Acquisition is the product of a subconscious process, where there is lots of exposure to the language and opportunities

to use it as often as possible. At least one language is acquired (mother tongue generally) and children often acquire
language more easily than teenagers or adults who on contrast are more efficient learners.

Learning is something we do consciously, for example, when we study the “rules” structures of language verb tenses.
We pay attention to what we are doing. Language in a way is “earned” (grammar, vocabulary, functions).

Views: Behaviourism, Nativism or innatist, Cognitive -developmental, social -interactionism.

Behaviourist view: this approach emphasize repetition in the form of drills, accuracy and the avoidance of errors.
Behaviourists believe that imitation and practice or habit formation are key processes in language development. It
stresses the importance of positive reinforcement in L1 and L2 acquisition where correct learning behaviour is
rewarded by praise. The role of the child was a very passive one, only responding to stimulus provided by the teacher.
The main representative of this view was Skinner.

Nativist or Innatist view: it suggested that there were innate and therefore universal features of the human mind.
According to this view children are pre-programmed to learn a language. Chomsky suggested that there was an innate
Language Acquisition Device (LAD), now referred to as Universal Grammar, which allowed infants to process all the
language they hear and to produce their own utterances.

Cognitive-developmental view: it focused on the acquisition of language through action, how the child learns in
interaction with other objects provided by the environment. In terms of L2 learning, the Critical Period Hypothesis
(CPH) suggested that there is a specific and limited time for language acquisition (puberty). Representative: Piaget.

Social- interactionist view: emphasises the importance of human social interactions, and the role of adult and child
relationships in learning. Two key concepts: “scaffolding” provided by Brunner which refers to the process in which
the partner with whom the child interacts provides a structure or framework for them. The other concept was coined
by Vygotsky and it was the zone of proximal development (ZPD) used to explain the fact that children can do much
more with the help of someone more knowledgeable or skilled than themselves, than they can do on their own.

Children’s characteristics:

- Have a lot of physical energy and often need to the physically active.
- Have a wide range of emotional needs.
- Are emotionally excitable.
- Are still developing literacy in their L1.
- Learn more slowly and forget things quickly.
- Tend to be self-oriented and preoccupied with their own world.
- Get bored easily.
- Are excellent mimics.
- Can be easily distracted but also very enthusiastic.

Input Hypothesis theory

This theory suggested that people acquire language if they get comprehensible input. This means that they are exposed
to language that is just above their own level, but which they more or less understand.

This theory was questioned because it was difficult to test because people cannot usually say if their language was
acquired or learnt, and if you can’t say which it was, then the theory cannot be proved or disproved.

Metacognition.
It is defined by Brown as ‘knowing about knowing’. This includes the knowledge and self-awareness a learner has of
their own learning process, and may be the key to effective learning.

Metacognitive strategies encourage children to think about and to reflect on aspect of the learning process.

- Planning learning: the teacher generally takes the main responsibility for planning learning. By being well-
organized and explicit the teacher can model how planning takes place. Children eventually can take on more
responsibility for planning certain aspects on their own learning.
- Hypothesising: students can be encouraged to work out the rules of grammar for themselves by looking at
examples of the foreign language and working out the rules.
- Comparing: students can be encouraged to analyse and compare differences and similarities between English
and their L1. This can encourage their curiosity about language and develop language awareness.
- Self-questioning: students can be taught how to ask themselves questions about their learning in order to
reflect on the content and processes.
- Self-assessment: to reflect on the content of learning and work out where and why they may have made a
mistake.
- Reviewing: Students can be taught to review systematically in order to aid long-term retention and to identify
what they know and do know.
- Selecting activities: give students a selection of different activities to choose from, this allows them to choose
activities according to their own interest and needs, decide for themselves what to do, and plan their own
work.

Multiple intelligences

The multiple intelligences theory states that in addition to the three learning styles suggested by the neuro-linguistic
programming (NLP) which are visual learning style, where information is learned mainly through the eye; the auditory
learning style, based on a preference for learning linked through hearing; and kinaesthetic learning style; based on
learning through movement and manipulating things. There are 8 kinds of intelligences which not all are recognized
by school learning.

M. I.: Linguistic intelligence; logical-mathematical intelligence; spatial intelligence; kinaesthetic intelligence; musical
intelligence; interpersonal intelligence; intrapersonal intelligence; naturalist intelligence.

With this knowledge teachers can ensure they provide enough variety in the activities they use so that as much of their
students’ learning potential can be tapped as possible.

How can teacher provide support to students’ language learning?

Teachers can help student grasp meanings of the L2 by ensuring language use in contextualized and has visual support
wherever possible.

- Incorporating repetition, especially with variety, is important but stopping when we sense children had
enough.
- The use of inductive exercises in the L2 where they try to work out grammar rules for themselves, mirror
exactly what they have been doing in their L1 for years.
- Children should be encouraged to try to talk and communicate in the L2, by using whatever means necessary
to get their meaning.
- Teachers need to create a balance in their classroom between providing support and providing a challenge.
- Students’ willingness ‘to have a go’ should be encouraged and should not be dampened too much by constant
correction or an overly strict atmosphere.

Advantages and disadvantages of using English to teach English. In which situations does the author advice to
use the L1?

Advantages:
 - It increases the amount of exposure students get to English.
- Develops students’ confidence in the language.
- It provides real reasons for using English to communicate.
- It can motivate students to want to learn.
- It develops greater fluency, as students are encouraged to think in English from the early stages.

Disadvantages:

- It can take a long time to explain things, even using gestures.

- Weaker or slower students may lack the confidence to believe they can learn through English; they may be
frightened or put off English.
- Teachers may have limited English or insufficient fluency in the language. They may give students incorrect
models.
- It may take longer to cover the syllabus.
- For students who are not highly motivated, it may involve too much effort to try to understand.

Situation where the L1 could be used:

S: Child is upset.

L1: To soothe the child and demonstrate sympathy/closeness.

S: Child knows the answer to a question that the teacher has asked but does not know how to say it in English.

L1: To show knowledge of the answer of the answer. To communicate the answer to the teacher.

S: Child wants to share on experience/real information with teacher/student in an English lesson but has limited
English.

L1: To communicate a message to friends/teachers.

S: Teacher or student wants to tell a joke.

L1: To develop rapport/closeness with teachers/students.