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺛﻼﺙ ﻗﻴﻢ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﲑ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﻞ )ﻳﻠﺰﻡ ﻧﻘﻄﺘﺎﻥ ﻓﻘﻂ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺜﺔ
ﲤﺜﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﳋﻄﻴﺔ ﺑﺨﻂ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ ،ﻭﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻠﻬﺎ ﹼﹰ
ﻋﲔ ﺯﻭﺟﲔ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﲔ ) ،(x , yﻭﺍﺭﺳﻢ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﺧﻂ ﻳﻤﺮ
ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﺍﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ( .ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﲑ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺑﻊ ،ﺛﻢ ﹼ
ﺑﺠﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ.
ﺍﻷﺯﻭﺍﺝ ﺍﳌﺮﺗﺒﺔ
x y
0 3
2 2
6 0
113
ﺍﳌﻴﻞ Slope
ﻣﻴﻞ ﺍﳋﻂ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﰲ ﺍﻹﺣﺪﺍﺛﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﰲ ﺍﻹﺣﺪﺍﺛﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻨﻴﺔ ،ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻮﺩﻱ
)ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺑﻞ( ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻐﲑ ﺍﻷﻓﻘﻲ )ﺍﳌﺠﺎﻭﺭ( .ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ ﳜﱪﻙ ﺑﻜﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻧﺤﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﳋﻂ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﲏ ،ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﹰ
ﺭﻗﲈ ﻣﻮﺟ ﹰﺒﺎ ﺃﻭ ﺳﺎﻟ ﹰﺒﺎ.
ﻭﻹﳚﺎﺩ ﻣﻴﻞ ﺍﳋﻂ ﻗﻢ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻧﻘﻄﺘﲔ) ،(x2 ، y2) ، (x1 ، y1ﺛﻢ ﺍﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻑ )ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ( ﺑﲔ ﺍﻹﺣﺪﺍﺛﻴﲔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻨﻴﲔ ،∆x = x2-x1
ﻭﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻑ )ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ( ﺑﲔ ﺍﻹﺣﺪﺍﺛﻴﲔ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﻳﲔ ) ،∆y = (y2-y1ﺛﻢ ﺟﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺑﲔ ∆yﻭ . ∆x
y
x
114
x y
-10 -9
-6 -15
-3 -30
-2 -45
2 45
3 30
6 15
10 9
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﰲ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﴎﻋﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺔ ، λ = vﺣﻴﺚ λﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ f ،ﺍﻟﱰﺩﺩ ،ﻭ vﴎﻋﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺔ،
f
ﻋﻜﺴﻴﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﱰﺩﺩ؛ ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻛﻠﲈ ﻳﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺔ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﻗﺺ ،ﺃﻣﺎ v
ﹼﹰ ﻧﺠﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻲ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ
ﻓﺘﺒﻘﻰ ﻗﻴﻤﺘﻬﺎ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ.
115
ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ:
y= ax2 + bx + c
ﺣﻴﺚ a ≠ 0
ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﲏ ﻟﻠﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﲆ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﻗﻄﻊ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺊ ،ﻭﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﻓﺘﺤﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ ﻋﲆ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑ
ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﻞ) ،(aﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﻮﺟ ﹰﺒﺎ ﺃﻭ ﺳﺎﻟ ﹰﺒﺎ.
x y
-1 -6
0 -1
1 2
2 3
3 2
4 -1
5 -6
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻨﺤﻨﻰ )ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻊ -ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ( ﻋﲆ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﳌﻨﺤﻨﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﲏ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﱰﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻓﻬﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ
ﺃﻥ ﺍﳉﺴﻢ ﻳﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺑﺘﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﻣﻨﺘﻈﻢ.
11 3
18 4
ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ )(s
116
ﺍﳌﺮﺑﻊ
A=a2 P = 4a
a ﺍﻟﻀﻠﻊ
ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻄﻴﻞ
A = lw P = 2l + 2w I ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ
w ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺽ
ﺍﳌﺜﻠﺚ
1
A = ( ) bh
2
b ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪﺓ
h ﺍﻻﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ
ﺍﳌﻜﻌﺐ
V=a3 SA = 6a 2
a ﺍﻟﻀﻠﻊ
ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ
A = πr2 C = 2πr
r ﻧﺼﻒ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺮ
ﺍﻷﺳﻄﻮﺍﻧﺔ
V = πr 2h SA = 2πrh+2πr 2 r ﻧﺼﻒ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺮ
h ﺍﻻﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ
ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺓ
V = (4 )πr 3 SA = 4πr 2
3 r ﻧﺼﻒ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺮ
117
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﺍﺑﺤﺚ ﰲ ﻣﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺩﺭﺳﺘﻬﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺃﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻴﺔ ،ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺛﻼﺛﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺑﻌﺎﺩ ﺃﻭ
ﺫﺍﺕ ﺑﻌﺪﻳﻦ .ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﲤﺜﻞ ﺍﻷﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﴪﻋﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﺠﻬﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺘﺠﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻊ.
a b
ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻊ )(m
ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻊ )(m
.VIﺍﻟﻠﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﻤﻴﺎﺕ Logarithms
ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﻟﻸﺳﺎﺱ b
ﺍﻓﱰﺽ ﺃﻥ bﻭ xﻋﺪﺩﺍﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺎﻥ ،ﺑﺤﻴﺚ .b ≠ 1ﻓﺈﻥ ﻟﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﻢ xﻟﻸﺳﺎﺱ bﻳﻜﺘﺐ ﰲ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ) (logb xﻭﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ،y
ﺣﻴﺚ ﲤﺜﻞ yﺍﻷﺱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳚﻌﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ x = byﺻﺤﻴﺤﺔ .ﺇﻥ ﻟﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﻢ xﻟﻸﺳﺎﺱ bﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻷﳼ ) (yﺍﻟﺬﻱ
ﺗﺮﻓﻊ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ bﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﲆ .x
logb x = yﺇﺫﺍ ﻭﻓﻘﻂ ﺇﺫﺍ b y = x
ﻣﺜﺎﻝ :ﺃﻭﺟﺪ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﲈﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ:
1 =-4
__ log2 ﻷﻥ 1
___= 2-4
16 16
log10 1000 = 3 ﻷﻥ 103 = 1000
118
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﻳﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﲈﺕ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﲤﺘﺪ ﺇﱃ ﻣﻘﺎﺩﻳﺮ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ
ﻟﻠﻌﺪﺩ ،10ﻭﻳﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﳉﻴﻮﻓﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﻮﻥ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺭﳜﱰ ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻟﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﻤﻲ ﻳﻮﻓﺮ ﳍﻢ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﻋﲆ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺰﻻﺯﻝ
ﻣﻦ 5ﺇﱃ 7ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﱪ ،ﻭﲣﺘﻠﻒ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﻻﺯﻝ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ 7ﺃﻭ ﺑﻘﻮ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻟﻸﺳﺎﺱ .10
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﺇﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ،Lﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﺴﺒﻞ ،ﻫﻲ .L =10 Log10 Rﺣﻴﺚ Rﺍﻟﺸﺪﺓ
ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ .ﺍﺣﺴﺐ Rﻟﺸﻮﻛﺔ ﺭﻧﺎﻧﺔ ﺗﺼﺪﺭ ﺻﻮ ﹰﺗﺎ ﺑﻤﺴﺘﻮ ﺻﻮﺕ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻩ 130ﺩﻳﺴﻴﺒﻞ.
130 =10 Log10 R ﻗﺴﻢ ﻃﺮﰲ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ 10ﹼ
13 =Log10 R ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﻢ
R =1013
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﻢ ﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﻭﺗﺮﻳﺪ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﲈﻝ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻹﳚﺎﺩ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﻢ.
ﻣﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺒﻴﺔ
.15ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ Log3 81= 4
.16ﺍﻛﺘﺐ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ 10-3 = 0.001
.17ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ،Log x = 3.125ﻓﺄﻭﺟﺪ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ .x
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SI ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ
m meter ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻝ
kg kilogram ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ
s second ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ
K kelvin ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﺍﺭﺓ
mol mole ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ
A ampere ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ
cd candela ﺷﺪﺓ ﺍﻹﺿﺎﺀﺓ
SI
SI
1 in = 2.54 cm 1kg = 6.02 × 1026 u 1 atm = 101 kPa
1 mi = 1.61 km 1 oz ↔ 28.4 g 1 cal = 4.184 J
1 kg ↔ 2.21 lb 1ev = 1.60 × 10-19 J
1 gal = 3.79 L 1 lb = 4.45 N 1kwh = 3.60 MJ
1 m = 264 gal
3
1 atm = 14.7 lb/in 2
1 hp = 746 W
1atm = 1.01 × 10 N/m 5 2
1 mol= 6.022 × 1023
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femto f 10-15
baico p 10-12
nano n 10-9
micro µ 10-6
mile m 10-3
cm c 10-2
disa d 10-1
dica da 101
hecto h 102
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
terra T 1012
beta P 1015
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ﺣﺪﻳﺪ 7.30 ﺇﻧﺪﻳﻮﻡ
2750 1535
7.86 ﺣﺪﻳﺪ
1740 327.5 ﺭﺻﺎﺹ
11.34 ﺭﺻﺎﺹ
2355 1410 ﺳﻴﻠﻴﻜﻮﻥ 13.546 ﺯﺋﺒﻖ
2212 961.93 ﻓﻀﺔ 1.429×10-3 ﺃﻛﺴﺠﲔ
JkgK JkgK
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2.72×105 1.15×104
nm
123
m/s
gmol
207.2
(25°) ﻣﺎﺀ 1493
ﻣﻄﺎﻁ 1600
ﺃﳌﺎﺱ 12000
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Alpha Decayﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﻳﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ.
Beta Decayﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﻳﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻥ ﺇﱃ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻥ ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻭﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ
ﻭﺃﻧﺘﻲ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﻮ.
Gamma Decay ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻟﻜﻦ ﺩﻭﻥ
ﺗﻐﲑ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ.
ﹰ
ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻃﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺬﺭﺓ. Work Functionﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﺿﻌﻒ
Stimulated Emissionﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﲢﺪﺙ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺼﻄﺪﻡ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻪ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﲔ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻲ
ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻹﺛﺎﺭﺓ ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺑﺬﺭﺓ ﻣﺜﺎﺭﺓ ،ﻓﺘﻌﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﺍﱃ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ،ﻭﻳﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻓﻮﺗﻮﻥ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻪ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ
ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﲔ ﻃﺎﻗﺘﻲ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻳﲔ.
ﲢﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﻣﺰﺩﻭﺟﺔ "ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻭﺿﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ". Pair Productionﹼ
Fusionﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎﺍﻧﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﺃﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ ﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻭﲢﺮﻳﺮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ.
Fissionﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﻘﺴﻢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻮﺍﺗﲔ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻭ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﻃﺎﻗﺔ.
Photoelectric Effectﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻄﻮﺡ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺰﺍﺕ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﺇﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﻛﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ
ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ.
Compton Effectﺍﻹﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﰲ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺸﺘﺘﺔ.
Threshold Frequencyﺃﻗﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻸﺷﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻄﺔ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﲢﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ.
Chain Reactionﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﻭﻣﺘﻜﺮﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﺍﻻﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭ ﺳﺒﺒﻬﺎ ﲢﺮﻳﺮ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ
ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻻﻧﺸﻄﺎﺭﺍﻷﻭﻝ.
Nuclear Reactionﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﲢﺪﺙ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ.
ﻭﻗﺪ ﲢﺪﺙ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻘﺬﻑ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺑﺄﺷﻌﺔ ﺟﺎﻣﺎ ،ﺃﻭ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺃﻭ ﻧﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺃﻭﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺎ ،ﺃﻭ ﺇﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ.
Alpha Particlesﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﻭﺛﻘﻴﻠﺔ ،ﻭﺗﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺑﴪﻋﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ،ﻭﻳﺮﻣﺰ ﳍﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻣﺰ.α
Excited Stateﺃﻱ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ ﺃﻋﲆ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ.
Ground Stateﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﲤﺘﻠﻚ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻣﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ.
Force Carriersﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺗﻨﻘﻞ ﺃﻭ ﲢﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ.
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Electron Cloudﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﲈﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ.
Coherent Lightﺿﻮﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﺪﺭﻳﻦ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ،ﻳﻮﻟﺪ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﺘﻈﻤﺔ .ﺃﻭ ﻣﻮﺟﺎﺕ
ﺿﻮﺀ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﺘﻄﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﻤﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻴﻌﺎﻥ.
Incoherent Lightﺿﻮﺀ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻏﲑ ﻣﺘﺰﺍﻣﻨﺔ ﺗﴤﺀ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺑﻀﻮﺀ ﺃﺑﻴﺾ ﻣﻨﺘﻈﻢ.
ﺃﻭ ﻫﻮ ﺿﻮﺀ ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ،ﻗﻤﻤﻬﺎ ﻭﻗﻴﻌﺎﳖﺎ ﻏﲑ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻓﻘﺔ.
Binding Energyﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ ﻟﻨﻘﺺ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻭﻫﻲ ﺩﺍﺋﲈ ﺳﺎﻟﺒﺔ.
De Broglie Wavelengthﻃﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﳌﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺴﻢ ﺃﻭ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﻙ.
Absorption Spectrumﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﳑﻴﺰﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻃﻮﺍﻝ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻴﺔ ،ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻣﺘﺼﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺟﺰﺀ
ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ،ﻭﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﲆ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ.
Emission Spectrumﺿﻮﺀ ﻳﻨﺒﻌﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺧﻨﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﺘﻮﻫﺠﺔ ﰲ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﳏﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﱰﺩﺩﺍﺕ.
Atomic Numberﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﰲ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ.
Mass Numberﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻧﻮﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ.
Principal Quantum Number ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ nﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳛﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﳌﻜﲈﺓ ﻟﻨﺼﻒ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺮ ﺃﻭ
ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﳌﺴﺘﻮ )ﻣﺪﺍﺭ( ﺍﻻﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ _ ﻳﺘﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻧﺼﻒ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺮ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ nﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﲆ ﻣﻘﻠﻮﺏ. n2
Half - Lifeﺍﻟﻔﱰﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ﻧﺼﻒ ﺃﻱ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﻄﺎﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﻧﻈﲑ ﻋﻨﴫ ﻣﺸﻊ.
Photon ﺣﺰﻣﺔ ﻣﻜﲈﺓ ﻣﻨﻔﺼﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﴘ ،ﻟﻴﺲ ﻟﻪ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺳﻜﻮﻧﻴﺔ ،ﻭﻳﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﺑﴪﻋﺔ
ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ،ﻭﻟﻪ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﲢﺮﻙ.
ﻗﻮﺓ ﺿﻌﻴﻔﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﰲ ﺍﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ. Weak Nuclear Force
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Strong Nuclear Force ﻗﻮﺓ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﺟﺪﹰ ﺍ ﺗﺮﺑﻂ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ،ﻭﻫﻲ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺑﲔ
ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺃﻭ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺃﻭ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ.
ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻧﺎﺕ.
Quarksﺟﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ ﹼ
ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻻﻟﻜﱰﻭﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻳﻨﺎﺕ.
Leptonsﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﺴﻴﲈﺕ ﹼ
Laserﺿﻮﺀ ﻣﻮﺣﺪ ﻣﱰﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﺘﻔﻖ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻹﺛﺎﺭﺓ ﺫﺭﺍﺕ ﺃﺧﺮ ،ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻹﻧﺒﻌﺎﺙ ﺍﳌﺤﻔﺰ
ﺑﺎﻹﺷﻌﺎﻉ.
Uncertainty Principle ﻳﻨﺺ ﻋﲆ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺟﺴﻴﻢ ﻭﺯﲬﻪ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ،ﰲ
ﺍﻟﻠﺤﻈﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ.
Energy Levelﻛﲈﺕ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻮ ﻟﻠﺬﺭﺓ.
Quantized ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﰲ ﺣﺰﻣﺔ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ.
Activityﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻻﺿﻤﺤﻼﻝ ،ﺃﻭ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺇﻧﺤﻼﻻﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﳌﺸﻌﺔ ﻛﻞ ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ.
Mass Defectﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﲔ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﻛﺘﻞ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺓ ﻣﻨﻔﺮﺩﺓ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻴﺔ ﳍﺎ.
Quantum Modelﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﻳﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﺣﺘﲈﻟﻴﺔ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﱰﻭﻥ ﰲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﻓﻘﻂ.
Standard Model ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﻭﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺎﺩﺓ ،ﺗﺘﻮﺯﻉ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﳉﺰﻳﺌﺎﺕ ﻋﲆ ﺛﻼﺙ ﻋﺎﺋﻼﺕ ﻫﻲ
ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﺭﻛﺎﺕ ،ﻭﺍﻟﻠﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎﺕ ،ﻭﺣﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ.
Nuclide ﺟﺰﺀ ﺻﻐﲑ ﺟﺪﹰ ﺍ ﰲ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ ،ﻣﻮﺟﺐ ﺍﻟﺸﺤﻨﺔ ،ﻭﺗﱰﻛﺰ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﺓ.
Nucleonsﻣﺴﻤﻰ ﻳﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﲆ ﺍﻟﱪﻭﺗﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻴﻮﺗﺮﻭﻧﺎﺕ.
ﺣﻴﺚ u
12
6
_ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻧﻈﲑ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻥC
1
12
Atomic Mass Unit ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ، uﻭﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺄﳖﺎ
ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ 1.66×10 -27 kg
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اﻟﺠﺪول اﻟﺪوري ﻟﻠﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ
ﺃﺳﲈﺀ ﺭﻣﻮﺯ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ 111ﺇﱃ 114ﻣﺆﻗﺘﺔ ،ﻭﺳﻴﺘﻢ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺃﺳﲈﺀ ﳖﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﳍﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻓﻬﺎ.
ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﻈﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫﻳﻦ 116ﻭ 118ﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻨﻬﲈ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺗﻢ ﺍﻟﱰﺍﺟﻊ ﻋﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ؛ ﻷﻧﻪ ﱂ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﲠﲈ.
128
ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﻋﻤﻮﺩ ﺗﺪﻋﻰ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ،ﻭﳍﺎ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﻏﺎﺯ
ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﺸﺎﲠﺔ.
ﺳﺎﺋﻞ
ﺻﻠﺐ
ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ
ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ﹸﻣﺼﻨﻊ
ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ
ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ
ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﺗﺪﻝ ﻋﲆ
ﺍﳌﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ
ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﴫ ﰲ ﺩﺭﺟــﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ
ﺍﻟﻐﺮﻓﺔ.ﺑﻴﻨﲈ ﻳﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻊ ﻋﲆ
ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﺍﳌﺼﻨﻌﺔ.
ﻋﻤﺮﺍ ﻟﻠﻌﻨﴫ.
ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ ﺍﳌﺤﺎﻁ ﺑﻘﻮﺳﲔ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﲇ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﲑ ﺍﻷﻃﻮﻝ ﹰ
ﺻﻔﻮﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﺍﻷﻓﻘﻴﺔ ﺗﺪﻋﻰ
ﺩﻭﺭﺍﺕ .ﻳﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻱ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻟﻴﺴﺎﺭ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﲔ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ.
ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﻧﺜﺎﻧﻴﺪﺍﺕ
ﻳﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻬﻢ ﻋﲆ ﺍﳌﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳚﺐ
ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺘﻨﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻮﺿﻊ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﴏ ﰲ
ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ .ﻟﻘﺪ ﺗﻢ ﻧﻘﻠﻬﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺃﺳﻔﻞ
ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ ﺗﻮﻓﲑ ﹰﺍ ﻟﻠﻤﻜﺎﻥ.
129