Gas Turbines and Jet Propulsion 25.1. Gas turbines—general aspects, 25.2, Classification of gas turbines. 25.3. Merits of gas turbines. 25.4. Constant pressure combustion gas turbines—Open eycle gus tarbines—Methods for improvement of thermal efficiency of open eycle gas turbine plant—Effect of operating variables on thermal efficiency—Closed eyele gas turbine—Merits and domerits of closed eyele gas turbine over open cycle gas turbine. 25.5. Constant, volume combustion turbines. 25.6. Uses of gas turbines. 25,7. Gas turbine fuels 25.8, Jet propalsion—Turbo:jet—Turbo-prop—Ram-jet—Pulse-jet onjgine— Rocket engines—Highlights—Objective Type Quostions—Theoretical Questions—Unsolved ‘Examples. GAS TURBINES—GENERAL ASPECTS , ; ws Probably a wind-mill was the first turbine to produce useful work, wherein the there is no pre-compression and no combustion. The characteristic features of a gas turbine as we think of the mame today include a compression process and a heat addition (or combustion) process. The gas turbine represents pethaps the most satisfactory way of producing very large quantities of power ima self-contained and compact unit. The gas turbine may have a future use in conjunction with the oil engine. For smaller gas turbine units, the inefficiencies in compression and expansion processes become greater and to improve the thermal efficiency it is necessary to use a heat exchanger. In order that a small gas turbine may eompete for economy with the small oil engine or petrol engine it is necessary that a compact effective heat exchanger be used in the gas turbine cycle. The thermal efficiency of the gas turbine alone is still quite modest 20 to 30% compared with that of a modern steam turbine plant 38 to 40%. It is possible to construct combined plants whose efficiencies are of order of 45% or more. Higher efficiencies might be attained in future. ‘The following are the major fields of application of gas turbines : 1, Aviation 2, Power generation 3. Oil and gas industry 4. Marine propulsion. ‘The efficiency of a gas turbine is not the criteria for the choice of this plant. A gas turbine is used in aviation and marine fields because it is self contained, light weight not requiring cooling water and generally fit into the overall shape of the structure, It is selected for power generation because of its simplicity, lack of cooling water, needs quick installation and quick starting. It is used in ofl and gas industry because of cheaper supply of fuel and low installation cost. ‘The gas turbines have the following limitations : (0 They are not seif starting ; (ti) low efficiencies at part loads ; (iii) non-reversibility ; (iv) higher rotor speeds and (v) overall efficiency of the plant low. ‘The gas turbines are mainly divided into two groups ; 1, Constant pressure combustion gas turbine (@) Open-cycle constant pressure gas turbine (b) Closed cycle constant pressure gas turbine. 1342GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION 1343 2. Constant volume combustion gas turbine In almost all the fields open eyele gas turbine plants are used. Closed eyele plants were introduced at one stage because of their ability to burn cheap fuel. In between their progress remained slow because of availability of cheap oil and natural gas. Because of rising oil prices, now again, the attention is being paid to closed cycle plants, Eliennsorcsrmsnes —i—‘—sSCSd (i Merits over LC. engines 1. The mechanical efficiency of a gas turbine (95%) is quite high as compared with LC. ‘engine (85%) since the LLC. engine has a large number of sliding parts. 2. A gas turbine does not require a flywheel as the torque on the shaft is continuous and uniform, Whereas a flywheel is a must in case of an IC. engine. 3. The weight of gas turbine per HP. developed is less than that of an LC, engine. 4. ‘The gas turbine can be driven at a very high speeds (40000 r:p.m.} whereas this is not possible with ILC. engines. 5. The work developed by 4 gas turbine per kg of air is more as compared to an LC. ‘engine. This is due to the fact that gases ean be expanded upto atmospheric pressure in case of a gas turbine whereas in an IC. engine expansion upto atmospheric pres- sure is not possible. 6. The components of the gas turbine can be made lighter since the pressures used in it are very low, say 5 bar compared with LC, engine, say 60 bar, 7. In the gas turbine the ignition and lubrication systems are much simpler as com- pared with LC, engines, (Cheaper fuels such as paraffine type, residue oils or powdered coal can be used whereas special grade fuels are employed in petrol engine to check knocking or pinking. ‘The exhdust from gas turbine és less polluting comparatively since excess air is used for combustion, 10. Because of low specific weight the gas turbines are particularly suitable for use in airerafts. Demerits of gas turbines 1. The thermal efficiency of @ simple turbine eycle LC, engines (25 to 30%), 2, With wide operating speeds the fuel control is comparatively difficult, 4. ue wohigher eperating speeds ofthe turbine iis imperative to have a speed reduction 8. low (15 to 20%) as compared with 4. His difficult 1 start a gas turbine as compared to an LC, engine, 5. The gas turbine blades need a special cooling system, 6. One of the main demerits of a gas turbine is its very poor thermal efficiency at part Joads, as the quantity of air remains same irrespective of loud, and output is reduced by reducing the quantity of fuel supplied. 7. Owing to the use of nickel-chromium alloy, the manufacture of the blades is difficult and. costly. 8, For the same output thi jas turbine produccs five times exhaust gases than LC. engine, 9. Because of prevalence of high temperature | 1000 K for blades and 2500 K for combus- tion chamber) and centrifiyzal force the life of the combustion chamber and blades is short/small.1344 ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING (i) Merits over steam turbines : ‘The gas turbine entails the following advantages over steam turbines 1. Capital and running cost less. 2. For the same output the space required is far less. 3. Starting is more easy and quick. 4, Weight per H.P. is far less. 5, 6 7 . Can be installed anywhere, . Control of gas turbine is much easier. Boiler along with accessories not required. Ea CONSTANT PRESSURE COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES 25.4.1. Open Cycle Gas Turbines Refer Fig. 25.1. The fundamental gas turbine unit is one operating on the open eyele in which a rotary compressor and a turbine are mounted on a common shaft. Air is drawn into the compressor and after compression passes to a combustion chamber. Energy is supplied in the combustion chamber by spraying fuel into the air stream, and the resulting hot gases expand through the turbine to the atmosphere. In order to achieve network output from the unit, the turbine must develop more gross work output than is required to drive the compressor and to ‘overcome mechanical losses in the drive. The products of combustion coming out from the turbine are exhausted to the atmosphere as they eannot. be used any more. The working fluids (air and fuel) must be replaced continuously as they are exhausted inte the atmosphere. ;— Fue! (Heat) Airin a Pig. 25.1. Open eyele gas turbine. If pressure loss in the combustion chamber is neglected, this cycle may be drawn on a T-s diagram as shown in Fig. 25.2. © 1.2’ represents : Irreversible adiabatic compression. © 2-3 represents ; Constant pressure heat supply in the combustion chamber. © 3-1’ represents : Irreversible adiéibatic expansion.GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION 1345 © 1-2 represents : Ideal isentropic compression. © 3-4 represents : Ideal isentropic expansion. Fig. 252 Assuming change in kinetic energy between the various points in the cycle to be negligibly small compared with enthalpy changes and then applying the flow equation to each part of cycle, for unit mass, we have Work input (compressor) =, (Ty -T)) Heat supplied (combustion chamber) (T, =, Work output (turbine) ty (Ta — Ty) Network output = Work output ~ Work input =, (T,- TY) -6{Ty - 7) ‘Network output Tehermal = “Treat aupplied p(T ~ Tr") ~eg(Ty’ = Ty) * ey(T3 Ta’) Compressor isentropic efficiency, hom __ Work input required in isentropic compression - ‘Actual work required ue ep(T2-T) _ 7-7 el25.1) opty 1) Ty'= 7, ‘Turbine isentropic efficiency, Thursine _ Actual work output ~ Isentropic work output andCaM) Tyree (25.2) Ty-T) T3-Ty Note. With the variation in temperature, the value of the specific heat of a real gas varies, and also.in the ‘open eyele, the specifi heut of the gases in the combustion chamber and in turbine is different from that in the ‘compressor because fuel has been added and a chemical change has taken place. Curves showing the variation of «¢, With temperature and sir/fael ratio can be used, and a suitable mean value ofc, ane hence-yean be found out. It ‘if usual in gas turbine practiee to aasume fixed mean value ofe, and y for the expansion process, and fixed mean ‘values ofc, and 7 for the compression process. In an open cyele gins turbine unit the mass flow of gases in turbine i greater than thatin compressor due to mass of fuel burned, but itis possible to neglect mass of fuel, sinee the air/ fuel ratios used are large. Also, in many eases, air is bled from the compressor for cooling purposes, ot in the ease ‘of air-craft at high altitudes, bled air is used for de-icing and eabin air-conditioning. This amount of air bled is approximately the same-as the mass of fuel injected therein. 25.4.2. Methods for Improvement of Thermal Efficiency of Open Cycle Gas Turbine Plant ‘The following methods are employed to increase the specific output and thermal efficiency of the plant ; 1, Intercooling 2. Reheating 3, Regeneration. 1. Intereooling. A compressor in a gas turbine cycle utilises the major percentage of power developed by the gas turbine. The work required by the compressor can be reduced by compressing the air in two stages and incorporating an intercooler between the two as shown in Fig. 25.3. The corresponding T's diagram for the unit is shown in Fig. 25.4. The actual processes take place as. follows 1-2" c. LaP. (Low pressuse) compression re vs Intercooling a . _ HLP. (igh pressure) compression 45 C.C. (Combustion chamber)-heating a T (Turbine}-expansion Intercooler Fuel (Heat) Fig, 26.9, Turbine plant with intercooler.GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION: 1347 ‘The ideal cycle for this arrangement is 1-2--4-5-6 ; the compression process without intereooling is shown as 1-L’ in the actual case, and 1-L in the ideal isentropic case. Fig. 25.4, T-s diagram for the unit. Now, Work input (with intercooling) =e(Ty- 7) +¢(T/~T,) (25.3) Work input (without intercooling) e(Ty’ —Ty) = oT y -Ty) 4 fT! Ty) a2) By comparing equation (25.4) with equation (25.3) it can be observed that the work input with intereooling is less than the work input with no intercooling, when ¢, (Tj — T,) is dess than c,(7,' ~T'). This is so if it is assumed that isentropic efficiencies of the two compressors, operating separately, are each equal to the isentropic efficiency of the single compressor which ‘would be required if no intereooling were used. Then (T,’—T,) <(T,’ ~T,;) since the pressure lines diverge on the 7's diagram from left to the right, Network output Gross work output Work of expansion ~ Work of compression “Work of expansion = From this we may conclude that when the compressor work input is reduced then the work ratio ix increased. However, the heat supplied in the combustion chamber when intercooling is used in the ycle, is given by, Heat supplied with intereooling = ¢,(T, ~T,) ‘Also the heat supplied when intercooling is not used, with the same maximum eyele tem- perature 7,, is given by Heat supplied without intereooling = ¢,, (Ty ~ Again, work ratioof. be im suet Sr Ee ine provides the nef power anit. The corespondng Td Ca heal Reheater [wor Exhaust Fig, 25.5. Gas turbine with reheater,GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION 1319 Neglecting mechanical losses the work output of the H.P. turbine must be exactly equal to the work input required for the compressor ie., ¢,, (Ty — T;) = ty (T,~ Ty) ‘The work output (net output) of L.P. turbine is given by, ‘Net work output (with reheating) oq (T5— Te) and Net work output (without reheating) = ¢,,(Z,’~ Ty’) ‘Sinco the pressure lines diverge to the right on T-s dingram it can be seen that the tempera- tare difference (7, — Ty) is always greater than (T,’— 7,9, 60 that reheating increases the net work output. Although net work is increased by reheating the heat to be supplied is also increased, and the net effect can be to reduce the thermal efficiency Heat supplied = Cy (Ty — Ty) + iq (Tp Ty). ‘Note.c,_ ande, stand for specificheats of air and gus respectively at constant pressure. 3. Regeneration. The exhaust gases from a gas turbine carry a large quantity of heat with them since their temperature is far above the ambient temperature. They can be used to heat the air coming from the compressor thereby reducing the mass of fuel supplied in the combustion chamber. Fig. 25.7 shows a gas turbine plant with a regenerator. The corresponding T-s diagram is shown in Fig, 25.8, 2-3 represents the heat flow into the compressed air during its passage through the heat exchanger and 3-4 represents the heat taken in from the combustion of fuel. Point 6 represents the temperature of exhaust gases at discharge from the heat exchanger. The maximum temperature to which the air could be heated in the heat exchanger is ideally that of exhaust gases, but less than this is obtnined in practice becauso a temperature gradient must exist for an unassisted transfer of energy. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger is given by : 8 + Exhaust Heat Fig. 25.7. Gas turbine with regenerator.1350, ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING Increase in enthalpy per kg of air esr: © [yaliable increnes in enthalpy perky of 62 ~ Ma-t) : * Ron (25.5) (assuming ¢,, and ¢,, to be equal) ¥ Pig. 25.8. 7s diagram for the unit. A heat exchanger is usually used in large gas turbine units for marine propulsion or industrial power. 25.4.3. Effect of Operating Variables on Thermal Efficiency ‘The thermal efficiency of actual open cycle depends on the following thermodynamic variables. : f (i) Pressure ratio (i) Turbine inlet temperature (T,) (ii) Compressor inlet temperature (T;) iv) Efficiency of the turbine (nx ine) (v) Efficiency of the compressor (mp): Effect of turbine inlet temperature and pressure ratio : If the permissible turbine inlet-temperature (with the other variables being constant) of an open cycle gas turbine power plant is increased its thermal efficiency is amply improved. A practical limitation to increasing the turbine inlet temperature, however, is the ability of the material available for the turbine blading to withstand the high rotative and thermal stresses, Refer Fig. 25.9. For a given turbine inlet temperature, as the pressure ratio increases, the heat supplied as well as the heat rejected are reduced. But the ratio of change of heat supplied isslency ald : ‘ further increase in pressure ratio 25.10). Further, tu eee - +s (Entropy) Fig. 25.9 Thermal efficiency (%) ——» feeders Sm 8 uate 16 alet0 Pressure ratio ——> f 25.10, Effect of pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature,1322 ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING Following particulars are worthnoting : Gas temperatures Efficiency (gas turbine) 1550 to 600°C 20 to 22% 900 to 1000°C 82 to 35% Above 130°C more than 50% Effect of turbine and compressor efficiencies : Refer Fig. 25.11. The thermal efficiency of the actual gas turbine cycle is very sensitive to variations in the efficiencies of the compressor and turbine. There is a particular pressure ratio at which maximum efficiencies occur. For lower efficiencies, the peak of the thermal efficiency occurs at lower pressure ratios and vice versa. 12 3 4 5 6 7 6 & 10 Pressure ratio ——> Fig. 25.11. Effect of eomponent efficiency. Effect of compressor inlet temperature + Refer Fig; 25.12 (on next page). With the decrease in the compressor inlet temperature there is increase in thermal efficiency of the plant, Also the peaks of thermal efficiency occur at high pressure ratios and the curves become flatter giving thermal efficiency over a wider pressure ratio range.18°C Hc 16 +50°C Thermal efficiency (%) ——> 8. 8 Me = Ne = 0.8 th =815.5°C 12345 67 8 9 10 Pressure ratio ——> Fig. 25.12 25.44. Closed Cycle Gas Turbine (Constant pressure or joule cycle). Fig. 25.13 shows a gas turbine operating on a constant pressure cycle in which the closed system consists of air behaving as an ideal gas, The various operations aro as follows : Refer Figs. 25.14 and 25.15. Operation 1-2 : Operation 2-3 : Operation 3-4: Operation 4-1 : ‘The air is compressed isentropically from the lower pressure p, to the upper pressure p,, the temperature rising from 7, to T,, No heat flaw Heat flow into the system increasing the volume from V, to V, and temperature from T, to 7) whilat the pressure remaine constant at py. Heat received = mc, (Ty ~ T)). The air is expanded isentropically from p, to p,, the temperature falling from 7, to T,..No heat flow occurs. Heat is rejected from the system as the volume decreases from V, to V, and the temperature from TT, to T, whilst the pressure remains con- stant at p,. Heat rejected = me, (P, ~7,) Work done Toirstandard ~ Feat received Heat ved/cycle — Heat rejected/cycle Heat received/cycle smeg(Ty ~Tp)~me,(Ty-T)_,_T.~T, ‘me, (Ty —T2) 1,-tmedium Fig. 25.19. Cloned eyelo gas turbine. ap pVi=C Fig. 25.14. p-V diagram. aed T=, (r,) 1 + where r, = Pressure ratio mm D or T; = Ty (7) 7SS 5, T-s diagram, s TT; * Tleistordard = a ae Tyr)? ~ Try) * (ry) the efficiency of che ideal joule eyele increases with the pressure 1 is determined ay the limiting temperature of the material of temperature is reached by the compression process alone, stion chamber would be permissible and the work of ° work of compression sa that no excess work would be 7 fe (25.6) The expression show: ratio. The absolute limit of press the turbine at the point ai which th no further heating of the gos in the cc ‘expansion would ideally just balance available for external us ‘Now we shall prove that the pressure ratto for maximum work is-a function of the limiting: temperature ratio. Work output during the cycle Heat received/eyele ~ Heat rejected/eyele inc, (Ty ~ Ta) ~ me, (Fy ~ Ty) = mey Ty ~ Ty) ~ me, TF) - 7k }-n(f-) the minimum temperature 7, and the maximum temperature T erature of the atmosphere and Ty the maximum: temperature Consider the specific heat at constant pressure ¢, to In case of a given turbine bed, 7, being the the metals of turbine would withstanwe have, work outputieycle Wek n(r- aw 2 (2-1) m 5 & onlays ] +0 asim TG, ~ | Differentiating with respect to r, 273 \ pen = Tee ? Be q ry = (TyT Ye, , = ymy® 2 ‘Thus the pressure ratio for maximum work is a function of the limiting temperature ratio. Fig. 25.16 shows an arrangement of closed cycle stationary gas turbine plant in which air is continuously circulated, This ensures that the air is not polluted by the addition of combustion waste product, since the heating of air is carried out in the form of heat exchanger shown in the diagram as air heater. The air exhausted from the power turbine is cooled before readmission to LP. compressor. The various operations as indicated on T-s diagram (Fig. 25.17) are as follows : Operation 1-2: Air is compressed from p, to p, in the L.P. compressor. Operation 2-3: Air is cooled in the intercooler at constant pressure p,. ‘ seat Fig. 25.16. Closed eycle gas turbine plant.Operation 3-4" Operation 4-5 : ‘Operation 5-6 : Operation 6-7" : Operation 7-8 : Operation 8-9" : Air is compressed in the H-P. compressor from p, to py. High pressure air is heated at constant pressure by exhaust gases from power turbine in the heat exchanger to T;. ‘High pressure air further heated at constant pressure to the maximum temperature 7, by an air heater (through external combustion). ‘The air is expanded in the FLP. turbine from p, to p, producing work to drive the compressor. Exhaust air from the H.P. turbine is heated at constant pressure in the air heater (through external combustion) to the maximum tempera- ture T= T,). +The air is expanded in the L.P. turbine from p, to p,, producing energy for a flow of work externally. Operation #-10 : Air from L.P. turbine is passed to the heat exchanger where energy is transferred to the air delivered from the H.P. compressor. The temperature of air leaving the heat exchanger and entering the cooler is Ty Fig. 25.17. 7-+ diagram forthe plant. Operation 10-11 = Air cooled to T, by the cooler before entering the L.P. eompressor. ‘The energy balance for the whole plant is as follows = Q + Q- Q- A=WSao) Ina closed cycle plant, in practice, the control of power output is achieved by varying the mass flow by the use of a reservoir in the cireuit. The reservoir maintains the design pressure and temperature and therefore achieves an approximately constant level of efficiency for varying loads. In this cycle since it is closed, gases other than air with favourable properties can be used ; furthermore it is possible to burn solid fuels in the combustion heaters. The major factor responsible for inefficiency in this cycle is the large irreversible temperature drop which occurs in the air heaters between the furnace and circulating gas. Note, 1 In a closed eyele gas turbines, although air has been extensively used, the use of helium’ which though ofa lower density, has been inviting the attention of manufacturers for its use, for largo output gas turbine units. The specific heat of helium at constant pressure is about five times’ that of air. therefore for each ha mass flow the heat drop and hence energy dealt within helium machines és nearly five times of those in case of air. The surface area ofthe heat exchanger for helium can be kept as low ax 1/3 of that required far gas turbine plant using airas working medium, For the same temperature ratio and for the plants of the same output the cross-sectional area required for helium is much less than that for air. It may therefore be concluded that the size of helium unit in considerably small comparatively. . 2, Some gas turbine plants work on a combination of two cycles the open cycle and the closed cycle, Such ‘combination is called the semi-closed eycle, Here a part of the working fluid is confined within the plant and another part flows from and to atmosphere. SEA A Dice Ot Gineed Orel ise: Reber en Dalene Turbine Merits of closed cycle 1, Higher thermal efficiency 2. Reduced size 3. No contamination 4, Improved heat transmission 5. Improved part lond efficiency 6. Lesser fuid friction T. No loss of working medium 8. Greater output 9, Inexpensive fuel. Demerits of closed cycle : 1. Complexity 2, Large amount of cooling water is required. This li or marine use where water is available in abundance, 3. Dependent system, 4. ‘The weight of the system per H.P. developed is high comparatively, therefore not economical for moving vehicles 5, Requires the use of a very large air heater. CONSTANT VOLUME COMBUSTION TURBINES 3 Refer Fig. 25.18, In a constant volume combustion turbine, the compressed air from an air compressor C is admitted into the combustion chamber D through the valve A. When the valve A is closed, the fuel is admitted into the chamber by means of a fuel pump P. Thon the mixture is ignited by means of a spark plug S. The combustion takes place at constant volume with increase of pressure. The valve B opens and the hot gases flow to the turbine T, and finally, they are discharged, into atmosphere, The energy of the hot gases is thereby converted into mechanical energy. For continuous running of the turbine these operations are repeated. ‘The main demerit associated with this type of turbine is that the pressure difference and velocities of hot gases are not constant ; so the turbine speed fluctuates. its use to stationary installation} Airin (From atmosphere) Exhaust (To atmosphere) F Constant volume combustion gax turbine. USES OF GAS TURBINES Gas turbines find wide applications in the following fields + 1, Supercharging 2. Turbo.jet and turbo-propeller engines 3. Marine field 4. Railway 5. Road transport power generation 7. Industry. GAS TURBINE FUELS ‘The various fuels used in gas turbines are enumerated and discussed below = 1, Gaseous fuels 2, Liquid fuels 4, Solid fuels 1 Gaseous fuels. Natural gas is the ideal fuel for gas turbines, bat this is not available everywhere, Blast furnace and producer gases may also be used for gas turbine power plants, 2, Liquid fuels, Liquid fuels of petroleum origin such as distillate oils or residual oils are commonly used for gas turbine plant. The essential qualities of these fuels include pr ity, viscosity and calorific value. At the same time it should be free from any contents ‘and impurities that would log the small passages of the and d and plungers of the fuel purnps. rals like sodium, vanadium and calcium prove very harmful for the turbine deposits or corrode the blades, ‘The sodium in ash should be less than nt as otherwise the ratio tends to be critical, ‘The actual sodium urt. per million). If the vanadium is over 2 ppm, th necessary that the magnesium in ash is.quantity of vanadium. The content of calcium and lead should not be over 10 ppm and 5 ppm respectively. Sodium is removed from residual oils by mixing with 5% of water and then double centrifug- ing when sodium leaves with water. Magnesium is added to the washed oil in the form of epsom salts, before the oil is sent into the combustor. This checks the corrosive action of vanadium. Residual oils burn with less ease than distillate oils and the latter are often used ta start the unit from cold, after which the residual oils are fed in the combustor. In cold conditions residual oils need to be preheated. 3. Solid fuels. The use of solid fuels such as coal in pulverised form in gas turbines presents several difficulties most of which have been only partially overcome yet, The pulverising plant for coal in gas turbines applications is much lighter and small than its counterpart in steain genera- tors. Introduction of fuel in the combustion chamber of a gas turbine is required to be done against @ high pressure whereas the pressure in the furnace of a steam plant is atmospheric. Furthermore, the degree of completeness of combustion in gas turbine applications has ta be very high as otherwise soot and dust in gas would deposit on the turbine blading. Some practical applications of solid fuel burning in turbine combustors have been commer- cially, made available in recent years. In one such design finely crushed coal is used instead of pulverised fuel. This fuel is carried in stream of air tangentially into one end of a cylindrical furnace while gas comes out at the centre of opposite end. As the fuel particles roll around the cireumference of the furnace they are burnt and a high temperature of about 1650°C is maintained which eauses the mineral matter of fuel to be converted into a liquid slag. The slag covers the walls of the furnace and runs out through a top hole in the bottom, The result is that fly-ash is reduced to a very small content in the gases. In another design a regenerator is used to transfer the heat to air, the combustion chamber being located on the outlet of the turbine, and the combustion is carried out in the turbine exhaust stream. The advantage is that only clean air is handled by the turbine. Example 25.1. The air enters the compressor of an open cycle constant pressure gas turbine at a pressure of 1 bar and temperature of 20°C. The pressure of the air after compression is 4 bar. The isentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine are 80% and 85% respectively. The air-fuel ratio used is 90 : 1. If flow rate of air is 3.0 kgls, find = (i) Power developed. (ii) Thermal efficiency of the eycle. Assume c, = 1.0 kJiby K and y= 1.4 of air-and gases Calorific value of fuel = 41800 kl/kg. Solution, ‘Py = 1 bar ; T, = 20 + 273 = 293 K Pa = 4 BAP: Neompresar = 80% | Nhurtine = 85% ‘Air-fuel ratio = 90:1; Air flow rate, m, = 3.0 kg/s (i) Power developed, P : Refer Fig, 25.19 (b) te B. (2) m = 1.486 tla é T= (20 + 273) x 1.486 = 435.4 K Neampressor = 77.($203k (a) Fig 25.19.» Heat supplied by fuel = Heat taken by burning gases (where m, = mass of air, m,= ae ie mee ts c= 241) qt Te) i : 41800 = (00 + 1) x 1.0 x (fy — 471) 0 | ar = 850K pee ot | as me (]" -(4) = 0672 ‘. Ts Ps \4 * 1, = 930 x 0.672 = 624.9 K eh Neurtine = Py —T, 930. 085 = 930-824. Ty = 930 ~ 0.85 (930 ~ 624.9) = 670.6 K = Wrurdine = My fp X (By ~ Te) the mass of hot gases formed per kg of air) Dea Fa (23) x 10 x (930 ~ 670.6) 90 “= 262.28 k/kg of air.2 Vac Neptermte = 262.28 — 178 © BADE lok of alr, power developed, P= 84.28 3 = 262.84 kWiey, of lm, (Ane) efficiency of cycle Nyjcjnt ? ‘supplied por ky af air passing through combustion chamber we 1 ol = 9g % 11800 = 464.44 klfky of air Work output 84.28 ee wre = 0.1814 oF 18.14%, (Ans. Nnermat = Heat supplied — 464.44 2 Example 25.2. A gas turbine unit has a pressure ratio of 6: | and maximum cycle ‘temperature of 610°C. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressar and turbine are 0.80 and 0.88 “respectively. Calculate the power output in kilowatts of un elevirie generator geared to the turbine ‘when the air enters the compressor at 15°C at the rate of 16 hy/ Toke c, = 1.005 kJ/kg K and y= 1.4 for the compression process, and tahe c, = 111 hllkg Koand y= 1.533 for the expansion process. PR Solution. T, = 15 +973 = 988 K; T, = 619 + 273 = 889 K; Meampressor = 0:80 ; Nhrbine = 0-82 ; Air flow rate = 1 For compression process: ¢, = 1.005 kick K, y= 14 For expansion proces: 1.11 kd/kg K, y= 1.932 In order to evaluate the network output it is neces Tj. To calculate T,’ we must first calculate 7, und the tc temperatures Ty’ and ic efficieney, foVe we For an isentrovie process, —* =) Pe (6) * = 1.67 rea) 4TH T,=610 +273 Cr) = 883K ee 883. BE Generator , ”288 x 1.67 = 481K ‘Similarly for the turbine, Also, x Ty, = 883 = 0.82 (883 - 564) = 621.4 K Hence, Compressor work input, W, =e, (Tj -T) = 1.006 (629 = 288) = 242.2 kifkeg ‘Turbine work output, ty (Ty Ty = 1.11 (683 - 621.4) = 2004 kdkg =. Network output, Weare ~ WV = 290.4 — 242.9 = 48.2 keg. Power in kilowatts = 48.2 x 16 = 7712 kW. (ana) Example 25.3. gas turbine unit receives air at 1 bar and 300 K and compresses it adiabatically to 6.2 bar. The compressor efficiency is 88%. The fuel has a heating value of 44186 hI/kg and the fuel-air ratio is 0.017 kihg of air. The turbine internal efficiency is 90%. Calculate the work of turbine and compressor per kg of air compressed and thermal efficiency. For products of combustion, c, = 1.147 kilkg K and y = 1,333. (WPS. 1997) Solution. Given : p, (= p,) = 1 bar, T, = 300 K ; pg(= Ds) = 6.2 bar ; Nhaaprensr = 88% j C = 44186 kJ/kg ; Fuel-nir ratio = 0.017 kilkg of air, Nutine = 90% § cy = 1147 bllkg K ; y = 1.333. For isentropic compression process 1-2 : ie R-( Ty ly 1, = 800 x 1.684 = 505.2 K Now,Bi i & 300 300) 088 / 533.2 K Heat supplied = (mm, + m4) x 0, ~ Ty) = myx C ree We } cd (122) x ory T=, #e or (1 + 0,017) x 1,005(7,, ~ 533.2) = 0.017 x 44186 " We eOGlTxws6 ae FS POG pornacoo: | °has IS For isentropic expression process 3-4 : fe 1 | seta) (a) am a 1, = 1268 x 0.634 = 803.9 K (zg = EARS. 308.9 Tres ai7s— Tena) = 098? ke and Spe ee tre eet 1 — 0.662 = 0.338 kg Wor = (1 =m) x e,fT, - 7,9 398 x 1,198 (1173 ~ 759.4) = 157.7 ki 2 Power output = 23 197.7% Nyaa, * Nn = 23 x 157.7 x 0.95 « 0.96 = 3807.9 kJ. (Ans) Gant = Spas ~ Spas! = 1.128 x L173 ~ 1.005 « 595.4 = 724.7 kalkg of air ‘Thermal efficiency, ny, wit x 100 = 21.76%. (Ans.) #Example 25.10. Air is drawn in a gas turbine unit at 15°C and 1.01 bar and pressure ratio is 7 : 1. The compressor is driven by the H.P. turbine and L.P. turbine drives a separate power shaft. The isentropic efficiencies of compressor, and the H.P. and L.P. turbines are 0.82, 0.85 and 0.85 respectively. If the maximum cycle temperature is 610°C, calculate : (i) The pressure and temperature of the gases entering the power turbine, (ii) The net power developed by the unit per kg/s mass flow. (tii) The work ratio. (iv) The thermal efficiency of the unit. Neglect the mass of fuel and assume the following : For compression process : éy, = 1.005 hitkg K and y= 14 For combustion and expansion processes : Cyy = 1.15 kullhg and y = 1.333. or Solution. Given : T, = 15 + 273 = 288 K, p, = 1.01 bar, Pressure ratis D = 0.82, Thrtine ap) Maximum eyele temperature, T, = 610 + 2 (i) Pressure and temperature of the gases entering the power turbine, p, and T,: ‘Considering isentropic compression 1-2, we have +288 = 549.6 K Wosmpremer = Spa Ta! ~ Ty) = 1.005 (649.6 - 288) = ‘Now, the work output of H.P. turbine = Work input to compressor Ep Ta— Ty) = 262.9 ie, - 1.14883 ~ T,) = 262.9GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION 1373 +m ppg - 2029 Tj = 883 - T= = 604.4 K Temperature of gases entering the power turbine = 654.4 K. (Ans.) ‘Again, for HP. turbine : R-t 883 - 654.4 Yartae™ Gage Hy 088 = FE Now, considering isentropic expansion process 3-4, we have pest -(m y Tm or 2.{By Ps TQ 7.07 : = PL 207 6 1.636 ba Ess Ps 439 ~ 432 * ie, Pressure of gases entering the power turbine = 1.636 bar. (Ans.) (ai) Net power developed per kg/s mass flow, P : ‘To find the power output it is now necessary to calculate T,’. ie, Ge py =pyand ps =p) Then,Frartane 6544-7, % — 5 O88 = 44 = 506 Ty, = 654.4 ~ 0.85 (854.4 — 580.8) = 591.7 K Rey ci. *% (Ty ~ Ty) = 1.15 (604.4 — 591.7) = 72.1 kellkg THlencs net power ouiput (per kg/s masa flow) = 72.1 kW. (Ans.) ui) Work ratio : Work ratio « Network output 72. gous. (and Grows work output 72142629 (ie) Thermal efficiency of the unit, Nyermal Heat supplied = G(T, ~ T,) = 1.15 (883 — 549.6) = 383.4 klk s Marna = "ener ep = ET, = 0188 oF 188%. (Ane) Example 25.11. The pressure ratio of an open-cycle gas turbine power plant is 5.6. Air is taken ot 30°C and J bar. The compression is carried out in two stages with perfect intercooling in Between. The maximum temperature of the cycle is limited to 700°C. Assuming the isentropic “efficiency of each compressor stage as 85% and that of turbine as 90%, determine the power developed and efficiency of the power plant, if the airflow és 1.2 hgls. The mass of fuel may be ‘neglected, and it may be assured that c, = 1.02 bilby K and y= 1.4L PU) Solution. Refer Fig. 26.26. Pressure ratio of the open-cycle gas turbine = 5.6 ‘Temperature of intake air, 7, = 40 + 273 = 403 K Pressure of intake air, p, = 1 bar Maximum ternperature of the cycle, T, = 700 + 273 Isentropic efficiency of each compressor, 0, 8 Isentropic efficiency of turbine, Th Rate of airflow, m, = 1.2 kale i Gy = 1.02 Kelly K and y= 1.41 Power developed and efficiency of the power plant : Assuming that the pressure ratio in each stage is same, we have Pe Bin jE . Jp = 2.366 ic Pom VM the pressure ratio und the isentropic efficieney of each compressor ix the same then required for each compreasor in the same since both the compressors have the (perfect intercooting) ie, Fy = Ty and Ty = Ty 978 K= + 303 = 404.44 K q Work input to 2-stage compressor, Woop, = 2 xm x ¢,(Ts! Ty) = 2x 1.2 x 1.02 (404.44 — 303) = 248.32 ks For turbine, we have tat ty =(56) 1 = 1.65 or T,= Te Also, Neurbine 973- Ty : eS T,, = 973 — 0.9 (973 — 7) = “ot Oe ay 7 (973 - 589.7) = 628 K 4 Wark output of turbine, Wyrpine = * ps ~ Te) | 1.2 x 1.02 (973 = 628) = 422.28 kis Network output, Wat = Wiurhine ~ Woon - = 420.98 — 248.89 = 179.96 kals or kW power developed = 173.96 kW. (Ans.) d Q, =m xe, xT, — Ty) = 1.2 « 1.02 x (973 ~ 404.44) = 695.92 kis‘THERMAL ENGINEERIN Example 25.12. (a) Why are the back work ratios relatively high in gas turbine plants compared to those of steam power plants ? (®) In a gas turbine plant compression is carried out in two stages with perfect intercooling ‘and expansion in one stage turbine. If the maximum temperature (T.,. K) and minimum tem- perature (Tyi,K) in the eyele remain constant, show that for maximum specific output of the plant, the optimum overall pressure ratio is given by © tag = [no-no FF where y= Adiabatic index ; mp = Toentropic efficiency of the turbine. Ne = Isentropic efficiency of compressor. (AMIE Summer, 2005) Solution. (a) Back work ratio may be defined as the ratio of negative work to the turbine work in a power plant. In gas turbine plants, sir is compressed from the turbine exhaust pressure to the combustion chamber pressure. This work is given by —{ udp. As the specific volume of air is very high (even in closed cycle gas turbine plants), the compressor work required is very high, and also bulky compressor is required. In steam power plants, the turbine exhaust is changed to liquid phase in the condenser. The pressure of condensate is raised to boiler pressure by condensate extraction pump and boiler feed pump in series sinee the specifie volume of water is very small as compared to that of air, the pump work (— J vdp), is also very small. From the above roasona, the back work ratio 2 for gas turbine plants is relatively high compared to that for steam power plants. (b) Refer Fig. 23.29. TK) #8 (klkg K) ig. 2529 Assuming optimum pressure ratio in each stage of the compressors 7, rt ty -(2) f qoes Vemgreann * He, (Ty ~ 1)] for both compronsory T-7, _ %, ah = 2c, tee vs he Nb Tran |» i) q Also, B-(2) Y sgt T% (am 2 Ty = th = Tine VE GI Gyre: 8 Te = Tee Weurbine = ¢, (Ts - Te) = 6, [ 1 = 6 Tau [1 +P [ Toe = Gs ity W crnpronecr For maximum work output, | dW, dr rat) aes - or = 6M Pr Tey Se? 2 Ty, (Ten Ne Sat Troms yy — 1 = or ne Me git = (1-2 on simplification. Hence, the optimum pressure ratio is Mo fog =| Pie Te ww, Proved, Example 25.13. In a gas turbine the compressor takes in air at a temperature of 15°C and ‘compresses it to four times the initial pressure with an isentropic efficiency of $2%. The air is then passed through a heat exchanger heated by the turbine exhaust before reaching the combustion ‘chamber, In the heat exchanger 78% of the avaitable heat is given to the air. The maximum temperature after constant pressure combustion és 600°C, and the efficiency of the turbine is: Neglecting all losses except thoe mentioned, ancl assuming the working fluid throughout cycle to have the characteristic of air find the efficiency of the evele. “Assume R = 0.287 kithe K and y= 14 for air and constant specific heats throughout, + Given :Ty = 18 + 270 = 28 K, Prowmure ratio, P= PE = 4,9 = ‘Effectiveness of the heat exchanger, € = 0.78, i “Tharbine = 70%, Maximum temperature, 7, = 600 + 273 =81378 THERMAL ENGINEERING 88 288 +8 (kuikg K) Fig. 25.90 Considering the isentropic compression 1-2, we have & (2) Yn) 2 1486 ry rots eed 2-2 ' a) 4 = 1486 Ts Nm 72-88 4° 1486 1.486 F-T, _ 873-7, at Again, Nurtine = TT, 873-8875 873-T,’ mes 0.70 = 379 -RR7Eeet oT omit ey = om Feompressor © 10048 (459 ~ 28K) = 1717 bbeg, . Wirtine = Sytl'y ~ Ty) = 1.0045 (873 ~ 673) = 200.9 kel Network = W, W, = 200.9 - 171.7 = 29,2 kilkg. leu Wongrian “Effectiveness for heal exchanger, e = fi vy T,, = (673 ~ 459) x 0.78 + 459 = 626 K “+ Heat supplied by fuel per ky = 6,(Ty ~ T,) = 1.0045 (873 ~ 626) = 248.1 lala : e Network done 292 e Tove" Gieat sopplied by the fuel S481 1" =e aaa Example 25.14. A gas turbine employs a heat exchanger with a thermal ratio of 72%. The turbine operates between the pressures of 1.01 bar and 4.04 bar and ambient temperature 1s 20°C. Teentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine are 80% and 85% respeetively. The pressure drop on each side of the heat exchanger is 0.05 bar and in the combustion chamber 0.14 bar. ‘Astume combustion efficiency to be unity and calorific value of the fuck to be 41800 kelike. Calculate the increase in efficiency die to heat exchanger over that for simple cycle. | Assume e, is constant throughout and is equal to L024 kif Ky and assume Y= 14. For simple cycle the air-fuel ratio is 90: I ‘and for the heat exchange cycle the turbine for a simple cycle. ‘entry temperature is the same as fe Solution. Simple Cycle. Refer Fig. 25.31. th 1a +293 = 471 K myx C= (my + My) X by X (Ty= Ty) Um, = mass of wir, my = mane of fell my xe 1x 41800. Sipe ie ~ joneo+y #47"of T(, = 919.5 = 0.85(919.5 = 625) = 669 K (By -Ty)- (hy - 7) Thermal = (fy -7,') b (919, 69) — (471 ~ 2 (919.5-471) Heat Exchanger Cycle. Refer Fig. 25.32 (a, b) Ty, = 471 K (as for simple cycle) ; 7, = 919.5 K (as for simple eyele) = 0.1616 or 16.16%, (-Ans.) To find Ty’ ”) P, = 4.04 ~ 0.14 ~ 0.05 = 3.85 bar ; py = LOL + 0.08 = 1.08 bar , 1 7 ae Fae) is i Ty \ py Ty = 919.5 4 0.60 = 634 K 4Ts) To find T, : ‘Thermal ratio (or effectiveness), aoe Ty Te’ Ty = 0.72 (677 — 471) + 471 = 619K 0.72 = _(-T)-(Ty-1) (-)(919.5 ~ 677)~(471~ 293) __ 64.5 (919.5 - 619) 300.5 Increase in thermal efficiency = 21.46 — 16.16 = 5.9% (Ans.) = 0.2146 or 21.46% "Example 25.15. A 4500 RW gas turbine generating set operates with two compressor stages ; the overall pressure ratio is 9: 1. A high pressure turbine is used to drive the compressors, and a low-pressure turbine drives the generator. The temperature of the gases at entry to the high pressure turbine is 695°C and the gases are reheated to 625°C after expansion in the first turbine. The exhaust gases leaving the low-pressure turbine are passed through a heat exchanger to heat air leaving the high pressure stage compressor. The compressors have equal pressure ratios and intercooling is complete between the stages. The air inlet temperature to the unit is 20°C. The isentropic efficiency of each compressor stage is 0.8, and the isentropic efficiency of each turbine stage is 0.85, the heat exchanger thermal ratio is 0.8. A mechanical efficiency of 95% can be assumed for both the power shaft and compressor turbine shaft. Neglecting ail pressure losses and changes in kinetic energy calculate : (i) The thermal efficiency ; (i) Work ratio of the plant ; (iii) The mass flow in kgls. Neglect the mass of the fuel and assume the following : For air :¢,, = 1.005 kihg K andy = 14 For gases in the combustion chamber and in turbines and heat exchanger, Gy = 1.15 hellleg Kand y= 1.333. Solution. Refer Fig. 25.33 Given ; T, = 20 + 273 + 203 K, Ty = Ty = 625 + 273 = 898 K Efficiency of each compressor stage = 0.8 Efficiency of each turbine stage = 0.85, Nnsch, = 0.95, © = 0.8 (i) Thermal efficiency, Nysermai ? ‘Since the pressure ratio and the isentropic efficiency of each compressor is the same then the work input required for each compressor is the same sinee both compressors have the same air inlet temperature ie., T, = T, and T,’ = Ty.Fig. 25.33 yl Also, al and “=V8 = PL at ue 1, = (20+ 273) x (3) “* = 401K Now, Neampressor 401-293 08 = 77393 401-298 ie, Ty = je «+208 = 428 K Work input per compressor stage = Cpl Ty - Ty) = 1.005 (428 — 293) = 135.6 kJ/kg. ‘The H.P. turbine is required to drive both compressors and to overcome mechanical a ‘135s Work output of H.P. turbine = 2aase = 285.5 kik s gg (Ty ~ Tr) = 285.5 1.15 (898 ~ T;/) = 285.5 285.5. it Ty = 898-7, = 660K , aot FE — 898-650 Marine) = qm, i} 988 = “g9g—T,¥ wo ae Ay (e ost = = 4.82 th 606 a 133-1 gsins _{ Ps 86) 18) 116 Po T, _ 898 Tie ue -7** 898-7, (898 — 774) = 792.6 K ry) & 0.95 15 (898 — 792.6) x 0, of heat exchanger, Ty - 428 Network output 115.15 kikg, ‘Thermal ratio or effectivenc 1,'—T,' 7926-428 T, - 428 oe 792.6 — 428 fi T,, = 0.8 (792.6 Now, Heat supplied = ¢, (7), — = 1,15 (898 — 719.7) + 1.15 (898 — 650) = 490.2 kJ/kg Network output — 115.15 Nehernal = “Heat supplied — 490.2 = 0.235 or 23.5%. (Ans.) (i) Work ratio : Grows work of the plant = Werrine aie) + Wrurine ae) 116.15 , = 280.5 + THE = 406.7 kal , _ Network output _ 115.15 ie Werk ratio PiGioas work oulput 4087 (ii) Mase flow in m+ Let the mass flow be 1, then mm 115.16 = 4900 4500 Fe ets = 89.08 kyle = 89.08 kgls. (Ans) = 0.283, (Ans,)‘GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION 1355 Example 25.16. In a closed cycle gas turbine there is two-stage compressor and a teo- stage turbine. All the components are mounted on the same shaft. The pressure and temperature 750°C before entering into the L.P. turbine. Assuming the compressor and turbine efficiencies as 0.82, calculate : @ The efficiency of the eyele without regenerator. Gi) The efficiency of the cycle with @ regenerator whose effectiveness ia 0.70, Gil) The mass of the fluid circulated if the power developed by the plant is 350 kW, The working fluid used in the cycle is air. For air : y= 14 end cy = 1.008 kllhg K. Solution. Given : T, = 20 + 273 = 293 K, T, = T, = 750 + 273 = 1023 K, p, = 1.5 bar, Py =6 bar, 1, = Nharbne = 0.82. mH! + Pig: 25.34 Effectiveness of regensrator, ¢ = 0.70, Power developed, P = 350 kW. For air: c, = 1.005 kidkg, K, y= 14 As per given conditions : T, = T,, Ty’ = Ty, rk B-(a)" and p,= {pips =VIBXO = 9 ber i 1 Now 1-712) T2209 « 15Tj 371K T, 7 a * Ps = Pa zh n{ P| | Pe [ a i a a non 1023 _(6)"* a la 1023 Ty. = iai9 = 899K he 1023 - 839 1023 = 0.82 (1023 - 839) = 872 K = 872 K88 Marine cP) = Meurhine (1-P.) T, =T, = 103K where 7° is the temperature of air coming ‘out of regenerator T-371 0.70 = g5—g7] te. T= 0.70 (872-371) + 371 = 722K Network available, — Waq, = [Wren + Wiu.rs}~[Wour) + Worn] =2 [Wires - Wou.p)] as the work developed by each turbine is same and work absorbed by each compressor is same. kh Wres = 2c, Py — Ty) — (Ty - Ty} = 2 5 1,005 (1023 ~ 872) ~ (971 — 293)) = 146.73 kikg of air Heat supplied per kg of air without regenerator GAT. T/) + 6 (7; ~ Ty) 1.005 [(1023 ~ 371) + (1023 - 872)] = 807 kilteg of air Heat supplied per kg of air with regenerator =0,T,- 1) +0,(T,-T,) = 1.005 {(1023 ~ 722) + (1023 - 872)] = 454.3 kieg ( Narmal (without regenerate) iss = 0.182 or 18.2% (Ans) 5 146.73 ) Tanermal with regenerator) = 454.3 (iii) Mass of fluid circulated, m Power developed, P = 146.73 x m kW = 0.323 or 32.3%. (Ans)of fluid circulated 26.17. The air in a aw turbine plant iy taken in LP. comprenar at wand after compression it is passed through intercooler where ibn temperature K. The cooled air is further compressed in HP. unit and then passed in the co where its temperature is increased to 750°C by burning the fuel. The combustion expand in HP. turbine which runs the compressors and further expansion ts continued in turbine which runs the alternator, The yases coming out from L.P. turbine are used for heating the incoming air from HP. compressor and then expanded to atmosphere Pressure ratio of each compressor = 2, isentropic effivieney of each compressor stage = 82%, isentropic efficiency of each turbine stage = 62%, effectiveness of heat exchanger = 0.72, air flow = 16 ka/s, calorific value of fuel = 42000 kJ/kg, c, (for was) = 1.0 kth K, ¢, (ans) = 1.16 Adikg K, y (for air) = 1.4, ¥ (for gc 3, Neglecting the mechanical, pressure and heat losses of the system and fuel mass also determine the following : (i) The power output. (ii) Thermat efficiency. iii) Specific fuel consumption. Py _ Ps Ps © = 0.72, ri, = 16 kg/s, C = 42000 kl/kg,. = 1.15 kdékg K, y (or air) = 14, 7 (for gas) 1.33. Solution. Given : =2, 7, = 760 + 273 = 1023 K, “na Also, ——— 0.82 T\-T omer = 365.7 ~ 300 * 082 = 7 i i 365.7 ~ 800 T= ) 4900 = 880 K ‘Work output of H.P. turbine = Work input to compressor. Neglecting mass of fuel we can write 4 , yy (Ty ~ Ty) = Cy (Ty ~ Ty) + (Ty ~Tyh 1.15 (1098 — 7) = 1.0 ((371 - 298) + (980 - 300)] “1.16 (1023 - 17,) = 158 ii< Generator Le f t Oy (a)Now, fe, Again, 886 — 0.82 (886 - 751) = 775 K (#) Power output Net power output pg (Tet = Net output per second 15 (386 ~ 775) = 127.6 kJ/kg = rin * 127.6 (ii) Thermal efficiency ie, = 16 x 127.6 = 2041.6 kJ/s = 2041.6 kW. (Ans.) Effectiveness of heat exchanger, ¢ = 777— T,, = 0.72 (775 — 380) + 380 = 664 K Heat supplied in combustion chamber per socond =, Cpe (Te T, 2041.6 Mehermat = = 16 x 1.15 (1023 — 664) = 6605.6 kil/s 6605.6 = 0,309 or 30.9%. (Ans)(iii) Specific fuel consumption : If m,is the mass of fuel supplied per kg of air, then ‘m, x 42000 = 1.15 (1023 - 664) _1____ 42000 1017 7 ‘my =1.15(1023- 664) 1 . Air-fuel ratio = 101721 Fuel supplied per hour = eee pee = 566.37 kg/h 566.37 Specific fuel consumption = = 0.277 kgkWh. (Ans.) 2041.6 «Example 25.18. Air is taken in a gas turbine plant at 1.1 bar 20°C. The plant comprises of L.P. and H.P. compressors and L.P. and H.P. turbines. The compression in L.P. stage is upto 3.3 bar followed by intereooling to 27°C. The pressure of air after H.P. compressor is 9.45 bar. ‘Loss in pressure during intereooling is 0.15 bar. Air from H.P. compressor is transferred to heat exchanger of effectiveness 0.65 where it is heated by the gases from L.P. turbine. After heat exchanger the air passes through combustion chamber. The temperature of gases supplied to HP. turbine is 700°C. The gases expand in H.P. turbine to 3.62 bar and air then reheated to 670°C before expanding in L.P. turbine, The lass of pressure in reheater is 0.12 bar. Determine : (i) The overall efficiency (ii) The work ratio (iii) Mass flow rate when the power generated is 6000 kW. Assume ; Isentropic efficiency of compression in both stages = 0.82. Isentropic efficiency of expansion in turbines = 0.85. For air :¢, = 1.005 kilikg K, y= 14. For gases : c, = 1.15 klfkg K, y= 133. Neglect the mass of fuel. Solution. Given: 7, = 20 + 273 = 299 K, p, = 1.1 bar, p, = 3.3 bar, 7, = 27 + 273 = 300K, P= 3.30.15 = 8.15 bar, py = py = 9.45 bar, T, = 973 K, T, = 670 + 273 = 943 K, p, = 3.5 bar, = 82%, Thayne = 85%, Power generated = 6000 kW, Effectiveness, ¢ = 0.85, ¢,, = 1.005 kiVag K, Yip = 1.44, cyy = 118 lellkg K and You, = 1.33, Refer Fig. 25.36. v1 Now, g (2) a -( i Ty = 293 x 1.369 = 401K r= (GE nan s T, = 300 x 1.369 = 411 KTK) Similarly, Also, Martie ot) * 7,o ‘T;, = 0.65 (743 — 435) + 435 = 635 K Wortenitiny = Sg - 1) = 1.16 (973 — 798) = 201.25 kil/kg of gas Wrartine at.) = &pg(Ts.~ To? = 1.16 (943 - 743) = 230 kilikg of gas Weampressse 2) * Spal Ta’ ~ Ty) 1,008 (425 — 293) = 132.66 kJ/kg of air Woampresor HD.) = SpalTa’ — Ts) = 1,005 (435 — 300) = 185.67 ki/kg of air Heat supplied = Cpg(To~ Ta) + GpylTe ~ Ts) = 1.15 (978 ~ 635) + 1.15 (943 - 796) = 656.45 kJ/kg of gas (i) Overall efficiency. Nyvera ! _ Network dane © Heat supplied = My Weurbine [Wesmp.ct-P.) + Weomp. cH.) ~ Heat supplied (201.25 + 236) ~ (132.66 + 135.67) 55545. 162.92 = 555.45 7 0293 0 29.8% (Ans) (ii) Work ratio + Network done Turbine work IW, +W,, urbine HP) + Wrurbine la? )}~ Woop. Veamp. (Meerbine (HP) + Wearbine L.P)] Work ratio = (201.25 + 230) ie, Work ratio = 0.377. (Ans.) (iti) Mass flow rate, i + Network done 162.92 kd/kg. Since mass of fuel is neglected, for 6000 kW, mass flow rate,ae involves imparting momentum to a mass imparted momentum provides a propulsive force. tt may t is at high temperature and pressure, ty oe oe is Pea the serene that gives: r Mus to fe reat reaction), For jet propulsion the open cycle gas turbine is Pte propulsion system may be classified as follows : 1. Air stream jet engines, (Air-breathing engines) {@) Steady combustion systems ; continuous air flow W) Turbo jet a (ii) Turbo-prop Gif) Ram jet (8) Intermittent combustion system ; intermittent flow () Pulse jet or flying bomb. 2. Self contained rocket engines (Non-air breathing engines) () Liquid propelient (ii) Solid propellent, In air stream jet engines the oxygen necessary for the combustion is taken from the surrounding atmosphere whereas in a rocket engine the fuel and the oxidiser are contained in the body of the unit which is to be propelled. Note. The turbo-jet and turbo-prop are modified forms of simple open eyele gas turbine. The ram jet and pulse jet are athodyds (aero-thermo-dynamic ducts) ‘-c., straight duct type of jet engines having no compressor and turbine wheels In the past air propulsion was achieved by a “Screw propeller”. In this system the total power developed by the turbine (full expansion) is used to drive the compressor and propeller. Fig. 25.37 shows the power plant for serew propeller. By controlling the supply of fuel in the combustion chamber the power supplied to the propeller can be controlled. The rate of increase of ‘efficiency of screw propeller is higher at lower speeds but its efficiency falls rapidly at higher speeds above the sonic velocity. [ Fuel cc \ 4 y | : oe c a Air in Exhaust Propeller (From atmosphere) (To atmosphere) C=Compresor; T= Turbine; C.C=Combustion chamber __ Pig. 25.37, Power plant for screw propeller.1364 ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING 25.8.1. Turbo-Jet 25.8.1.1. Description Fig. 25.98 shows « turbojet unit, © It consists of diffuser at entrance which slows down the air (entering at velocity equal to the plane speed) and part of the kinetic energy of the air stream is converted into pressure ; this type of compression is called as ram compression, © Tho air is further compressed toa pressure of 3 to 4 bar in a rotary compressor (usually of axial flow type). @ The compressed air then enters the combustion chamber (C.C.) where fuel is added. Tho combustion of fuel takes place at sonsibly constant pressure and subsequently temperature rises rapidly. ® The hot gases then enter the gas turbine where partial expansion takes place. The power produced is just sufficient to drive the compressor, fuel pump and other ausiliaries. © Tho exhaust gases from the gas turbine which aro at a higher pressure than atmos- phere are expended in a nozzle and a very high velocity jet is produced which provides ‘a forward motion to the air-craft by the jet reaction (Newton's third law of motion). ‘At higher speeds the turbo-jet gives higher propulsion efficiency. The turbo-jets aro most suited to the aircrafts travelling above 800 km/h, ‘The overall efficiency of a turbo-jet is the product of the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine plant and the propulsive efficiency of the jet (nozzle), Advantages of Turbo-jet engines 1, Construction much simpler (as compared to multi-cylinder piston engine of eomparable power). 2, Engine vibrations absent, 8. Much higher speeds possible (more than 3000 kmh achieved). 4. Power supply is uninterrupted and smooth. 5. Weight to power ratios superior (as compared to that of reciprocating type of aero-engine). Direction of airerat <— Fig. 25.38, Gas turbine plant for turbo-jet.ee mad) eai be Yarnt over large range of mixture strength, es of turbo-jet engines 1. Less efficient. 2. Life of the unit comparatively shorter. &. The turbo-jet becomes rapidly inefficient below 550 km/h. 4. More noisy (than a reciprocating engine). * 5. Materials required are quite expensive. 6. Require longer strip since length of take-off is ton much. 7. At take-off the thrust is low, this effect is overcome by boosting. 5.8.1.2. Basic Cycle for Turbo-jet Engine The basic cycle for the turbo-jet engine is the Joule or Brayton eyele as shown is Fig. 25.39. ‘The various processes are as follows : Process 1- ‘The air entering from atmosphere is diffused isentropicatly from velocity C, down to zero (i.e. C, = 0), This indicates that the diffuser has an efficiency of 100%, this is termed as ram compression. Process 1-2 is the actual process. Process 2-3: —_ Isentropic compression of air. shows the actual compression of air. } Process ¥ Turbine det nozzle1396 ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING Process 3-4: Idea! addition of heat at constant pressure p, = py Process 34 shows the actual addition of heat at constant process p, = Py. Process 4.5: —_Isentropic expansion of gas in the turbine. Process 4-5' shows the actual expansion in the turbine. Process 56: — Isentropic expansion of gas in the nozzle, Process 5-6 shows the actual expansion of gas in the nozzle. Consider 1 ky of working fluid flowing through the system. Diffuser = Between states 1 and 2, the energy equation is given by : “@ a hs Qa= hye Ms where C, (= C,) = Velocity of entering air from atmosphere. In an ideal diffuser C, = 0, Q,9=0 and Wyy= 0. 2 Enthalpy at state 2 is, Ay = Ay + a kiikg cf = or e+e (25,7) Process 1-2" shows actual process in diffuser. dg-hy _T)-T; Diffuser efficiency, Ws wok ToT (25.8) Compressor : Energy equation between states 2 and 3 gives 2 2 t+ Z va,,0w=hye © Assuming changes in potential and kinetic energies to be negligible, the ideal work expended in running the compressor is given as, W, = hy— hy = (Ts — Tp) ‘The actual compressor work (to be supplied by the turbine) c, (Ty ~ T) ee Soh. a Seley. (where 1, = Isentropic efficiency of compressor) Combustion chamber : ~hy =e(T,-T,) Ideal heat supplied per kg, Actual heat supplied = (+2) ae (where c,, and c,, are specific heats of gases and air at constant pressure respectively)2 ae W, = thy) + coe the change in kinetic energy is neglected, we have hy — hy) = 0,(T, - 7) Ty) =e (7, —T) xn, (where n, = neues efficiency of Aan) For the simplification, turbine work = compressor work or f(T, ~ To) or 37h) nh Jet nozzel : ~ldeal ease ~Actual case or =) or (25.9) (where 9, = Nozzle efficiency) ‘Thermal efficiency (n,,} is given by : (hy = Ty = (Ty (Ty - Ty’) (25.8.1.3. Thrust, Thrust-power, Propulsive Efficiency and Thermal Thrust (1) ‘Let C, = Forward velocity of aircraft through air, nvs. Assuming the atmosph of air, relative to the aircraft, at entry to the aireralt will be C, ‘y this. y igo ay1398 ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING ‘Thrust is the force produced due to change of momentum, Now, absolute velocity of gases leaving aircraft = (C,-C,) Absolute velocity of air entering the aireraft = 0 Change of momentum = 4 -o) Hence, thrust 7=(16 4) @,-0,) Nikg of airs: (25.11) T = (C,- C,) Nikg of air’s, neglecting mass of fuel (25.12) ‘Thrust power (T.P.) : it is defined as the rate at which work must be developed by the engine if the aircraft is to be kept moving at a constant velocity C, against friction force or drag. ‘Thrust power = Forward thrust x speed of aircraft my or ar.«[[-2}o,-¢ J<. Wrkg of air (26.18) =(C,-C,) C, Weg of air if mass of fuel is neglected Es ing of a (25.14) 100 me uae : Propulsive power (P-P.) : ‘The energy required to change the momentum of the mass flow of gas represents the propulsive power. It is expressed as the difference between the rate of kinetic energies of the entering air and exit gases. teZtlef _y AG --B- Wikg (25,15) Mathematically, - = SL = Wing, neglecting mass of fuel c?-¢,? aoe i Datooy EWA of air 16) Propulsive efficiency (prop) # ‘The ratio of thrust power to propulsive power is called the propulsive efficiency of the propulsive unit. _ Thrust power __ “lone = Propulsive power ~ (25.17) Neglecting the mass of fuel, 2C,-C)G,_—_24C,- Gy), Then" E262 ~Gy+ON(G)-C,)‘eqn. (25.18) it is evident that the proputsive efficiency increases © Mhegy, Becomes 100% when C., sbprothen 0,7 erg ace ‘Thermal efficieney (n,,) : + It is defined as the ratio of propulsive work and the energy released by the combustion of Propulsive work = Tnerease in kinetic energy of the gases Heat released by the combustion of fuel * Heat released by the combustion of fuel (424 Jo =o or = 5. “a 25.19) 425.20) = 2x ( me ] xcalorifie value Overall efficiency (ny) is given by : 32-0) aCe (mp) 4 2x( "|x calorific value © *Cs mee (Gy G)Gs = Mh X Norwp. = my) x calorific value For maximum overall efficiency the aircraft velocity C, is one half of the jet velocity C. The jet efficiency (ny) is defined as : Final kinetic energy inthe jet Tht ~ Tgentropic heat drop in the jet pipe + Carey over from the turbine” sxExample 25.19. A turbo-jet engine consumes air at the rate of 60.2 kis when flying at @ speed of 1000 km/h. Caleulate : (i) Bxat paely of the jet when the enthalpy change for the nozele is 230 ku/kg and velocity | covefficient is 0. d (ii) Fuel fm rate in kyls when air-fuel ratio is 70:1 (iii) Thrust specific fuel consumption a) Thermal efficiency of the plant when the combustion efficiency is 92% and ‘the fuel used is 42000 kdikg. (vi) Propulsive efficiency= 006 = 1 Nasmbustion = 98% = 42000 Klee 1000 x 1000 =" 60x 60 = 277.8 mis W) Exit velocity of jet, C, : C,=2 (PANY IO00, where Ah is in kd = 0.96 J2x 230x 1000 = 651 m/s, fe, — Exit velocity of jet = 651 m/s. (Ans.) (ii) Fuet flow rate : s Rate of air consumption Rate of fuel consumption, tity = oe oa 7 = 2 = 0.86 ke/s. (Ans.) (iif) Thrust specific fuel consumption : Thrust is the force produced duc to change of momentum. ‘Thrust produced = m, (C,—C,), neglecting mass of fuel. = 60,2 (G51 — 27.8) = 22466,6 N, 4 ‘Thrust specific fuel consumption _ Fuel consumption 0.86 ‘Thrust ~ 224666 = 3,828 x 10° kg/N of thrust/s. (Ans.) (iv) Thermal efficiency, Mynemat ! Work output "ihernal = Feat supplied _ Gain in kinetic energy per kg of air Heat supplied by fuel per kg of air (7-2) | (2-0 VX Nombustion ¥ L000 " a (651° - 277.8") 2a * 42000 « 0:92 x 1000 = SLa9%, (Ans) = 0.3139 or 31.39%Bx 2776 61 2778 efficiency, ty: sys q_thmust work (G)-G,)G, Heat supplied by fuel — ( J we V2 Nap My (651-2778) «2778 es 42000 « 0.92 x 1000 Example 25.20. The following data pertain to a turbo-jet flying at an altitude of 9500 m < Speed of the turbo-jet = 800 kmih Propulsive efficiency = 55th Overall efficiency of the turbine plant 17% Density of air at 9500 m altitude = 0.17 kgim3 Drag on the plane 6100 N Assuming calorific value of the fuels used as 46000 kJ/kg, = 0.1878 or 18.78%. (Ans.) Calculate : (i) Absolute velocity of the jet. (ii) Volume of air compressed per min. (iii) Diameter of the jet (iv) Power output of the unit. (v) Air-fuel ratio. 800 x 1000. ion. Given : Alt - ~ Solution. Given : Altitude See = 55%, Nyegma = 17% : density of air at 9500 m altitude = 0.17 kg/m? ; drag on the 22.2 m/s, 1500 m, C, pine BTC. (i) Absolute velocity of the jet, (C; ~ C,): ch Nproputuiee = 0-55 = G where, C, = Velocity of gases at nozzle exit relative to the aircraft, and c = Velocity of the turbo-jet/aircraft Exes = 202.2 = 585.8 m/s C, = 585.8 ~ 222.2 = 383.6 mis. force = 1a, (C,~ 6100 = my (585.8 ~ 222.2) thy = 16.77 iiat Sate = 00188 AF 880.8 = (918 A809 tonsa yl * Wel eoxnxeese) * °458 mM RARC REE he. Diametor of the jet © 463 mm, (Any Gio) Bower output of the unit : Thrust power Drang force x velocity of turbojet 8100 < 222.2 News 6100s: 1000 Thrust pow 13554 Propulsive efficieney 0.55 = 1855.4 kW Turbine output () Overall efficiency = 2464.4 kW. (Ans) Heat equivalent of output ap x OV. 7 2644 ie, 0.7 “ thy x 46000 24644 iy = = 0.815 kyls 0.17 x 46000 1b ks Air used (in kg/s) _ 16.77 Air-fuel ratio Fuslused Ganka oie ee ie, — Air-fuel ratio 58.24: 1, (Ans.) Example 25.21. In a jet propulsion unit air is drawn into the rotary compressor at 15°C ‘and 1.01 bar and delivered at 4.04 bar. The isentropic efficiency of compression is 82% and the compression is uncooled. After delivery the air is heated at constant pressure until the temperature reaches 750°C. The air then passes through a turbine unit which drives the compressor only and. has an isentropic efficiency of before passing through the nozzle and expanding to atmospheric pressure of 1.01 bar with an efficiency of 88%. Neglecting any mass increase due to the weight of the fuel and assuring that R and y are unchanged by combustion, determine > W) The power required to drive the compressor (ia) The air-fuel ratio if the fuel has a calorific value of 2000 kulkg. id) The pressure of the gases leaving the turbine, (iv) The thrust per ky of air per second. Neglect any effect of the velocity of approach Assume for air: Ke 0287 kithy K, y= 1A Solution. Given » 7, = 15 + 273 = 288 K, Pp, = LOT bar, py © 4.04 bar, 1, = 750 + 27% = 1023 K, ee Ry = 0-287 kilkie K, y= Le Refer Fig. 25.40. nyGAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION 1403, TK) ft 1023) Fig. 25.40 T, = 2.88 x 1.486 = 428 K ™-T, 428 ~ 288 Meamarener = pap, bs O82 = naa 28-28) «oan an7 (i) Power required to drive the compressor : Power required to drive the compressor (per kg of air/sec.) = (Ty ~ T,) = 1.004(458.7 — 288) = 171.38 KW. (Ans.) (i) Air-fuel ratio : my C= (m, +m) % 6, xT, ~ Ty!) where, m, = Mass of air per kg of fuel, and = Air-fuel ratio. my xC ee) Ls a iy ep 7) 42000 100441023 ~ 458.7) ie, Airfuel ratio = 781: 1. (Ans.) 731. f- Ty g(t, - 7) ew Sine te Penh 488.7 - 288 ~ 1043-7 Ty = 8523 K %-T .74 bar. (Ans.) (@e) Thrust per kg of air per second : ™% Ty, = 852.3 — 0.88 (852.3 ~ 729.7) = 744.4 K Tope teal L =¢,T/~T;') ra 6 = [2xe, Fy’ - 7. = (2 *1.004(852.3 —744.4)x 1000 = 465.5 mvs ©. Thrust per ky per second = 1 x 465.5 = 465.5 N. (Ans.) Example 25.22. A turbojet engine travel at 216 m/s in air at 0.78 bar and ~ enters diffuser in which it is brought Co rest relative to the unit and it is then(GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION 1375 @) Airfuel ratio ; Gi) Specifie thrust of the unit ; Gii) Total thrust, if the inlet cross-section of diffuser is 0.12 m?_ ‘Assume calorific value of fuel as #4150 kJ/kg of fuel. Solution. Refer Fig. 25.41. wT) Fig 2541 Speod ofthe aircraft, C, = 216 m/s Intake air temperature, T, =~ 7.2 + 273 = 265.8 K Intake air pressure, p, = 0.78 bar Pressure ratio in tho compressor, r, = 6.8 ‘Tomperature of gases entering the gas turbine, T, = 1110 + 273 = 1383 K Pressure drop in combustion chamber = 0.168 bar Ty = yi N= 90% ; n, = 80%. Calorific value of fuel, C.V. = 44160 ki/kg of coal @ Air-fael ratio : ammeter veg ea ak ign hy + Sot byte Eo M12 e 2167 2658+ 2 __ * de, 8 * 351,005x i000 = 789K1406 THERMAL ENGINEERING | or of 216° a eR ew or Ty aT = 2068+ ape aoc aD * LOK For 1 Th_{m)t 289 (2 ra == (2) Now, B-(2| 7 &) or (087) = [5 or Py = 0.78 x (1.087)" = 1.044 bar it 4-2 Again, ) 7 =(68) 4 = 1.652 or 7, = 291.6 x 1652 = 481.7 K Also, = 291.64 SETA 218 . 5028 Assume Cn = Spa = &p Heat. supplied =(m, + mpc, T,~ mg, Ty = mx C or m, ¢, Tet Me, Ty- Mac, Ty = ™,xC or mygy\T~ Ts) = my(C~ o, T,) _ C~e,Ts__ 44150-1.008%1383 4g 94 case) or & Air-fuel ratio (ii) Specific thrust of the unit Moe. m, 7 €p(Py~Ts') 1.005(1383 502.8) = 48.34, (Ans.) Pq = Py ~ 0.168 = 5.8 x 1.044 — 0.168 = 5.88 bar Assume that the turbine drives compressor only (and not accessories also as is the usual off — By) = 6 fT, Te) Also, Now, (aH 119. Es) (8) Ty -Ty=T\-Ty or Ty =T,-(Ty- Ty) = 1383 ~ (502.8 - 291.6) = 11718 K 1-Ty Mn THT ya t,- BE oases - BEAU .anox ™ 08 wt ut #-(2) % (2 ae Ts Nes Ps 25 ) = oe ory = 28 bar Ps Ty 718 144” 144 T= = 813.75 Kor Ty = Ty =n, (ty ~ Ty) = 09 CVTLA 814,16) « 849.6 K at the exit of the nozzle, C= 4472 high’ = 44.92 Je, Ty” T4') = 44.72 J1.005( 171.8 849.5) = 804.8 m/s 1 saa ) «BOOB Specific thrust = (4m) xG=(1+ a A834 = 821.45 Niky of air/s. (Ans.) (ai) Total Thrust + Volume of flowing air, V, = 0.12 x 216 = 25.92 mY/s pV, ___ 0.78 x 10° x 25.92 a ™a = RT, (0.987 x 1000)» 2658 ~ 20° ke’s 5 x 821.45 = 217684 N. (Ans.) "Example 25.23. The following data pertain to a jet engine flying at an altitude of 9000 metres with a speed of 215 mis. Thrust power developed PEO Inlet pressure and temperature 0.32 bar, — 42°C Temperature of gases leaving the combustion chamber Pressure ratio Calorific value of fuel Velocity in ducts (constant) Internal efficiency of turbine Efficiency of compressor Efficiency of jet tube For air: ¢, = 1.005, For combustion gases, ¢, = 1.087 For gases during expansion, ¥ = 1.53. Calculate the following + (i) Overall thermal ¢ ii) Rate of air consumption ; (iii) Power developed by the turbine ; (iv) The outlet area of jet tube + (v) Specifie fuel consumption 4s hg per kg of thrust. Solution. Refer Fig. 2542 : | Pca .P, = 750 kW ;p, = 0.32 bar, 7, =~ 42 + 273 = 231 Kj Ty = 690 + 273 = 963K 57 $C = 42600 letag :C, = 215 mis, C/'= 19.5 ms, n= O86 51, = 0.865 Ny = 09, 25.42. Refer Fig. kg of fuel required per kg of air Ai kg of air Binet epclied pet oe oo mm (L «mp x LOT) =T/) Total thrust. wey of the unit +or vot a) — | Now, 3696-231 _ Also, = 231+ hes = 992.2 K Substituting the value of 7," in eqn. (i), we get 42500 m, = (1 + m) x 1.087 (963 — 392.2) = 620.46 (1 + m) 42500 m, = 620.46 + 620.46 m, 620.46 1" (qaB00 — 620.46) = 0.0148 = fuel-air ratio i ee : 4. Airfuel ratio = 957g = 67.58: 1 ‘The discharge velocity C, = C,’ cannot be determined from the thrust equation because the rate of airflow is not known. It may be determined from the expression of jet efficiency. Z Final kinetic energy in the jet ‘et efficiency, "Ww ™ Tentropicheat drop in the jet pipe + Carryover from the turbine O72 -T,)+C72 (where C/ = 195 m/s) andi) ‘Since the turbine’s work is to drive the compressor only, therefore, m Gpa(Ts' —T)) = 6, 1+Bt] a-19 inlty Ty al ateGAS TURBINES AND or ILSION 1409 PRE .087(1 + 0.0148) (963 - 7’) 31) 0148) 1,005 (392.2 — 231) = = 816.13 K Let rz = expansion pressure ratio in turbine ée., r,, = ry = expansion pressure ratio in jet tube Bax Pte 52 Ps Now, Man yo ae, h(a) 7 (2 1238 = (2366) ' —_ 816.13 5” 1238 1.238 ‘Substituting the values in eqn. (i), we get ‘Thus, = 659,23 K — G2i2 __GPi2 © 1,087 x 1000(816.13 — 659.23) + 1957/2 189562.8 C= J0.9x189562.8x2 = 584.13 m/s (i Overall efficiency, ng (1+ 22}e,-c, Cy ™ _ (1+ 0.0148) x 584.15 - 215)215 (™ } 1000 « 0.0148 42500 xC My = 0.1291 or 12.91%. (Ans.) (ii) Rate of air consumption, m, : ‘Thrust power = Thrust x Velocity of the unit +tlcj-c, ra, ve c,tg = iO 1.44 Kalas (Ane) developed by the turbine, P, + ae mn(1 0) oul 70) = 9.934(1 + 0.0148) x 1.087(963 — 816.13) = 1496 kW. (Ans.) Ge) The outlet area of jet tube, Ay : Now, or Assume the exit pressure of the gases be equal to atmospheric pressure i.e., 0.32 bar, fo 0,32 x 10" ty of exhaust gases, p = PA = = 0.163 mi/kg eee tothe = He "0,29 x 1000 x 67 Ie eee (Assuming R = 0,29 for the gases) Also, discharge of jet area i or Ay * 584 13 x 0.163 = 9.234 (1 + 0.0148) or A, = 0.0984 m*. (Ans.) {v) Specific fuel consumption in kg per kg of thrust : 0.0148 x 3600 Specific fuel consumption - —°**8* 9254 x 8600 1000 x (750/215) = 0.141 kg/thrust-hour, (Ans.) 258.2. Turbo-prop ‘ Fig. 25.43 shows a turbo-prop system employed in aircrafts. Here the of takes place partly in turbine (80%) and partly (20%) in the nozzle. The pores Sead ae turbine is consumed in running the compressor und the propeller. ‘The propeller and jet ; by the nozale give forward motion the uircraft. The Lurbo-prob entails the advantages of 2, low specific weight and simplicity in desiend and propeller (x propulsion efficiency at speeds below 600 krv/h). The overall eats Trig ie: congrm eeD- Diffuser C— Compressor T—Turbine C.C.- Combustion chamber Fig, 25.43, Turbo-prop. 25.8.3. Ram-jet : Ram{jet is also called athodyd, Lorin tube or flying stovepipe. Ram-jet engines have the capability to fly at supersonic speeds. Fig. 25.44 shows a schematic diagram of a ram-jet engine {compressor and turbine are not necessary as the entire compression depends only on the ram compression). © The ram-jet engine consists of a diffuser (used for compression), combustion chamber and nozzle. The air enters the ram-jet plant with supersonic speed and is slowed down to sonic velocity in the supersonic diffuser, consequently the pressure suddenly increases in the supersonic diffuser to the formation of shock wave. The pressure of air is further increased in the subsonic diffuser increasing the temperature of the air above the ignition temperature . ie the combustion chamber, the fuel is injected through injection nozzles, The fuel air ‘mixture is then ignited by means of a spark plug and combustion temperatures of the order of 2000 K are attained. ‘The expansion of gases towards the diffuser entrance is restricted by pressure barrier at the after end of the diffuser and as a result the hot i move towards the nozzle and undergo expansion ; the pressure gases are constrained to ‘Subsonic Igniter Nozzle pee oe Fig. 25.44, Schematic diagram of « Ramjet propulsion unit, taskinetic Co the unit ee uatscr rie eae jet engine amet engine postosies the following advantages over other types of jet engumes 1, No moving parts. 2 Light in weight, P 8. Wide variety of fuels may be used, - Shortcomings/Limitations 1. It cannot be started of its own. It has to be accelerated to a certain flight welowity by some launching device, A ram-jet is always equipped with a small turbo-jet which starts the ram-jet. 2. The fuel consumption is too large at low and moderate speeds. 8. For successful operation, the diffuser needs to be designed e ‘associated with high entrance velocities is efficiently converted intc 4. To obtain steady combustion, certain elaborate device flame are required. 25.8.4. Pulse-jet Engine A pulse-jet engine is an intermittent combustion engin ‘a reciprocating engine, whereas the turbo-jet and ram.jet eng are based on Brayton cycle. A pulse-jet ongine like an athodyd, ‘of jet of exhaust gases without the aid of compressor or turbine ‘the inability of the ram-jet to be self starting. Fig, 25.45 st: pulse-jet propulsion unit. © The incoming air is compressed by ram effect in the diffuse which are opened and closed by V-shaped non-return val © The fuel is then injected into the combustion chamber by the air pressure from the compressed air bottles). The combustion @ spark plug (once the engine is aperating normally, the spark residual flame in the combustion chamber is used for combustion Spark plug ¥ ‘Combustion J. chamber / hat kinetic energy ers or pilot Fig. 25.45. Pulse-jetengine. _So = of combustion (of mixture of air and fuel) the temperature and pre Products increase, Because the combustion pressure is higher | s ton-return valves get elosed and consequently the hot gases tail pipe with a high velocity and in doing no give a forward thrust to the unit. the escape of gases to the atmosphere, the at preasure in the chamber falls cand the high pressure air in the diffuser fe , BS foccen the valven © ind fresh air is admitted for combustion during anew cycle 1. Simple in construction and very inexpensive as compared to turbo-jet engine. Well adapted pilotless aircraft. 2. Capable of producing static thrust and thrust in excess of drag at much low speeds. | Shortcomings : 1. High intensity of noise. 2. Severe vibrations. 8. High rate of fuel consumption and low thermodynamic efficie y. 4. Intermittent combustion as compared to continuous comb tion in a turbo-jet engine. 5. The operating altitude is limited by air density consideration. 6. Serious limitation to mechanical valve arrangement. 25.8.5. Rocket Engines Similar to jet propulsion, the thrust required for rocket propulsion is produced by the high velocity jet of gases passing through the nozzle. But the main difference is that im ease of jet propulsion the oxygen required for combustion is taken from the atmosphere and fuel is stored whereas for rocket engine, the fiel and oxidiser both are contained in a propelling body and as such it ean function in vacuum The rockets may be class 1, According to the type of propellents : {i) Solid propellent rocket (a) Liquid propellent rocket. 2. According to the number of motors : {0 Single-stage rocket (consists of one rocket motor) (ii) Multi-stage rocket (consists of more than one rocket motor). Fig. 25.46 shows a simple type single stage liquid propellent (the fuel and the a. known as propellents) rocket, It consists of a fuel tank FY, an oxidiser tank O, two Py, Py a steam turbine ST and a combustion chamber C.C. The fuel tank contains alcohol disor tank contains liquid uxygen. The fuel and the oxidiser are supplied by the b ‘chamber where the fuel is ignited by electrical means. The pumps are driven with turbine. Here the steam is produced by mixing a very concent a te, ‘The products of combustion are di i ied as followsFT Fuel tank HT — Hydrogen peroxide tank (0 ~ Oxidiser tank ST-Steam t P,, P.~ Pumps: ©. ~ Combustion chamber HG - Hot gases N—Nozzle ine Direction of rocket oN 25.6.5.1, Requirements of an ideal rocket propellent - ee aaah serena should have the following characteristics /properties ¢ 2, Reliable smooth ignition 8, Stability and ease of handling and storing 4. Low toxicity and corrosivencss 5, Highest possible density #0 that it occupies loss space, re ee tee‘Thrust work, propulsive work and propulsive efficiency a propulsion, since air is self contained, the entry velocity relative to aircraft is zera, friction and other losses, we have the following formulae. Thrust work =CC. Co Propulsive work eGC ee ees Rocket propulsive efficiency = ns( 25,23) HIGHLIGHTS 1, The gas turbines are mainly divided into two groups : () Constant pressure combustion gas turbine (a) Open eycle constant pressure gas turbine () Closed cycle constant pressure gas turbine. (if) Constant volume combustion gas turbine 2 Methods for improvement of thermal efficiency of open cycle gas turbine plant: (i) Intercooling (di) Reheating (iia) Regeneration. Types of jet propulsion systems: (@) Screw propeller (i) Tarboset (iit) Turbo-prop Civ) Ramjet. 4. Difference between jet propulsion and rocket. propulsion “The main difference is that in case of jet propulsion the oxygen required for combustion is taken from the ‘atesoaphere und fuel is stored whereas for rocket engine the fuel and oxidiser both are contained in a ‘propelling body and as such it can function in vacuum ——-& Classification of rockets : (é) According to the type of propellents : (a) Solid propellent rocket (b) Liquid propellent rocket. (ii) According to the number of motors ; (a) Single-ntage rocket (consists of ane rocket motor) 1b) Multi-stage rocket (consists of more than one rocket motor). L Choose the Correct Answer herm: fp gas tals pit aa pupare Diane engin peat , 7 wer (d) may be higher or lower.1416 ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING 2 Mechanical efficiency of a gus turbine as compared to internal combustion reciprocating engine is, (a) higher () lower (e) same (a) wnpredictable. 4, Fora gas turbine the pressure ratio may be in the range (a)2103 (b) 305 (©) 16t0 18 (a) 181022, 4. The air standard efficiency of closed gas turbine cycle is given by (r, = pressure ratio for the compressor and turbine) ‘p conei-(2} want? 1 p 4, The work ratio of closed cycle gas turbine plant depends upon (a) pressure ratio of the cycle and specific heat ratio (b) temperature ratio of the eyele and specific heat ratio (c) pressure ratio, temperature ratio and specific heat ratio Cd enly on preseure ratio, Thermal ficiency of dost cycle gas turbine plan increases by (a) reheating (6) intoreooting (ch regenerator (@) all of the above. 7, With the increase in pressure ratio thermal efficiency ofa simple gas turbine plant with fixed turbine inlet temperature (a) decreases (b) inereases (0) first increases and then decreases (q) first decreases and then increases. & The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine eycle with ideal regenerative heat exchanger is (a) equal to work ratio (b) Teas than work ratio (c) more than work ratio (d) unpredictable, 9 Ina two-stage gas turbine plant reheating after first stage (a) decreases thermal efficiency (6) increases thermal efficiency (c} does not effect thermal efficieney (d) none of the above. 10, Ina two-stage gas turbine plant, reheating aller frst stage (a) increases work ratio (b) decreases work ratio (c) doos not affect work ratio (@) none of the above, 11, Ina two-stage gas turbine plant, with intercooling and reheating (a) both work ratio and thermal efficiency improve (b} work ratio improves but thermal efficiency decreases (©) thermal efficiency improves but work ratio decreases (q) both work ratio and thermal efficiency decrease. 12, Forajet-propulsion unit, ideally the compressor work and turbine work are (a) equal (b) unequal (e) not related to each other (d) unpredictable. 18, Greater the difference between jet velocity and aeroplane velocity (a) greater the propulsive efficiency (b) lees the propulsive officioney (c) unaffected is the propulsive efficiency {(d) none of the above.GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION iz Beespep ee ore ANSWERS i) 2 @ & 4 & te) &@ 2 © (or ® ta) 10. a ML (ay 12 ie) ma, THEORETICAL QUESTIONS ‘What do you mean by the term gas turbine’ ? How are gas turbines classified ? State the merita of gas turbines over 1.C, engines and steam turbines. Discuss also the demerits over gas [Describe with neat sketches the working of a simple constant pressure open cycle gas turbine, Discuss briefly the methods employed for improvement of thermal efficiency of open eyele gas turbine plant. Deseribe with neat dingram a closed eyele gas turbine. State also its merits and demerits. Explain with a neat sketch the working of a constant volume combustion turbine. Enumerate the various uses of gas turbines. ‘Write a short note on fuels used for gas turbines. Explain the working difference between propeller-jet, turbo-jet and turbo-prop. State the fundamental differences between the jet propulsion and rocket propulsion. In an airstandard gas turbine engine, air at a temperature of 15°C and a pressure of 1.01 bar enters the ‘compressor, where itis compressed through a pressure ratio of 5. Air enters the turbine at temperature ‘of 815°C and expands to original pressure of 1.01 bar. Determine the ratio of turbine work to compressor ‘work and the thermal efficiency when the engine operates on ideal Brayton cycle, ‘Take: y= 14, ¢, = 1.005 kifkg K. [Ans.2.399 ; 37.03%) nan open cycle constant pressure gas turbine air enters the compressor at 1 bar and 900 K. The pressure ‘of air after the compression is 4 bar. The isentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine are 78% and B5%% Suet See be es BT Cals irre earn beeen oe oe ifthe flow rate of airis 2.5 kgs. ‘Take, «1.006 Suh K und 7 = 1Aforairande, = 147k K and y= 1.39 for guseeF = 0.287 hg K. value of Fuel = 42000 kilfkg. (ARS. 204,09 kWkg of rir 15.54%] ‘A gas turbine has a pressure ratio of 6/1 and a maximum cycle temperature of 600°C. The isen‘ropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0.82 and 0.86 respectively. Calculate the power output in ‘kilowatts ofan electric generator geared to the turbine when the air enters the compressor at 15°C: at the rave of 15 kg/s. ‘Tako ¢, = 1.005 kalAkg K and y= 1.4 for the compression process, and take, = 1.11 kik Kand y= 1.333 for the expansion process, (Ans-920 kW) Calculate the thermal efficiency and the work ratio ofthe plant in example 3 (above), assuming that Ube combustion process is 1.11 keg K. [Ans.15 8 : 0.506) ‘The gas turbine has an overall pressure ratio of 6: 1 and a maximum cycle temperature of 650°C: The turbine drives the compressor and an electric generator, the mechanical efficiency of the drive being 97%, ‘The ambient temperature is 20°C and the isentropic efficiencies for the compressor and turbine are 0.8 and 0.83 respectively. Calculate the power output in kilowatts for an air flow of 15 ky/s. Calculate also the ‘thermal efficiency and the work ratio. Neglect changes is kinetic energy, and the loss of pressure in combustion chamber. [Ams.655 kW : 12% ; 0.168)[ 1418 ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING 1 m Airis drawn in a gas turbine unit at 17°C and 1.01 bar and the pressure ratio is 8 : 1. The compreseor is ‘driven by the HP. turbine and the L.P. turbine drives a separate power shaft. The isentropic eficioncies of the compressor, and the HLP. and I.P. turbines are 08, 0.85 and 0.88, reapectively. Calculate the pressure and temperature of the gases entering the power turbine, the net power developed by the unit per kg/s of mass flow, tho work ratio and the thermal efficiency of the unit. The maximum cycle temperature is 650°C. For the compression process take c, = 1.005 kJ/kg: Kand y= 14 For the combustion process and expansion process, take 6, = L1G kik K and y= 1.333 Neglect the mass of fuel, (ANS. 1.65 bar, 393°C ; 74.5 kW ; 0.201 ; 19.1%] In agus turbine plant, air is compressed through « pressure ratio of 6: 1 from 15°C. Itis then heated to the maximum permissible temperature of 750°C and expanded in two stages each of expansion ratio V6 , the air being reheated between the stages to 750°C. A heat exchanger allows the heating of the compressed gases through 75 per eont of the maximum range possible. Caleulate:(i) The eyele officieney (ii) The work. ratio iii) The work per kg of air, ‘The isentropic efficiencies ofthe compressor and turbine are 0.8 and 0.85 respectively. FADS. (11 82.76% 5 (1) 0.3802 ; (ld) 162 baad _Atthe design speed the following data apply toa gas turbine set employing the heat exchanger: Isentropic efficiency of compressor = 75%, isentropic efficiency of the turbine = 65%. mechanical transmission effi- ciency = 99%, combustion efficiency = 96%, mass flow = 22:7 kg/s, proseure ratio = 6: 1, heat exchanger effectiveness = 75%, maximum eycle temperature = 1000 K. ‘The ambient air temperature and pressure are 15°C and 1.013 bar respectively. Caleutate (@) The net power output (ii) Specific Fuel consumption (iii) Thermal efficiency of the eyele. “Take the lower calorific value of fuel as 43125 kiJfkg and assume no pressure-loss in heat exchanger and combustion chaniber, nn (4) 2019 KW ; (i) 0.479 kgeWh ; (i) 16.7%) Inn gas turbine plant air at 10°C and 1.01 bar is compressed through a pressure ratio of 4:1. In a heat exchanger and combustion chamber the air is heated to 700°C while its pressure drops 0.14 bar. After expansion through the turbine the air passes through a heat exchanger which cools the air through 75% of | maximum range possible, while the pressure drops 0.14 bar, and the airis finally exhausted to atmosphere. “The isentropic efficieney af the compressor is 0.80 and that of turbine 0.86. Calculate the efficiency of the plant. Ans. 29.76%) Ina marine gas turbine unit @ high-pressure stage turbine drives the compressor, and a low-pressure stage turbine drives the propeller through suitable gearing. The overall pressure ratiois4: 1, and the maximum temperature is 650°C. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor, H.P. turbine, and L.P. turbine are 0.8, 0.83, and 0.85 respectively, and the mechanical efficiency of both shafts is 98%, Calculate the pressure between turbine stages when the air intake conditions are 1.01 bar and 25°C. Caleulate also the thermal efficiency and the shaft power when the mass flow is 60 kp/s. Neglect kinetic energy changes, and pressure Jossin combustion, Ans. 1.57 bar ; 14.9% ; 4560 KW] Ina gas turbine unit comprising L.P. and H.P, compressors, airis taken at 1.01 bar 27°C, Compression LP. stogeis upto 3.08 bar fllowed by intercooling to 30°C. The pressure of air ater H.P. compressar is 58.7 bar. Loss in pressure during intereooling is 0.13 bar. Air from HLP. compressor is transferred to heat exchanger of effectiveness 0,60 where itis heated by gases from L.P. turbine. The temperature of gases supplied to HP, turbine is 750°C. The gases expand in H.P, turbine to 3.25 bar and are then reheated to 700°C before expanding in L.P. turbine. The loss of pressure in reheater is 0.1 bar. If isentropic efficiency of compreasion in both stages is 0.80 und isentropic efficiency of expansion in turbine is 0.86, calculate : (® Overall efficiency (ii) Work ratio ti) Mass flow rate when the gas power generated is 6500 kW. Neglect. the mass of fue. ‘Take, for air 36, = 1,005 hg Ky y= 24 for gases: c= 116 klk Ky y= 1.5, PAs. (i) 16,179 5 (if) 0.2215 ; it) 69.98 hg of airvoee-) In @ gas turbine installation, air is taken in L.P, campressor at 16°C 1,1 bar and after compression it is passed through intercooler where its temperature is reduced to 22°C, The cooled air is further compressed In HLP. unit andl then passed in the combustion chamber where ite temperature i increased to 677°C bydin the L.P. turbine which runs the alternator, The gasen for heating the incoming air from HP. campreswor and then exhausted following data determine : () power output (if) speeifie fuel consumption (i ‘ratio of each compressor = 2, isentropic efficiency of each comproqor stage = 85%, ‘ofeach turbine stage = 85%, effectiveness of heat exchanger = 0.75, airflow = 15 kg/see, ‘value of fvel = 45000 kal/kg, ¢,(for gas) = 1 kikg K, ¢, (for gas) = 1.15 koleg K, 1(for ir) = 1.4, 1(for gins) Noglect the mechanical, pressure and heat Insses of the system and fuel mass also, UAns, (7) 1849.2 kW ; (di) 0.241 kaykWh ; it) 89.17%) A turbojet engine flying at a speed of 960 km/h consumes air at the rate of 54.5 ke/a, Calculate (i) Exit “velocity offjet when the enthalpy change for the nozzle is 200 ka/kg and velocity eo-efficient is 0.97, (i) Fuel flow rate in kg/s when air-fuel ratio is 75: 1 (iff) Thrust specific fuel consumption (Fo) Thermal efficiency of the plant when the combustion efficiency is 93% and calorific value of the fuel is 45000 kJ/kg. (e) Propulsive power (vi) Propulsive efficiency (vii) Overall efficiency. [Ans. (i) 613.5 mis ; (i) 0.7267 kgs ; (il) 4.3 x 10-* kegiN of thrnsats = (ie) 25.44% ; (0) 8318 KW ; (vi) 60.6% 5 (it) 16.58%} ‘A tturbo-jet has a speed of 750 kevh while flying at an altitude af 10000 m, The propulsive efficiency of the: jetis 50% and overall efficiency of the turbine plant is 16%. The density fair at 10000m altitude is 0.173 kam’, The drag on the plant is 6250 N. The calorific value of the fuel is 48000 ki/kg. Calculate : (2) Absolute velocity of the jet (ii) Volume of air compressed per minute (i!) Diameter of the et (io) Power output ofthe Unit in KW(v) Air-fuel ratio. | [Ans. 7417.3 m/s; (f)5194 m/min ; (#1) 415 mm; (iv) 2500 RW {o)46.01)