record Explanations

Descriptive
declarative
The principal programming paradigms See "Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming".
programming The chart classifies programming paradigms according to their kernel
XML, "More is not better (or worse) than less, just different." languages (the small core language in which all the paradigm’s
S−expression abstractions can be defined). Kernel languages are ordered according to
Data structures only the creative extension principle: a new concept is added when it cannot be
Turing equivalent + procedure v1.08 © 2008 by Peter Van Roy encoded with only local transformations. Two languages that implement
the same paradigm can nevertheless have very different "flavors" for the
First−order + cell (state) programmer, because they make different choices about what
Observable functional Imperative
programming programming techniques and styles to facilitate.
nondeterminism? Yes No programming
Pascal, C When a language is mentioned under a paradigm, it means that part of
+ closure Imperative the language is intended (by its designers) to support the paradigm
Functional search without interference from other paradigms. It does not mean that there
programming + search
programming is a perfect fit between the language and the paradigm. It is not enough
+ unification Scheme, ML + name SNOBOL, Icon, Prolog that libraries have been written in the language to support the paradigm.
(equality) (unforgeable constant) The language’s kernel language should support the paradigm. When
Deterministic + continuation + cell there is a family of related languages, usually only one member of the
ADT + cell ADT + port family is mentioned to avoid clutter. The absence of a language does
logic programming Continuation functional imperative (state) + closure
programming (channel) not imply any kind of value judgment.
programming programming Sequential
+ search Scheme, ML Event−loop object−oriented
Haskell, ML, E CLU, OCaml, Oz programming State is the ability to remember information, or more precisely, to store a
Relational & logic + by−need + thread programming sequence of values in time. Its expressive power is strongly influenced by
programming synchron. + single assign. + nondeterministic + port E in one vat Stateful the paradigm that contains it. We distinguish four levels of expressiveness,
Prolog, SQL Lazy Monotonic choice (channel) + thread functional which differ in whether the state is unnamed or named, deterministic or
embeddings functional dataflow Nonmonotonic Multi−agent programming nondeterministic, and sequential or concurrent. The least expressive is
Multi−agent functional programming (threaded state, e.g., DCGs and monads:
+ solver programming programming dataflow dataflow programming Java, OCaml
programming programming unnamed, deterministic, and sequential). Adding concurrency gives
Constraint (logic) Haskell Declarative Message−passing + thread declarative concurrent programming (e.g., synchrocells: unnamed,
programming concurrent Concurrent logic Oz, Alice, AKL concurrent Concurrent deterministic, and concurrent). Adding nondeterministic choice gives
CLP, ILOG Solver programming programming programming object−oriented concurrent logic programming (which uses stream mergers: unnamed,
+ thread Pipes, MapReduce Oz, Alice, Curry, Excel, Erlang, AKL programming nondeterministic, and concurrent). Adding ports or cells, respectively,
+ thread + by−need AKL, FGHC, FCP Shared−state gives message passing or shared state (both are named, nondeterministic,
Concurrent + single assignment synchronization + local cell and concurrent). Nondeterminism is important for real−world interaction
constraint + synch. on partial termination concurrent
Lazy Active object programming (e.g., client/server). Named state is important for modularity.
programming Functional reactive
dataflow programming (FRP) programming Smalltalk, Oz,
LIFE, AKL programming Axes orthogonal to this chart are typing, aspects, and domain−specificity.
Weak synchronous Object−capability Java, Alice Typing is not completely orthogonal: it has some effect on expressiveness.
+ by−need synchronization Lazy programming
programming + log Aspects should be completely orthogonal, since they are part of a
Lazy concurrent declarative program’s specification. A domain−specific language should be definable
constraint concurrent FrTime, SL CSP, Occam, Software
E, Oz, Alice, transactional in any paradigm (except when the domain needs a particular concept).
programming programming + instantaneous computation
publish/subscribe, memory (STM)
Oz, Alice, Curry Oz, Alice, Curry Strong synchronous tuple space (Linda) Metaprogramming is another way to increase the expressiveness of a
programming SQL embeddings language. The term covers many different approaches, from higher−order
Logic and Esterel, Lustre, Signal Dataflow and programming, syntactic extensibility (e.g., macros), to higher−order
constraints Functional message passing Message passing Shared state programming combined with syntactic support (e.g., meta−object
protocols and generics), to full−fledged tinkering with the kernel language
Nondet. state (introspection and reflection). Syntactic extensibility and kernel language
Unnamed state (seq. or conc.) Named state tinkering in particular are orthogonal to this chart. Some languages, such
More declarative Less declarative as Scheme, are flexible enough to implement many paradigms in almost
native fashion. This flexibility is not shown in the chart.