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ML102871150 PDF
ML102871150 PDF
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Coe Design
September 1982
Authors
Stephen A. McGuire
A health physicist and specialist in
industrial radiography in NRC's Oc-
cupational Radiation Protection
Branch, Office of Nuclear Regula-
tory Research. He received a Ph.D.
in Nuclear Engineering in 1970
from the University of Wisconsin.
Carol A. Peabody
A technical writer and project coor-
dinator in NRC's Program and Ad-
ministrative Services Branch, Office
of Nuclear Regulatory Research.
She received her B.A. in journalism
in 1968 from the University of
Washington.
Disclaimer
Equipment shown in the figures in
this manual is used solely for illus-
trative purposes. The inclusion of
such equipment in the figures does
not imply any endorsement of the
equipment by the NRC.
Available as NUREG/BR-0024
Preface
W ho Is This M anual For? ........................................... iv
Chapter
1 W hy Is Safety Training Im portant? ............................... 1
2 W hat Is Radiation? ............................................. 7
3 W hat Is Radioactivity? ......................................... 17
4 What Are the Harmful Effects of Radiation? ...................... 25
5 How Do Time, Distance, and Shielding Affect Your Dose? ........ 41
6 How Do You Detect and Measure Radiation? .................... 63
7 How Do Radiography Cameras Work? .......................... 77
8 What Are the Basic Rules for Radiography? ..................... 85
9 What Are the Rules for Transporting Sources? ................... 99
10 How Can Following Procedures Help You? ..................... 109
11 Why Do Radiography Accidents Happen? ...................... 115
Appendices
A Regulatory Agencies in Agreement States ...................... 125
B NRC Regional Offices .......................................... 127
C How To Obtain NRC Regulations and Guides .................... 129
D NRC Fo rm s ................................................... 131
E G lo ssa ry ...................................................... 133
F Overexposure Accidents, 1971-1980 ............................ 149
G References and Notes ......................................... 155
H Photo Credits and Acknowledgments ............................ 161
iii
Preface
This manual is designed for class- This manual was written to assist This manual does not cover your
room training in working safely in your company in meeting the company's specific operating and
industrial radiography using radio- NRC's requirements on training ra- emergency procedures. Your com-
active sources that emit gamma diographers. NRC regulations* re- pany's procedures for equipment
rays. Industrial radiography using quire that individuals receive operation, inspection, and mainte-
x-ray machines, accelerators, and radiation safety training and pass nance and the specific require-
neutron sources is not covered in both a written test and a field test ments in your company's license
this manual. before becoming gamma radiogra- must be studied separately.
phers. Each state that regulates
The purpose of this manual is to gamma radiography has an equiva- If you have already been instructed
help train you - a radiographer's lent requirement. This manual cov- in your company's operating and
assistant - to work safely as a ers the general subjects that the emergency procedures, you will
qualified gamma radiographer. This NRC requires you to know about probably better understand the ma-
training is important to help you gamma radiography safety. Addi- terial presented in this manual. You
work competently as a radiogra- tional information on case histories will also get more out of the man-
pher and to help you prevent ra- of radiography accidents is avail- ual and the training course if you
diography accidents. able from the NRC.** have worked as a radiographer's
assistant using basic gamma ra-
Industrial radiography using The radiography safety training in- diography equipment, especially
gamma ray sources is regulated by formation in this manual is in- radiography cameras and survey
the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Com- tended to be taught by a qualified meters, for at least a month. This
mission (NRC) or, in many states, instructor using 30 to 40 classroom introductory work experience will
by the individual states themselves. hours of instruction. This manual is help you to understand and appre-
Industrial radiography using x-ray not intended for self-instruction. ciate more fully the safety informa-
machines and accelerators is regu- The instructor will be able to an- tion presented to you.
lated by state regulatory agencies swer specific questions on equip-
or by the federal Occupational ment and procedures and will allow
Safety and Health Administration ample time for discussion with fel-
(OSHA). low students.
*Title 10, "Energy," Part 34, "Licenses for *NUREG/BR-0001, Vol. 1, "Case Histories of
Radiography and Radiation Safety Require- Radiography Events." Copies are available
ments for Radiographic Operations," Sec- for purchase at current rates (bulk prices
tion 34.31, "Training." available) through the GPO Sales
Program.
I
Why Is Safety
Training Important?
What Is Industrial Radiography?
Radiation Hazards
What Is Industrial in the object allow more radiation of industrial radiography go back to caused a fluorescent material to
to reach the film. A picture (or radi- December 1895, when the German glow. Roentgen x-rayed a piece of
Radiography? ograph) of the object has darker scientist Wilhelm Roentgen discov- metal to reveal variations in the
Industrial radiography* is the proc- areas on the film where more radia- ered x-rays while experimenting metal. A year later, he made a radi-
ess of using radiation to "see" in- tion has penetrated. A person look- with high-voltage electricity in vac- ograph of his shotgun that showed
side manufactured products such ing at the film can tell from these uum tubes. The x-rays he produced flaws in the barrels (Figure 3).
as metal castings or welded pipe- darker areas if there are flaws in the
lines to find out whether the prod- object. These radiographs can de-
ucts contain flaws. The process is tect flaws in the components of air-
the same one that a medical doctor planes, submarines, pipelines,
uses to x-ray a patient's chest or a bridges, and power plants that
dentist uses to x-ray a patient's could lead to dangerous accidents.
teeth.
The Beginning of
In industrial radiography, radiation
is produced either by x-ray ma- Radiography
chines or by radioactive materials The use of penetrating radiation in
contained in small capsules. The ra- radiography is often thought of as a
diation penetrates the object being very modern development, but in -4,4114 ~
studied and exposes x-ray film fact using radiation in this manner
J~-
Figure 2. Wilhelm Roentgen won the Nobel Figure 3. This radiograph of Roentgen's
*This manual contains a glossary defining Prize in Physics in 1901 for the discovery of shotgun is the earliest industrial radiograph
terms commonly used in industrial radiog- x-rays. (1896). This radiograph shows erosion in
raphy (Appendix E). the barrels. Exposure time was 12 minutes. 3
1 Safety Training
On New Year's Day, 1896, Roentgen tists to wonder whether any min- Curie, a wife and husband who At this point, the scientific basis for
mailed his report of the discovery erals within the earth would also worked together as scientists, dis- radiography using gamma rays ex-
of x-rays to the leading scientists of emit similar penetrating radiation. covered that uranium ore gave off isted. However, it would be 30
Europe, and into each envelope he In February 1896, a French scientist, much more radiation than ex- years before enough radium would
slipped a handful of the pictures he Henri Becquerel, discovered such pected. They suspected that an- be available for industrial
had taken -the first x-ray pictures radiation coming from a uranium- other radiation emitter besides radiography.
in the world. Within 2 months after bearing mineral. uranium was present.
Roentgen's announcement, hospi- Early Gamma Radiography
tals throughout the world were us- Since Becquerel's rays were not in- In 1898, after very tedious chemical
ing x-ray pictures to aid in surgery. tense enough to give pictures of separations, the Curies managed to Gamma radiography got its start in
bones, these rays 'were not nearly produce a tiny amount of a previ- the United States in 1929 at the Na-
as fascinating as Roentgen's. The val Research Laboratory.1 ' 2 The
Discovery of Radium ously undiscovered elemen t from Navy wanted a method to test thick
discovery was neglected for a year tons of ore. They named the ele-
The discovery of x-rays led scien- and a half. Then Marie and Pierre ment radium for the great intensity steel castings, but x-rays available
of its radiation. at that time could not be used for
thicknesses greater than 3 inches.
Using radium, it was possible to ra-
diograph castings up to 10 or 12
inches thick. The radium sources
used then were very weak com-
pared to modern sources. A source
strength of one-tenth of a curie was
typical, and exposure times of sev-
eral hours to as long as 4 days
were necessary.
Industrial radiography grew tre-
mendously during World War 11as
part of the Navy's shipbuilding pro-
gram. Manmade gamma ray
sources such as cobalt and iridium
became available in 1946, shortly
after World War 11.These new
sources were far stronger than ra-
dium sources and were also much
less expensive. The manmade
Figure 4. Mrs. Roentgen's hand was x-rayed Figure 5. Within 4 days after news of x-rays Figure 6: In 1940, radiography sources sources rapidly replaced radium,
December 22, 1895. Roentgen mailed x-ray reached the United States, hospitals used looked like this and usually contained about and the use of gamma radiography
pictures such as this in 1896 to Europe's them to aid in surgery. In February 1896, a one-tenth of a curie of radium. The radium grew quickly.
leading scientists to announce his discov- man's hand was x-rayed in order to aid in was sealed in a capsule (Al and placed in an
ery of x-rays. the surgical removal of more than 40 gun- aluminum-alloy container (B3). This source
shot pellets (black spots in the x-ray) was handled by using the cords (C) at- Radiation Hazards
embedded in the hand as a result of a hunt- tached to the container.
ing accident. Note the improvement in Industrial radiography is a powerful
quality over Roentgen's original x-ray pic- tool, but it involves some signifi-
ture (Figure 4). cant risks.
Safety Training 1
Exposure to harmful radiation is an capsules. These sources emit in- gers, legs, and portions of the torso ately, long-term effects such as can-
occupational hazard that you will tense radiation. If held in the hand, and even death have been caused cer may occur many years later. In
face as a radiographer. Three char- a typical source will cause radiation by radiography sources. fact, any amount of radiation you
acteristics of gamma radiography burns in seconds (Figure 9). receive may increase your chances
make serious accidents possible: Most radiation overexposures of developing cancer. For low
Very large doses of radiation to a caused by radiography accidents doses of radiation, the risks are
1. Gamma radiography sources small portion of the body may have not been large enough to very small. We discuss the risks
emit intense and penetrating ra- cause so much damage that ampu- cause radiation burns. However, from exposure to radiation in Chap-
diation so that they can be used tation of the damaged tissue would even if the consequences of an ter 4.
for studying thick metal samples. be needed. The amputation of fin- overexposure are not seen immedi-
This means that these sources
can expose you to a great deal of
radiation in a very short time.
2. The best radiographs are pro-
duced by sources with the small-
est dimensions. The radiation
intensity on the surface of small
gamma ray sources is enormous.
If you touch a source, it can
cause serious harm.
3. Much radiography is done under
difficult working conditions with
little direct supervision or assis-
tance. On heavy construction
projects, movement of pipes and
beams by heavy equipment pre-
sents a constant hazard and dis-
traction. In addition, there is
constant pressure to finish the
radiography work as soon as
possible. This pressure to rush
can lead to accidents.
If you understand radiation hazards
and practice proper procedures
when working with radiation, you Figure 7. Early radium sources were han- Figure 8. This picture of "fishpole" radiogra-
can work with radiography sources dled using long "fishpoles" or cords. This phy was probably taken during the 1940s.
without ever being overexposed. method was suitable for weak sources. Bet- The photo was obviously staged. The
ter methods were needed to handle the sources then available were so weak that
stronger manmade sources that became exposures of an hour or more were neces-
Gamma radiography sources are available during the late 1940s. sary. Even the steadiest hand could not be
composed of radioactive material still long enough to avoid a blurry
enclosed in small stainless steel radiograph. 5
1 Safety Training
0 A required radiation survey to en- When you are working with a ra-
sure that the source has been re- diography source, you are respon-
tracted to its shielded container is sible for your own safety and the
omitted or is not done properly. safety of others in the area. The
ability to make the right decisions
* The radiography source is not and take the right actions comes
locked into place once it has been from a combination of training and
retracted into the safe, shielded experience. Studying the following
position. chapters will help you make sound
decisions in your work.
You can avoid these accidents by
following your company's operat- It should be clear to you that indus-
ing and emergency procedures. trial radiography has hazards asso-
These procedures are written so ciated with it. The rest of this
that you can accomplish your job manual discusses these hazards in
as a radiographer in a safe and effi- more detail as well as important
cient manner. safety measures you should use to
work safely in gamma radiography.
Radiation Dose
Radiation - is it deadly or is it ben- A Form of Energy ing waves of electrical and mag- emits light. If we were to look at the
eficial for the world? The word ra- netic energy. The radiation waves individual atoms of a white-hot ob-
diation causes all sorts of reactions Radiation is a form of energy. There are called electromagnetic waves ject, we would see that the atoms
these days. What are we to make of are two basic kinds of radiation. or electromagnetic radiation. We shake very fast. Heat is the meas-
it? One kind is tiny fast-moving parti- refer to these as wavelike radiation. ure of how fast the individual at-
cles that have both energy and Ordinary visible light is another oms in a substance are moving. But
On one hand, we hear that nuclear weight. We refer to these as parti- form of wavelike radiation. Light it is a law of nature that when at-
power is going to save an energy- cle radiation. These particles of ra- travels so fast that our senses tell oms are moving very fast, they will
starved world. Some say the power diation are similar to speeding us it travels from one place to an- give off some of their energy in the
of the atom will give an ocean of bullets, but the particles are much other instantly. All wavelike radia- form of wavelike radiation if any-
energy that can help produce our smaller - so small that you cannot tion travels just as fast. It travels at thing changes their motion.
food, fuel our industries, recycle see them. Speeding electrons are the speed of light.
our precious minerals, and restore radiation particles of this kind. The most energetic light that our
our standard of living. Energy must be used to produce eyes can detect has a violet color.
The other kind of radiation is pure light. In an electric light bulb, elec- As the energy of the radiation parti-
But we also hear about the "radia- energy with no weight. Gamma trical energy is converted into heat cles increases, we say that the light
tion nightmare" and the destruc- rays are an example. This kind of (thermal energy). The filament of has gone beyond violet - it has be-
tiveness of radiation. This radiation is like vibrating or pulsat- the bulb becomes white-hot and come ultraviolet. We cannot see it
nightmare is symbolized by mush-
room clouds and giant chimneys
looming over nuclear power plants.
There is also the scare of Geiger
counters clicking rapidly, people
dying of cancer, and the horror of
giving birth to mutated children -
all because of an invisible danger.
But most people do not understand
radiation and, therefore, it may ap-
pear to them to have magical
powers.
or feel it, but it is still there and can Figure 3. As the voltage increases, the
x-rays become more energetic and more
give us a suntan or a sunburn if the penetrating. A voltage of 10,000 volts was
intensity is too great. used to produce this x-ray of tulips. Much
higher voltages are needed to penetrate
heavy metal objects.
X-Ray Radiation
To produce even more energetic
radiation, electrons are made to Types of Wave-Like Radiation
travel at enormous speeds, smash
into other electrons, and thereby Radio waves
give off very energetic wavelike ra-
diation. We call this type of radia-
tion x-rays. X-rays have much more
Microwaves
energy than visible light.
Figure 5. This historical photograph, pub- particle becomes a center for the condensa- These chemical reactions happen in electrical balance. No chemical re-
lished in 1923, shows the tracks made by tion of a visible droplet of water. The water a radiographer's film when an x-ray action occurs to damage the
electrons that have been hit by a narrow droplets that are formed are photographed.
beam of x-rays. The x-rays pass through C. T. R. Wilson, the scientist who took this or gamma ray interacts with an material.
very moist air striking electrons in their photograph, won the Nobel Prize in physics atom in the film. These chemical re-
path. These electrons speed off leaving a for this work. actions also can cause biological
trail of electrically charged particles. Each damage in the radiographer's body. Ionization
Damage can happen if the radia- Ripping the electron off an atom is
tion's energy breaks apart mole- called ionization. Ionization means
cules in the cells of the human that two ions (or electrically
body. We'll discuss the harmful ef- charged particles) have been cre-
fects of radiation in Chapter 4. ated. The electron has a negative
electrical charge. The atom that re-
X-rays and gamma rays cause al- mains behind has a positive electri-
most no damage in metals, how- cal charge. A radiation survey
ever. Metals conduct electricity meter responds to charged parti-
easily. If an atom loses an electron, cles or ions that are created inside
other electrons are free to move in its detector.
the metal to quickly restore the
So far we have talked about ioniza- Electrical current is the motion of cause in air. The amount of ioniza- dials of radiation survey meters.
tion caused by wavelike radiation charged particles such as electrons. tion in air caused by x-rays or Radiation survey meters measure
such as x-rays and gamma rays. If we measure the electrical current gamma rays is called the roentgens.
But ionization can be caused by flowing in the wire, we can deter- exposure.* Exposure is expressed
particles of radiation, too. When an mine how many charged particles in terms of a scientific unit called a Rems
x-ray or gamma ray strikes an elec- are moving in the gas. This is the roentgen. This unit is named after
tron it gives energy to the electron. basic principle of the operation of a the German scientist Wilhelm It is possible to relate the amount
That electron is now an energetic radiation survey meter. Roentgen, the discoverer of x-rays. of ionization that a beam of x-rays
particle of radiation. The electron or gamma rays causes in air to the
causes additional ionization along amount of biological damage that
its path because it hits other elec- would be caused in living tissue
trons like one billiard ball hitting placed in the beam. The measure of
another. Figure 5 shows the paths this biological effect of radiation is
that the fast electrons followed. the radiation dose. Dose is meas-
ured in units of reins. (The word
The different types of radiation, rem is an abbreviation for "Roent-
waves or particles and ionizing or gen Equivalent in Man.")
non-ionizing, are shown in
Figure 6. In the remainder of this For the types of radiation used by
manual, when we say "radiation" radiographers, x-rays and gamma
we will mean ionizing radiation. rays, 1 rem is equal to about 1
The term radiation will include roentgen. Therefore, these units are
gamma rays and x-rays, but not often used interchangeably in in-
visible light or microwaves. dustrial radiography. You often may
see the dose given in millirems
(abbreviated torero). One thousand
Radiation Dose millirems make 1 rem.
It is possible to collect the charged
We will usually use roentgens or
particles left by gamma rays or "R" when we refer to the reading of
x-rays if the charged particles are Figure 7. Charged particles are created in a
free to move. The charged particles The abbreviation for the roentgen an instrument such as a survey me-
gas by radiation. The charged particles are
can move in a gas. If a gas is lo- collected on metal plates if a voltage is ap- is "R" or "r." You have probably ter or a pocket dosimeter. These in-
plied to the plates. The area between the seen these abbreviations on the struments measure ionization and
cated between two metal plates, plates is the detector. The collection of the roentgen is the unit of ionization.
each with an electrical charge (one charges on the metal plates causes an elec- We will use reins as the unit of
positive and one negative), it is trical current to flow in the wire. A meter
dose where biological effect from
possible to collect the electrons and placed on the wire can measure the current. * Exposure really has two different defini-
the positively charged atoms. The more radiation, the greater the electri- tions. One definition is the technical defini- radiation exposure is being consid-
cal current. tion stated above: a measure of the ered. Therefore, biological effects,
Figure 7 shows how the charged ionization in air caused by gamma or x-rays.
particles are collected. The charged However, exposure also has a common dose limits, and records of doses
meaning: being subjected or exposed to received by radiographers will be
particles move to the metal plates Roentgens some hazardous substance. For example, given in reins. But in gamma or
because opposite electrical charges we can say, "Exposure to chlorine gas is
attract. The intensity of x-rays or gamma dangerous." Or "He was exposed to radia-
rays can be measured by measur- tion." In this manual, we will use this non-
ing the amount of ionization they technical meaning for exposure.
Radiation 2
and dental x-rays. The average an- workers have little contact with the
nual dose to a person in the United radiation sources and receive little
States from medical and dental use or no measurable radiation dose.
of radiation is 90 mrem.45' All other
manmade sources of radiation The amount of radiation that you
combined add about 6 mrem to the are permitted to receive by law will
average person's dose.'-' be discussed in Chapter 8 on regu-
lations. But to simplify the legal
To make a simple approximation of dose limits, we can say that basi-
manmade radiation dose to an av- cally the dose limit for workers is
erage person in the U.S., we can 5 reins per year.
say, "The average person receives a
radiation dose of about 100 mrem By comparison, some average ra-
per year from manmade sources, diation doses for certain workers
most of which comes from medical who received a measured dose are
x-rays." shown in'Figure 13.8
So, in round numbers, the average The average occupational dose to
person in the U.S. receives an an- workers at gamma radiography
nual radiation dose of about 200 companies is about 440 mrem/
mrem per year, half from natural year.* To this we must add 200
background radiation and half from mrem/year to account for natural
manmade sources. Let's compare background radiation and radiation
this radiation dose to typical occu- from other manmade sources. The
pational radiation doses. total is roughly 600 mrem/year,
about 3 times the average dose for
Occupational the whole U.S., but slightly less
than the average dose for workers
Radiation Doses with measurable radiation doses at
ical diagnosis or treatment, fallout Radiation is used in various occu- nuclear power plants. An airline
from nuclear weapons tests, radia- pations. Examples are medicine, pilot who flew 3,000 miles per day
tion from consumer products (such industrial radiography, and the op- would receive a radiation dose
as color television sets, smoke de- eration and maintenance of nuclear from cosmic rays equal to the aver-
tectors, radium or tritium in lumi- power plants. age dose to a worker at a radiogra-
nous dial wrist watches and clocks, phy company.
uranium contained in false teeth), There are close to 1.5 million work-
radiation released by nuclear ers in the United States who work
*The average dose includes the dose of
power plants, and occupational ex- with or near radiation sources in everyone who wore a dosimeter to measure
posure of workers who work with some way, although most of these radiation dose and for whom some dose
radiation on their jobs. was measured.
As you can see from Figure 12, peo- Figure 12. Average annual radiation doses
ple get most of their exposure to from manmade sources in the United
manmade radiation from medical I I States. 15
2 Radiation
Figure 13. Average doses of workers with year. 1 This number is out of per-
measurable doses at some NRC-licensed haps (very roughly) 10,000 people
facilities in 1978.
who spend at least a week per year
The average occupational dose of actually performing radiography
440 mrem/year at radiography using radioactive materials. 2 In
companies, however, includes ra- Chapter 4 on the effects of radia-
diographers who perform other tion, we will assume that the aver-
types of nondestructive testing and age annual radiation dose received
spend very little time doing radiog- by a radiographer is 1 rem. This is a
raphy. The average dose also in- rough estimate, but it is adequate
cludes many people who work for for our purposes.
companies holding a radiography
license and who wear film badges The dose that an industrial radiog-
but seldom or never work with ra- rapher can expect to receive in a
0 Ii lifetime of work in industrial radiog-
0 - 0 Nuclear fuel
processing diation sources.10
raphy is probably in the vicinity of
i2 E R ýGamma radiography 20 reins according to information
The average dose received by a
Manufacturing and distribu- gamma radiographer who works from the NRC, based on termina-
tion of radioactive materials
actively is probably closer to 1,300 tion reports filed by licensees. 3 We
mrem, 8 and annual doses of 5000 will use this 20-rem estimate of life-
mrem occur sometimes. Probably time dose in Chapter 4 where we
about 3000 to 4000 radiographers will discuss the risk industrial ra-
in the country receive doses ex- diographers face from exposure to
ceeding 1 rem (1,000 mrem) per radiation.
Questions 1. What is radiation? 5. What are some factors that will 8. Roughly how much radiation
affect the amount of natural dose does an average person
2. A radiation survey meter reads background radiation you will receive from manmade sources
10 mR/hr. How long will it take receive? of radiation each year?
before a dose of 2 mrem is
delivered? 6. What is the largest source of 9. Roughly how much radiation
manmade radiation that an av- dose does a person working ac-
3. The radiation dose rate at a cer- erage person is exposed to? tively in gamma radiography re-
tain distance from a radioactive ceive at work each year?
source is 2 R/hr. How long will 7. Roughly how much radiation
it take before a dose of 100 dose does an average person 10. How much dose did your radia-
mrem is delivered? receive each year from natural tion badge read last month? At
background radiation? that rate, how much dose would
4. Describe where naturally occur- you get in a year?
ring background radiation
comes from.
3
What is
Radioactivity?
Radioactive Decay
Half-Life
Using Graphs
Radioactivity If a material is radioactive, its at- Most chemical elements have both Radioactive Decay
oms emit radiation when they stable and unstable forms. The dif-
Radioactivity is the emission of ra- break up. The gamma rays used in ferent forms of an element are The disintegration or breaking up
diation from an unstable atom. radiography come from radioactive called isotopes. A stable isotope of an unstable atom with the emis-
Most atoms are stable and will atoms. The atoms emit gamma does not emit radiation. An unsta- sion of radiation is called radioac-
never emit any radiation. But cer- rays. The atoms also emit particles ble isotope does. These unstable tive decay. Most types of unstable
tain kinds of atoms have a large called beta particles. Beta particles isotopes are called radioactive iso- atoms, including those most com-
surplus of energy. These atoms are are fast-moving electrons. How- topes or radioisotopes. These monly used in radiography
called unstable atoms. Eventually ever, the beta particles cannot pen- terms refer to forms of the element sources, emit radiation or decay
these atoms will emit radiation - a etrate the steel capsule that that emit radiation. The radioactive only once. Once one of these atoms
highly concentrated form of energy. contains the radioactive material. isotopes used most often in gam- has given up its excess energy, it
The radiation will carry off the sur- Therefore, the beta particles don't ma radiography are iridium-192 becomes a stable atom and is no
plus energy from the atom. The ra- get out of the capsule. and cobalt-60. longer radioactive. This is why ra-
diation can be in the form of diography sources become weaker
particles that have weight such as X-Ray Machines and weaker. The number of unsta-
electrons or in the form of weight- ble atoms keeps getting smaller
less waves of pure energy such as An x-ray machine is not radioac- and smaller. Less and less radiation
gamma rays. tive. Its radiation does not come is emitted. Eventually there will be
from unstable atoms. The machine none left and the material will no
emits radiation, but the radiation longer be radioactive.
comes from collisions between
speeding electrons and atoms. An The loss of all radioactivity can take
electrical voltage causes electrons a very long time. Even radiography
to jump across a gap and strike at- sources that have become too weak
oms in a target. The atoms absorb to be useful in radiography are still
energy from the electrons and emit dangerous for many years. These
their surplus energy in the form of old sources must be handled care-
x-rays. fully. They can be disposed of only
as radioactive waste, which must
When the electrical voltage in an x- be sent to special sites permitted to
ray machine is turned off, no more receive radioactive waste. Old ra-
Figure 2. A radiograph of two radiography electrons jump across the gap and diography sources are usually re-
sources shows the radioactive material in- no more radiation is emitted. But turned to the supplier of the
side the steel capsules. The white squares radioactive atoms cannot be turned sources. Radiography sources can-
are iridium-192. The capsules are attached off. Nothing we can do can stop the not be treated as ordinary trash
to steel cables. individual atoms in a radioactive and thrown in the garbage.
Figure 1. Radioactive decay. An artist's con- material from breaking up. The
cept of an unstable atom emitting radia- unstable atoms will break up at
tion. The wavy lines represent gamma rays. their own pace, and there is noth-
The black ball speeding away from the ing we can do to change that pace.-
atom is a beta particle. A beta particle is a
fast-moving electron emitted from an atom The special requirements to store
during radioactive decay. radiography sources securely are
very important because no one can
"turn off" radioactive atoms. 19
3 Radioactivity
source and the cobalt source both 1/4 of its original activity (1/2 x 1/2 =
have exactly the same number of 1/4). Similarly, after three half-lives,
disintegrations per second, and a only 1/8 of the original activity will
disintegration of each produces be left (1/2 x 1/2 x 1/ = '/8), and so
about 2 gamma rays.' The average on. After ten half-lives, less than
energy of a gamma ray from cobalt one-thousandth of the original ac-
is about twice as great as the aver- tivity will remain.
age energy of gamma rays from
iridium. Because of this, the dose The illustration in Figure 3 shows
rate around the cobalt source will how fast a 100-curie iridium-192
be greater than the dose around source decays away. Iridium has a Elapsed Time, Days
the iridium source. half-life of almost 75 days (or about
21/2 months). At the end of 75 days,
The greater energy of the cobalt half of the original 100 curies of Figure 3. The decay of iridium-192. It takes
gamma rays means that its rays iridium has decayed away, leaving 75 days for half of the iridium-192 to decay In 10 years, 25 curies of cobalt-60
will be more penetrating. Cobalt re- 50 curies. At the end of a second away. After 75 days an iridium-192 source will remain. Twenty years is equal
has lost half of its radioactivity. to 4 half-lives. Therefore, the activ-
quires more shielding and can be 75 days, an additional 25 curies has
used to radiograph thicker sections decayed away. Cobalt-60 has a half-life of just over ity will be 100 curies x 1/2 x 1/2 x
'/2 x1/2
/2.
of metal than iridium. 5 years. If we start with 100 curies, X'/2. 100 curies
in 5 years we will have about This equals 10
*The unit is named after Marie and Pierre 50 curies. How much will we have 16
20 Curie, the scientists who discovered radium. in 10 years? In 20 years? or 6¼,curies.
Radioactivity 3
Having some idea of the rate of de- To provide an accurate value for Now follow the vertical line up 100 curies and 90 curies, a differ-
cay of these radioactive materials source activity, the manufacturer of from that date to the diagonal line ence of 10 curies. The distance is
can be useful. If you go to a storage every radiography source provides -the line marked "source activity." small. It takes only a little more
vault to check out an iridium source a graph with the source. The graph Note where the vertical line from than a week to lose this 10 curies.
that you last used 2 or 3 months gives the activity of the source in the date crosses the diagonal line. Now note the distance between 20
ago and the radiation dose rate on curies at different dates. curies and 10 curies, also a differ-
the container surface is about half From that point, move horizontally ence of 10 curies. Are they the
of what it was before, everything is To learn how to read these graphs, to the left. Note where this horizon- same distance apart on the graph?
about right. The iridium source a simplified graph is first shown tal line crosses the left-hand scale No. The distance is much greater. It
should be only about half as strong here (Figure 4). To determine the of the graph. Read the source activ- takes 75 days for a 20-curie source
after 2 or 3 months. activity of a source in curies on ity in curies from the scale on the to lose 10 curies.
some date, you first locate that date left-hand side. What activity do you
But if the surface radiation dose at the bottom of the graph. Let's read for June 1, 1982? The answer Why are the distances different?
rate on a cobalt-60 container reads take the date of June 1, 1982, for is 3.5 curies. The reason is that a larger source
only half of the value it had 2 or 3 example. Locate that date at the loses curies faster than a smaller
months ago, something is wrong. bottom of the graph. Look carefully at the left-hand source. For example, in one half-life
scale. Note the distance between of 75 days, a 100-curie iridium
Most probably your radiation sur- Figure 4. The decay of iridium-192.
vey meter is not working quite
right. You will have to check to see 100
if it is operating properly. Or else
the cobalt source might have
moved in its shield. Check to see 50
that the container is properly
locked. You will have to figure out
what is going on.
Using Graphs
The method just described can be 10
used to make a rough approxima-
tion of how much activity a source
will lose over some time interval.
5
Sometimes such a rough approxi-
mation will be useful to you. How-
ever, to determine the proper
exposure times for film, it is neces-
sary to have a much more precise
estimate of the activity of the radio-
active source.
1
6/1/81 8/1/81 10/1/81 12/1/81 2/1/82 4/1/82 6/1 /82 8/1/82
Date
21
3 Radioactivity
shown in Figure 3. The line show- Example 2.A decay curve like those
ing source activity is a curved line. 13 __ supplied by a source manufacturer
We got a straight line in Figure 4 by for an iridium-192 source is shown
making the distance from 100 cu- in Figure 6. The manufacturer cali-
ries to 50 curie's the same as the brated this source on January 1,
distance from 50 curies to 25 curies 1981. Its activity at that time was
by using a different type of scale. 12 ___ ___ ___
determined to be 105 curies. Deter-
U
mine its activity on April 1, 1981,
8 11_
Logarithmic Scales ________ ___
and on September 15, 1981.
To show source activity by using a 0 Solution. Locate the date on the
straight line, it is necessary to ex- (n)
bottom, follow a line up, then over
pand the scale on the left-hand side to the left. The activity for April 1,
as the source gets weaker. This is 1981, is about 45 curies. The activ-
called a logarithmic scale or log ity on September 15, 1981, is about
scale. The graph in Figure 4 has a 10 curies.
logarithmic or log scale on the left.
Figure 4 is drawn on semilogarith- The initial activity of the iridium-
mic graph paper or semilog paper. 192 source was 105 curies. This is
The graph paper is "semi" or "part" more than the original 15-curie ac-
logarithmic. The left scale is loga- 5JASOND ji MAM IJ AS1O)N 111FA. JAOI.N DJ I.A.MJ JAS 1Dý F AM JJIAS1.O.J FM AM J IASONJ tivity of the cobalt-60 source in Ex-
rithmic; the bottom scale showing 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 ample 1. Yet, after 13 months, the
the date is an ordinary scale. cobalt-60 source still had 13 curies.
Date
At only 12 months (January 1,
As a radiographer, you must be Figure 5. The decay of cobalt-60. Initial 1982) the iridium-192 source would
able to read decay graphs with log source activity on July I, 1979, is 15 curies. cobalt-60 is about 5 years. From
July 1, 1979, to July 1, 1983, the have an activity of less than 4 cu-
scales. Let's work some examples. ries. This is because the half-life of
Solution. Use Figure 5 and locate elapsed time'is 4 years, which is al-
the dates on the bottom scale. most one half-life. So, the value of iridium-192 (75 days) is much less
Example 1. The cobalt-60 source in than the half-life of cobalt-60
Figure 5 was calibrated on July 1, Move up to the diagonal line, then 8.8 curies for July 1, 1983, is rea-
horizontally to the left. If you read sonable since 8.8 curies is closer to (5 years). Iridium-192 sources de-
1979. Its activity at that time was cay at a much faster rate than
15 curies. Determine its activity on the log scale correctly, you should 7.5 curies (half of the original activ-
get 13 curies for August 1, 1980, ity) than to 15 curies. cobalt-60 sources.
August 1, 1980. Determine its activ-
ity on July 1, 1983. and 8.8 curies for July 1, 1983.
The value of 13 curies for August 1,
Let's check to see if these values 1980, is also reasonable. By Janu-
22 are reasonable. The half-life of ary 1, 1980, the source had decayed
Radioactivity 3
Figure 6. Chart of the decay of iridium-192 the radiography camera and onto
MODEL NO. 4 2 Y-? like those supplied by source manu-
facturers.
anything the camera touched. The
radiographer and anyone else
SOURCE SIZE APPROX DIMENSIONS IN INCHES , /0 DIA. X /0 LONG touching the camera could get the
50
THIS SOURCE WAS TESTED FOR Can Radiography radioactive material on their skin
2C and clothing.
00
2050
EXTERNAL CONTAMINATION OR LEAKAGE
Sources Make Things
DATE/-/-S/
/8
MICR0CURIE-SL0
O y S.BT__4o -4 Radioactive? This spread of radioactive materials
TATE MICROCIJRIESLO-L25
BYR is called radioactive contamination.
15 0
A sealed radiography source will Fortunately, the spread of contami-
I0
C
not make other things radioactive nation from radiography sources is
'0 unless the source is leaking. The very rare. NRC radiography licen-
C
In several accidents, people ex- accident, the radiographer was called the hospital to tell them that with radioactive material, (2) that
posed to sealed radiation sources shaken up and the radiography they were sending a person injured you are not emitting radiation, and
have been refused admittance to camera was thrown from his truck in a radiation accident. The hospital (3) that you are not a hazard to
hospitals. The hospital workers into some weeds at the side of the called the NRC. Eventually, the hos- others.
mistakenly thought the people road. The radiographer acted prop- pital personnel were convinced that
were radioactive and would be dan- erly. He told the police that a radia- the radiographer was not radio- A sealed radiography source does
gerous to others or would contami- tion source was present, had them active.- not make you or anything else ra-
nate the hospital with radioactive secure the area around the camera, dioactive. The rare source that does
material. and told them to telephone the In case you are ever involved in a leak can cause radioactive mate-
company radiation safety officer similar situation, you should be rials to be spread to its surround-
In July 1980, a radiographer in (RSO). The RSO recovered the ra- prepared to explain (1) that you ings, although most leaking
Pennsylvania was at first refused diography camera, which was un- may have been exposed to radia- sources cause little such radioac-
admission to a hospital for this rea- damaged. The police apparently tion but you are not contaminated tive contamination.
son after a traffic accident. 3 In the
Questions 1. What is radioactivity? 5. Explain the half-life concept for 8. From Figure 6, what would be
radioactive materials. the activity of the iridium-192
2. What is a radioactiveisotope? source on April 15, 1981? On
6. If we start with an 80-curie October 20, 1981? On December
3. With respect to a radioactive source, how much activity re- 10, 1981?
source, what does the term mains after one half-life? After
curie refer to? 4 half-lives? 9. What is radioactive contam-
ination?
4. If you have 3 sources of 5, 10, 7. From Figure 5, what would be
and 15 curies activity and you the activity of the cobalt-60 10. Does a gamma radiography
place them together, what is the source in September 1981? In source make the radiographed
activity of the combined December 1981? In October objects radioactive?
source? 1983?
24
4
What Are The
Harmful Effects
Of Radiation?
Prompt Effects of Radiation
Scientists have long known that ex- pie of radium in his pocket. Both
posure to radiation can have harm- Marie and Pierre Curie received ra-
ful effects in humans. Some of the diation burns on their skin from
harmful effects that radiation can working with radium.
cause are radiation burns, cancer,
and genetic defects in future gener- By 1905, it was known that exces-
ations. Even death can occur soon sive exposure to radiation could
after very large doses of radiation cause cancer. Large repeated doses
are received. of radiation to the hands of workers
frequently caused fatal skin cancer,
Scientists have known for more as shown in Figure 1. Many of the
than 50 years that these types of early medical radiologists died of
health effects can result from radia- this type of skin cancer. Some suf-
tion exposure. They have studied fered over 100 amputations each in
these effects in people who have -an effort to-stop the progress of the
been exposed to radiation in medi- cancers in their bodies.1 Pieces of
cal treatment, in radiation acci- the affected part of their bodies
dents, or as a result of exposure to were amputated, often starting with
atomic bomb radiation in Hiro- the fingers, one joint at a time. In
shima and Nagasaki. Scientists 1922 in Hamburg, Germany, a
have also studied the effects of ra- memorial was dedicated to 169 of
diation on animals that were ex- these pioneer scientists who died
posed to radiation in experiments. as a result of the radiation they
were exposed to during their work.2
Radiation burns were first noted in Marie and Pierre Curie both devel-
1896 within a month of Roentgen's oped leukemia, perhaps from expo-
announcement of the discovery of sure to radiation.
x-rays.' Within a year or two it was
widely known that x-ray workers Figure 1. Two views of the right hand of a
had to take some precautions to pioneer medical radiologist. The first injury
avoid injury. Some of the early to this radiologist was seen in 1899, 3 years
after the discovery of x-rays was an-
x-ray workers took the warnings se- nounced. The hand was amputated in 1932,
riously and protectedthemselves. and death from cancer occurred in 1933.
Others, although warned, did not Cancerous conditions like this were caused
take precautions. A combination of by repeated doses of radiation adding up to
many thousands of reins of radiation. Be-
optimism and enthusiasm over an cause early radiation workers learned of
exciting new discovery seems to precautions that should be taken to prevent
have led them to abandon all cau- excessive exposure, the chronic irritation
tion. 1 These people suffered serious and fatal skin cancer shown here are no
radiation burns; In fact, by about longer-seen.
1905, the dangers from exposure to radiation were well enough under- Early experimenters with natural
stood and believed that the chronic radioactivity also suffered burns
radiation injuries seen among the caused by radiation.` Becquerel
earlier workers became quite rare. burned himself by carrying a sam- 27
4 Harmful Effects
By the late 1920s, scientists knew great enough to cause radiation If you have been performing ra- such as thinning of the skin, scar-
that radiation caused genetic de- burns.' Most often the hands and diography, an unexplained redden- ring of the underlying tissue, or
fects in the offspring of insects that fingers receive the burns, but occa- ing of your skin may or may not be damage to blood vessels may oc-
had been exposed to radiation. The sionally other parts of the body are a sign that you have received a se- cur. This damage, like other scars,
scientist who discovered this, Her- affected. rious radiation overexposure. You will make the exposed tissue more
man Muller, later won the Nobel should bring this condition to the subject to injury and more tender
Prize. Burns to the hands can result when attention of the radiation safety of- to pressure or marked temperature
a radiographer touches or almost ficer (RSO) unless you are fairly change in the future.
touches a source for just a few sec- certain that the reddening is from
Prompt Effects of onds. The temperature of the other causes. At 2000 to 3000 reins, an injury re-
Radiation source is not high, but the radiation sembling a scalding or chemical
intensity at the surface of a radiog- If a dose of 600 rems is delivered to burn is caused. Figure 2 shows
Very large doses of radiation can raphy source is extremely high. The the eye within a day or two, dam- such burns and blisters on the
cause harmful health effects within burns are caused by radiation, not age to the eye can occur. At this hands of a radiographer burned by
hours or weeks. Such effects are heat, so we can't feel anything dose, the lens of the eye starts to radiation. Intense pain and swelling
called prompt effects because they wrong. Unfortunately, our bodies become cloudy instead of being occur within hours. For this type of
appear fairly soon after exposure. do not have a reflex action to cause clear, a condition called a cataract. radiation burn, medical treatment
The prompt effects are radiation our hand to pull away from radia- Fortunately, there are no reported to reduce pain is urgently needed.
burns to exposed skin and radia- tion as we do from heat. instances of cataracts ever having The injury may not heal without
tion sickness, which can be fatal. been caused by a radiography surgical removal of exposed tissue
Radiation burns, equivalent to a source. and skin grafting to cover the
Other radiation effects occur years first degree heat burn or mild sun- wound. Damage to blood vessels
after exposure. These are called burn, first become evident when If a part of the body receives a dose also occurs, as shown in Figure 3.
delayed effects because they do the dose to a portion of the body over 1,000 rems at one time, seri-
not occur right away. Cancer and exceeds about 600 rems at one ous tissue damage like a second Future medical problems with such
genetic defects in offspring, which time. The person receiving the degree heat burn results. First in- highly exposed tissue can be ex-
occur years after exposure to radia- burns may feel a sensation of flammation occurs, followed by pected (such as pain, low resis-
tion, are examples of delayed warmth or itching within a few swelling and tenderness. Blisters tance to injury, and reopening of
effects. hours after being exposed to the ra- will form within 1 to 3 weeks and the wound).
diation. An initial reddening or in- will break open leaving raw, painful
We will discuss prompt effects of flammation of the affected area wounds that may become infected. When more than 3000 rems is re-
radiation first because of their spe- usually appears several hours after Hands exposed to such a dose be- ceived at one time, tissue is com-
cial importance to radiographers. exposure to the radiation and fades come stiff and finger motion is pletely killed and must be surgically
after a few more hours or days. The often painful. Medical attention is removed.
Radiation Burns reddening may reappear as late as necessary to avoid infection and re-
2 to 3 weeks after the exposure. A lieve pain. If a radiation dose of 5,000 to
Radiography accidents commonly dry scaling or peeling of the irradi-
result in high radiation doses to a 10,000 reins is received gradually
ated portion of the skin is likely to If the dose is not too great, the visi- over a number of weeks or longer,
small part of the body. A part of the follow. Medical attention should be ble damage may heal within sev-
body may receive a radiation dose a chronic irritation, inflammation,
sought; but aside from avoiding eral months or so, but some dryness, and itching of the skin will
further injury and guarding against permanent damage to the tissue result. 3 Once this condition has de-
infection, medical treatment is not veloped, it seldom heals com-
required. Recovery should be fairly pletely. Periodically, open sores
28 complete.
Harmful Effects 4
Figure 4. Radiation burn on the buttock of a Figure 5. A skin flap has been sewn over the
worker 31 days after he put an iridium wound to close it (50 days after the
source in his back pocket. accident).
By this time, the man had an open months after the accident, the skin Other Examples Dropped radiography sources have
wound about 4 inches in diameter flap had an edge that was not heal- also been picked up by workers in
and almost 1 inch deep. A second, A similar accident happened in
ing, and a nearby burned area was 1968 in India.7 A man found a radio- Germany (1968), Japan (1971), and
but less severely burned area, was deteriorating (Figure 6). Ten months South Africa (1977), resulting in se-
nearby. A picture of the wound 31 active source and put it in his back
after the accident, a second skin pocket. He suffered a serious radia- rious radiation burns.
days after exposure is shown in flap was sewn onto the smaller
Figure 4. The wound caused contin- tion burn as a result. Years later, a
wound. At 19 months after the acci- large scar remained. An even worse Fortunately, such severe radiation
uous severe pain. dent, doctors have not yet been burns are rare. Companies licensed
accident happened in Argentina,
completely successful in closing by the NRC reported visible radia-
To treat the burn, doctors surgically where a man found a source and
the wounds (Figure 7). Further re- put it in his front pocket.8 Unfortu- tion burns less than once a year be-
removed the dead tissue. A thick constructive surgery will be neces- tween 1971 and 1980 (see Appendix
piece of skin was cut loose from the nately, this placed the source closer
sary in the future. Two years after to the arteries that carry blood to F, Table 2). Since about two-thirds
man's thigh, folded over, and sewn the accident, the man still walks of the companies performing gam-
onto the wound in order to close it. the legs. The arteries disintegrated
with a limp and experiences pain because of radiation damage, and ma radiography in the U.S. are li-
The skin flap 50 days after the acci- where he was burned. censed by the states, the total
30 dent is shown in Figure 5. Six both legs had to be amputated.
Harmful Effects 4
Figure 6. Six months after the accident. Figure 7. A second skin flap has been added Note: Reproduction of Figures4-7 is pro-
19 months after the accident. But the hibited.Permissionto publish these photo-
wound has still not healed. graphs was obtainedfor this manualonly.
number of visible burns is probably ized burns, but the person would tion sickness. Two or three weeks enough cells. Below about 500
one or two per year on the average. survive. However, if a large dose of later, other symptoms may appear rems, recovery is likely with medi-
radiation is delivered to the torso of such as loss of hair, loss of appe- cal care although the exposed per-
Radiographers can prevent such ac- the body in a short period of time, tite, general weakness, a feeling of son can expect to suffer several
cidents by keeping radiography severe illness or even death can oc- ill health, purple spots on the skin months of illness. If the radiation
sources under their control. By not cur within a few days or weeks.9"1 from internal bleeding, fever, and dose delivered to a person is
using survey meters, radiographers continuing diarrhea. spread over several weeks, a per-
can lose control of their sources A dose of 100 rems or less deliv- son may survive doses as large as
and fail in their responsibility to ered to the torso usually will not If the entire body is exposed to a 1000 or 2000 reins.
protect themselves and others. produce noticeable symptoms of radiation dose exceeding 500 reins
illness. As the dose increases, in a day or less, death is likely Only one radiographer in the world
Radiation Sickness symptoms such as nausea, vomit- within a few weeks because the is known to have died from the
ing, and perhaps diarrhea occur bone marrow, which produces the prompt effects of radiation and, in
If a large dose of radiation is deliv- within a few hours after the expo- blood cells, can no longer produce that case (July 1981), the exposure
ered to just one part of the body, sure. These are symptoms of radia- was probably not accidental. No
like a hand, there would be local- member of the American public is 31
4 Harmful Effects
known to have died from the by that time was sick from the ra-
prompt effects of radiatidn caused diation. At this time she noticed the
by a radiography sourceý: However, blackening of the glasses that had
in Mexico, China,"1-and Algeria,"2 been close to the source in the
people have died from large radia- drawer.
tion exposures from radiography
sources that were not properly kept On April 29 the boy died. On
in their shielded storage containers. July 19 his mother died. Both died
of radiation sickness. It was later
Deaths from a Radiography Source estimated that the boy had received
In a well-known accident in Mexico, a dose between 3,000 and 5,000
several people died of radiation rems and his mother a dose be-
sickness caused by a radiography tween 2,000 and 3,000 rems.
source."3
On July 22, 1962, the employer
On March 21, 1962, a construction came to the house, claimed the
watchman was given a 5-curie source, and took it away. The family
cobalt-60 source for safekeeping by did not suspect the tragedy it had
his employer." The watchman did caused. In August, the watchman's
not know what the source was, but 2- ½ year old daughter became
he assumed it was valuable be- very ill. On August 13, an alert phy-
cause the employer told him to sician suspected for the first time
store it in a safe place and to make that the common symptoms of the
sure no one went near it. Since the members of this family might be
watchman knew that valuable prop- due to radiation. On August 18, the
erty should be guarded carefully, he little girl died. It was later estimated
took the source home with him. that she had received between
The source was in a lead container, 1,400 and 1,900 reins. Figure 8. As a radiographer, you have a re- must not be left in the hands of
but presumably the watchman re- sponsibility to make sure that radiography anyone who does not know how
moved the source from the con- On August 20, the watchman and sources are not left where they can hurt or dangerous it is.
his mother-in-law were admitted to kill someone. In several foreign countries
tainer out of curiosity to see what children have found radiography sources
was valuable about it. the hospital with what appeared to and brought them home. Deaths have Delayed of
be radiation exposure symptoms.
Sometime between March 21 and Since he was away from the house Radiation
April 1, his son found the source a lot, the watchman had been ex-
and placed it in a front pocket of his posed on and off, and it is believed 1,500 and 3,000 reins over the pe-
riod of time she was exposed. Fortunately, exposure to doses of
trousers. On April 1, the watch- that he had received less exposure radiation large enough to cause ra-
man's wife found the source and than the other members of the fam- diation burns or radiation sickness
placed it in a drawer in the kitchen. ily. He was discharged from the This tragedy could have been
avoided if the radiography com- are very rare. As we said, in the
hospital on September 6, but kept United States visible radiation
On April 17, the watchman's under close medical observation. pany had kept better control of its
sources. A radiography source burns happen in the radiography
mother-in-law came to live with the His mother-in-law did not survive. industry only about once or twice a
family to help care for the boy who She died on October 15. It was esti- year on the average. The low doses
32 mated that she received between
Harmful Effects 4
of radiation that most radiogra- radiation, but scientists believe that Figure 10. The DNA molecule, which forms
most cancers have other causes. If the basis for all life on earth, is a large mol-
phers receive have no such dra- ecule with the shape of two spirals twisting
matic effects. But these low doses a person does get cancer, it is im- around each other, much like the banisters
may have effects that take many possible to know whether the can- on a spiral staircase. Each of the balls in the
years to appear. Low doses of ra- cer was caused by exposure to picture above represents an atom of some
diation may cause cancer and may radiation or whether the cancer element like carbon, oxygen, or hydrogen.
Cancer is believed to be caused by damage
cause genetic defects in the chil- would have occurred anyway from to DNA that starts to malfunction.
dren of exposed people. It has not some other cause. Cancercaused
been shown scientifically that these by radiationcannot be distin-
effects result from radiation doses guished from cancer from other
within legal limits, but agencies causes.
that regulate radiation exposure as-
sume that low doses of radiation Scientists do not yet know exactly
can have such effects. how cancer is caused in humans.
But it appears that most cancers
Cancer apparently are caused by some sort
of a defect or damage to the long
Most scientists accept the possibil- complicated molecules that control
ity that exposure to radiation, no how the cells divide to make more
matter how little, may have some cells. These important molecules,
risk of cancer associated with it. illustrated in Figure 10, are called
However, most exposed people will DNA molecules. (DNA is an abbre-
have no ill effects from the radia- viation for the chemical name,
tion they receive. About one-fifth of deoxyribonucleic acid.) However,
the U.S. population will die of can- scientists do not yet understand ex-
cer, as shown in Figure 9. A few of actly how the DNA molecules are
these cancers might be caused by damaged.
Figure 11. A radiograph (shown above) re-
vealed the structure of DNA to scientists,
thereby telling them how living cells can
reproduce copies of themselves. A Nobel
Prize was awarded for this discovery. The
Cardiovascular diseases radiograph shown above is different from
(for example, heart attacks, Cancer 20%
strokes) 51% normal radiographs. A normal radiograph is
made by x-rays or gamma rays that pass
directly through the material being exam-
ined. This radiograph was made in 1951 by
the x-rays that were scattered or reflected
Accidents 5% out of a narrow x-ray beam by the DNA.
Respiratory diseases The diagonally placed spots indicate the
(for example, pneumonia, spiral structure as shown in Figure 10.
emphysema) 4%
Suicide and homicide 3%
Diabetes 2%
Cirrhosis of liver 2% Figure 9. Causes of death in the U.S. in
Other 11% Diseases of infancy and 1977."' One-half of the deaths are from
birth defects 2%
heart diseases. One person in five dies of
cancer. 33
4 Harmful Effects
ionizing radiation (or chemicals) can estimate the dose that the person ning
causes cancer is not known, but sci- received.
entists can see that radiation dam-
ages the cell's essential DNA How Large is Your Cancer
(Figure 12). And scientists accept as Risk?
a prudent assumption the possibil-
ity that even low doses of radiation We don't know exactly what the
may increase a person's chance of chances are of dying of cancer be- Figure 13. Number of accidental deaths for chance in 10,000.*16 This means
10,000 workers for their working lifetimes that each rem you receive during
getting cancer. The lower the dose, cause of a radiation dose, but we in various industries compared to the radia-
the less the assumed risk. do have good estimates of the up- tion risk faced by industrial radiographers. " your lifetime adds 1 chance in
per limit of the cancer risk. In fact, 10,000 of cancer.
As a radiographer, you will be ex- the estimates of cancer risk be-
posed to some radiation. There cause of radiation exposure are In the United States, one person in *We must distinguish between the risk of
may be a risk of cancer because of probably more reliable than the es- five dies of cancer. Most scientists getting cancer and the risk of dying of can-
that exposure. The important ques- timates of cancer risk from any would agree that for every one rem cer. Of those who get cancer, roughly half
tion is, "How large is your risk of other hazardous material such as of radiation that a person receives, die from the cancer. In this chapter we dis-
cancer because of radiation dangerous chemicals. This is be- the chance of dying from cancer is cuss the risk of dying from cancer. For every
exposure?" cause radiation has been studied person who dies from a radiation-caused
increased by no more than one cancer, one other person would get a radia-
more than any other hazardous tion-caused cancer, but would not die as a
material. result of that cancer.
Harmful Effects 4
Figure 14. One way to think about radiation Another way of comparing a ra-
risk is to think about how much loss of life diographer's risk from radiation to
expectancy it causes. On the average, a per-
son exposed to 1 rem loses 1 day of life the risks in other industries is to
expectancy. Similarly, 1 millirem causes compare days of life lost. Scientists
very roughly, on the average, the loss of 1 have calculated that 1 rem of radia-
minute of life expectancy because of the in-
creased risk of early death by cancer. tion may, on the average, result in
In Chapter 2, we estimated that of Chapter 2. If we add up the radia- the loss of 1 day of life expec-
about 10,000 people are regularly tion dose to all of these workers, Reports filed with the NRC show tancy.18 So the radiation exposure
engaged in taking radiographs in they would receive about 10,000 that workers who spend their life- you can expect to receive in a life-
the United States. On the average, rems per year. This means that can- times working as radiographers can time as a radiographer may cost
these actively working radiogra- cer caused by the radiation dose to expect to receive lifetime doses, on you, on the average, 20 days of
phers receive a dose of about 1 rem all radiographers in 1 year might the average, of about 20 rems (see your life. We emphasize on the av-
per year, as we noted near the end claim the life of one radiographer. Chapter 2). A dose to each worker erage because most radiographers
of 20 rems might result in up to 20 will suffer no-loss of life expec-
cancer deaths per 10,000 workers. tancy. But the unfortunate radiogra-
Remember that 20 rems is the aver- pher who does get cancer will, on
age lifetime dose for radiographers. the average, lose perhaps 15 years
Some get more. If a worker re- of life expectancy.1 9
ceives a lifetime dose of 100 reins,
the worker's chance of dying of The radiographer's average loss of
radiation-caused cancer might rise life expectancy caused by radiation
to 1 chance in 100, or 1%. This 1% exposure is compared to loss in life
would be added to the 20% chance expectancy caused by accidents in
of cancer death that an average other industries in Figure 15. The
American faces. radiation risk to radiographers is
smaller than the risk of accidents in
This radiation risk can be compared many other jobs. Remember, how-
to the risks of accidental death ever, that a radiographer also faces
radiography
lifetime dose) faced by workers in other indus- other risks such as traffic accidents.
tries. Figure 13 shows such a com- The radiographer's risk from all
parison. The radiation risk faced by risks is larger than that shown in
05 industrial radiographers, on the av-. Figure 15, but we do not know the
0
erage, is low in comparison with size of the other risks.
risks of accidental death faced by
workers in other occupations. How- The loss of life faced by radiogra-
ever, the total risk to radiographers phers can also be compared to
E is higher than shown here since the other risks that we face in life. Fig-
CZI
wU risks from other causes of death ure 16 shows that the risk from ra-
must be added to the risk from diation faced by radiographers is
radiation. small-when compared to many
01 other risks. Perhaps what is most
Figure 15. Estimated loss of life expectancy
from industrial accidents compared to the
radiation risk faced by industrial
radiographers."° 35
4 Harmful Effects
have genetic defects severe enough Scientists estimate that the chance
to cause malformation of their bod- that 1 rem of radiation will cause a
ies or serious or crippling disease. genetic defect in a descendant child
Probably at least half of all genetic of the person exposed to radiation
defects are inherited from the par- is about one-third the chance that
ents. The other defects are new and the radiation will cause a fatal can-
did not exist previously in either cer in the person.23 Previously we
parent. estimated that 1 rem of radiation
would result in no more than 1
Most new genetic defects are a nat- chance in 10,000 of a cancer death.
ural event with no outside cause. The risk of a genetic defect in a
The process by which a single cell child born to a person exposed to
from each parent creates an en- 1 rem of radiation is less than one-
tirely new human being is so com- third chance in 10,000 and may be
plex that there are many chances 10 times smaller. Because genetic
for error. When the errors are large, defects are less likely than cancer
the development of a fertilized egg and because the consequences are
into a human being usually fails. A not as great (decreased health
fetus (unborn child) may abort be- rather than death), the risk of can-
fore a woman even knows she is cer is more significant than the risk
pregnant. About half of all sponta- of genetic defects.
neously aborted fetuses have seri-
ous genetic defects. These estimates of genetic defects
Genetic defects that cause the most caused by radiation exposure are
Figure 18. Genetic defects in the skeleton of Often doctors cannot say whether a serious disorders usually are elimi- based on experiments with insects
a mouse. The bones on the left are normal person has a particular genetic de- and animals. Genetic defects that
The mouse on the right has an extra piece nated from the population within
in its breast bone and an extra set of ribs fect or not. The genetic defect most one to a few generations because could be associated with radiation
caused by a radiation-induced genetic de- often causes some cells in the body the carriers do not survive to repro- have not been observed in any
fect. Like those shown here, most genetic to produce some essential protein, duce. On the other hand, those ge- group of humans. For example,
defects are not externally visible, enzyme, or hormone in reduced studies of the children of the Japa-
netic defects that cause less severe
quantity or with reduced potency. disorders will affect more people nese atomic bomb survivors, thou-
Most people who suffer from a ge- The effect of such defects on a per- because the carriers survive to sands of whom had very large
netic defect do not know they have son is usually that the person is not reproduce. doses, did not detect any more ge-
the defect because there are usu- quite as healthy and vigorous as netic defects than normal.
ally no easily detectable signs.. normal. It is possible that a genetic change
Some genetic diseases are obvious. will be beneficial. But beneficial
For example, two well-known dis- Scientists believe that at least 10% changes are very, very rare. The hu-
eases caused by genetic defects, of all people born have a genetic man body is a very complex ma-
color-blindness and hemophilia (a defect serious enough to cause dis- chine, far more complex than a jet
failure of the blood to clot), are ease or ill-health during their life- aircraft, for example. If someone
readily detectable. Unlike those time.22 About 1% of all people born makes a random change in the air-
two, most other genetic diseases craft's equipment, the aircraft's per-
are not easily detectable. formance is far more likely to be
harmed than improved. 37
4 Harmful Effects
In this chapter, we have said that number of cancer deaths would be Discussion Questions 1. What other risks do you take in
out of 10,000 people who died in several hundred in a group of your life?
1977, about 2,000 of them died of 10,000 people. There is a risk associated with the
cancer. But in any group of 10,000 radiation dose you will receive in 2.-How would you compare radia-
people that you select, the number Even though scientists have gone your work as an industrial radiogra- tion risk to these other risks?
dying of cancer could be consider- to great effort to detect radiation ef- pher. The following questions are
ably more or less than 2,000. fects, they have been unable to intended to be discussed with your 3. How do you feel about taking
identify any effects from a few instructor and other students. this risk in your job?
For example, in the U.S., the cancer rems of radiation per year.
death rate for men is now 50% 4. Can you accept the risk from
higher than the rate for women. In Therefore, we can say with cer- working as an industrial
1930, women had a higher rate, but tainty that additional cancer and radiographer?
their rate has dropped (see Figure genetic defects caused by radiation
19). doses within legal limits are much 5. What can you do to minimize
less than the normal incidences of your risk?
Sometimes the reasons for these these effects. There is only uncer-
different death rates are partially tainty in precisely how small the ef-
understood, for example, the effect fects are. This is the uncertainty
of cigarette smoking on lung can- scientists talk about. There is al-
cer. But often the reasons for the most no uncertainty that the risks
differences are not well under- from radiation doses within the le-
stood. These differences make it gal limits are smaller than-many
difficult to compare the differences other risks we commonly encoun-
in cancer death rates between peo- ter and accept in our lives.25
ple exposed to radiation and peo-
ple not exposed to radiation. Still you might ask, "If the legal
dose limits have some risk, even a
If 10,000 people are each exposed small one, why not have lower lim-
to 1 rem of radiation, scientists esti- its?" A similar question could be
mate at most 1 additional cancer raised about highway speed limits.
death. Because so many factors af- When the speed limit was lowered
fect the cancer death rate, it is not to 55 miles per hour, highway fatal-
possible to measure whether the ities decreased but did not disap-
1 additional cancer death occurred pear. The only absolutely safe limits
or not. The normal variability in the would be 0 miles per hour and 0
rems per year. But then we
wouldn't get anywhere.
39
4 Harmful Effects
40
5
How Do Time,
Distance,
And Shielding Affect
Your Dose?
Time
Distance
Shielding
Time, Distance, and Shielding 5
ý vz"ft
3) Carry the camera rapidly to its intended 4) Don't sit near the camera unnecessarily.
from sorc -lss location.
Figure 2. You can reduce radiation exposure
by spending less time near a source.
Figure 1. How time, distance, and shielding
affect dose.
43
5 Time, Distance, and Shielding
Now, let's work some problems If the dose rate 100 mR/hr...
involving time. Time Dose
Problem 1: Answer: Now:
1 Hour 100 mR
Dose = 100 mR/hr x 0.1 hr
Your radiation survey meter reads Use the formula,
100 mR/hr at some point. How dose ý dose rate x time = 10 mR or 10 mrem
much dose would you receive 1/2 Hour 50 mR
standing at that point in (a) 1 hour, (d) We do this problem the same as
(b) 1/2 hour, (c) 6 minutes, and (a) Dose = 100 mR/hr x 1 hr we did problem (c):
(d) 1 minute? = 100 mR or 100 mrem 6 Minutes O 10 mR
(b) Dose = 100 mR/hr x 1/2 hr 1 min
Dose = 100 mR/hr x 60 mmn/hr
= 50 mR or 50 mrem
1 Minute 12/3 mR
(c) It is first necessary to convert 100
minutes into hours. = mR
60 Figure 3. Effect of time on radiation dose.
To do this divide 6 minutes by
60 min/hr: = 12/3 mR or 12/3 mrem
These values are shown in Figure 3. You can use calculations such as
6 min 6 0.1 hr these to establish boundaries for
60 min/hr the restricted area and high radia-
tion area.
Problem 2: Answer: Now use the formula for dose:
You plan to take four exposures at a When a problem has many pieces dose = dose rate x time
field location. You estimate that you like this, many people can under-
can complete these four exposures stand the problem more clearly if = 20 mR/hr x 4 exposures x 3 min
in less than 1 hour. Each exposure they draw a diagram such as the
will take 3 minutes. From past one below: 60 min/hr
measurements you know that at
20 x 4 x 3
100 feet from the source the dose
rate will be 20 mR/hr. How much 60
dose will a person standing 100
feet from the source receive in any = 4 mR or 4 mrem
1 hour? ~1100 ft
So, a person standing at 100 feet Calculations like this are needed to
from the source during the hour. establish safe working distances. In
20 mR/hr 4 exposures would receive a dose of 4 mrem. Chapter 8 you will learn that regula-
3 min each tions require you to restrict access
to any area where anyone would
receive a dose of 2 mrem or more
in any 1 hour.
Time, Distance, and Shielding 5
Problem 3: Answer:
Each 5-minute exposure will last for The second "any one hour" will
This problem is to show that the You plan to make six exposures at a of an hour. Therefore, the dose start at 3:50 p.m. and run to 4:50
"any one hour" used to calculate field location. Each exposure will
V12
from each exposure will be: p.m. Since you will make, at most,
the maximum possible dose is a take 5 minutes. Based on your past 4 exposures during that hour, too,
moving target. "Any one hour" experience, you know that it will dose = dose rate x time the dose to a person standing at
means any 60-minute period. For take you about 15 minutes or more 100 feet from the source will also
example, if you make your first ex- setup time between exposures. dose = 20 mR/hr x V/12 hr be 6.7 mR.
posure at 3:30 p.m. and your sec- Your first exposure is at 3:30 p.m. = 1.67 mR
ond exposure at 4:20 p.m., the From past measurements you In Chapter 8, we will talk about
dose from each exposure must be know that at 100 feet from the The first "any one hour".starts at your responsibilities for limiting the
added when you calculate the source the dose rate will be 3:30 p.m. and runs to 4:30 p.m. The radiation dose to a member of the
"dose in any one hour." The "one 20 mR/hr. How much dose will a combined exposure time of 5 min- public.
hour" is from 3:30 p.m. to 4:30 person standing 100 feet from the utes plus setup time of 15 minutes
p.m. The "one hour" is not 3:00 source receive in any one hour? is 20 minutes between exposures.
p.m. to 4:00 p.m. If you are making You can make 3 exposures in "any
repeated exposures at this location, one hour."
you must determine the highest
dose that is possible during any 60- '°L f \ But wait. Let's consider the maxi-
minute interval. Consider this mum possible dose "in any one
example. hour." We said that setup time was
about 15 minutes. However, we
20 mR/hr 5 min/exposure better assume you might work just
a little faster and fit 4 exposures
(rather than 3) into the "any one
hour."
Therefore, the dose to a person
standing there for "any one hour"
would be:
45
5 Time, Distance, and Shielding
Distance the middle square is 4 square As we move from the smallest What would happen if we moved
inches. Therefore, if we double the square to the largest square, we tri- from the smallest square to a
Increasing your distance from a distance from the source, the radia- ple the distance, but the radiation square four times as far away? The
source will decrease the amount of tion intensity is only one-quarter as spreads out into an area nine times radiation would be spread out over
radiation you receive. As radiation great. Its intensity is divided by four as great (area = length x width = an area of 16 square inches.
travels away from its source it because the same number of rays 3 x 3 = 9). The radiation intensity is
spreads out and becomes less in- is spread out over an area 4 times divided by nine.
tense. This idea is illustrated in Fig- as large as before.
ure 4. More rays of radiation strike
the person nearer the source.
Now let's calculate exactly how
much less radiation is received as
distance is increased. To do this,
Figure 4 is not adequate because
the picture is flat; it has no depth.
Figure 5 is a more accurate picture.
Look at this figure carefully.
Do you see the relationship? If the The Inverse Square Law The equation to calculate D (the
distance is two times as great, the dose we want to know) is: = D,
intensity is divided by four (2 x 2 = We can write an equation that will
4). If the distance is three times as tell us the dose rate at any distance the equation can be written either:
great, the radiation intensity is di- from a source if we know the dose Dr 2 = Do r0 2 = a constant
vided by nine (3 x 3 = 9). If the rate at some other distance. Look at
the diagram in Figure 6 for the in- Or, if we divide both sides of this D=D 0 r02
-- orD=D (_ _)
distance is four times as great, the
radiation intensity is divided by six- verse square law equation. equation by r2,
teen (4 x 4 = 16).
This is an important equation, and
you should learn it. It is called the
3,, inverse square law.
64"
I.,, 6"
1
Figure 5. Inverse square law concept.
47
5 Time, Distance, and Shielding
There is one additional fact that will The iridium-192 value can be
make this equation much more rounded off to 5 R/hr to make it an Source First Second
useful to you. The dose rate at easy number to work with. You Distance Distance
1 foot from a 1-curie source of should remember these values.
iridium-192 is a known value that Now let's work some problems.
we can use in the inverse square
law equation. The dose rate at J ro Do D
1 foot is also a known value for a
1-curie source of cobalt-60. Those Do
values are given here:
,I
Radioactive Dose rate at 1 foot
material from a 1-curie source where r = the distance or radius where we want to calculate the dose rate.
Iridium-192 5.2 R/hr*
(or about 5 R/hr) ro = the distance or radius where we know the dose rate.
Cobalt-60 14.0 R/hr
D = the dose or dose rate we want to calculate.
Problem 1: Answer: We know that at 1 foot the dose A calculation such as this can help
from 1 curie of an iridium-192 you determine the distance to
You will be using a 100-curie Use the inverse square law source is 5 R/hr. Therefore: where you will need to use ropes
iridium-192 source. What will equation. and signs to keep people out.
the dose rate be at a distance of D = 100 Ci x R/hrx( 1 ft
100 feet from the source? 1 Ci 100 ft
1 1 \
D=Do o
= 500 1 R/hr
\10,000 /
0.05 R/hr or 50 mR/hr
Time, Distance, and Shielding 5
Problem 2:
Repeat Problem 1 except calculate
the dose rate at 200 feet instead of
Answer:
There are two similar ways to cal-
culate the dose rate, both using the
D
,o
0(r)2
I lOft 2
Note that in moving from 100 feet
to 200 feet the dose rate is divided
by 4.
100 feet. inverse square law equation. In -50 mR/hr ,i2•
Problem 1 we calculated the dose 20ft,
rate at 100 feet to be 50 mR/hr. We
can put that value into the equa- = 50 mR/hr(2
tion. Or we can use the 5 R/hr dose
rate at 1 foot. Let's try the 50 mR/hr 50 mR/hr
at 100 feet from Problem 1:
4
= 12.5 mR/hr
from the source. You want to set up have to be told the source was 2 T*r/-hr
a boundary where the dose rate cobalt-60. The key information is
will be 2 mR/hr. What should the that the dose rate is 5 mR/hr at r2 = 6750 ft 2
distance from the source to the 50 feet. Use the inverse square law:
boundary be? Take the square root of each side:
D-o 0 (r r= 82 ft
R/hr/Ci j 12-in
2
0.00014 hr
D = 100 Ci x 5
Multiply by 60 to convert to
= 500 R/hr (120)2 minutes and 60 again to convert to
seconds:
= 7,200,000 R/hr
60 -mirr 60 sec
Time= 0.00014Jw+r x x
How long does it take to receive a -hi-r -m41--
dose of 1000 reins? = 0.5 sec
dose = dose rate x time
The significance of this time is that
touching a radiography source for
less than a second will cause a seri-
50 ous radiation burn.
Time, Distance, and Shielding 5
It is often useful to have a graph of For example, what is the dose rate
the dose rate at various distances at 200 feet? At 10 feet? The graph 80
from a source. In Figure 7 we have cannot be read accurately, but the
plotted the dose rates at various graph does make one thing quite
distances from a 1-curie iridium- clear. As you approach the source,
192 source. This plot was done on the dose rate increases rapidly.
ordinary graph paper. The plot is
not useful for most work.
A~)
0
0
In Figure 8 we have plotted the Now let's think about some ways
10,000 dose rate at various distances from that you can make practical use of
Xt1~ fR/hr a~t
1-curie iridium-192 and cobalt-60 increased distance to reduce radia-
I I I III I sources. If you know the strength of tion dose. Figure 9 shows how
5,000 your source, you can use the graph distance can be used to reduce
5.2 R/hr at 1 Foot in Figure 8 to calculate the dose radiation dose.
2,000 rate at any distance from the
source.
1,000
L (1 CuIe) Consider the dose rate at a distance
1 foot away from a 10-curie iridium-
500 192 source. Locate the distance on
the bottom scale, read the corre-
sponding dose rate for a 1-curie
200 source (5000 mR/hr), and multiply
that dose rate by 10 (the strength of
U
100 your source in curies). The answer
C-L is 50,000 mR/hr or 50 R/hr.
0 50 What is the dose rate at a distance
of 50 feet from a 100-curie cobalt-
E
C6
60 source?
20
0
0
10
I l Locate 50 feet on the bottom scale.
Follow the vertical line up to the
cobalt-60 curve. Read across to the
vertical scale. The dose rate is
5 6 mR/hr for 1 curie. Multiply by 100
0 Cuie 11Cuie
to calculate the actual dose rate for
your source. The answer is 600
2 mR/hr.
1
0.5
0.2
0.1
2 5 10 20 50 100. 200 500 10,000
Figure 8. Dose rate at various distances
Distance From Source, Feet from 1-curie sources of iridium-192 and
52 cobalt-60.
Time, Distance, and Shielding 5
2) Walk away from the crank during the 4) Don't put the camera in the passenger
exposure. compartment of your truck.
Figure 9. How distance can be used to re-
duce radiation dose. 53
5 Time, Distance, and Shielding
Shielding
Another way to reduce radiation
dose is to place something be-
tween you and the source to ab-
sorb the radiation. Material placed
between you and the source to re-
duce radiation dose is called shield-
ing. In general, the more dense a
material is, the more effective it will
be as a shield for x-rays and
gamma rays.
tIATERIAL •
tUM3 S L ' R
1) Snout of guide tube is attached to the 2) Lead collimator and film are attached.
pipe to be radiographed.
When objects are radiographed at a about 6 feet thick. The worker looks It is possible to use graphs to deter-
permanent facility, thick concrete through leaded glass 3 feet thick. mine the effectiveness of different
walls can be built around the room thicknesses of shielding materials.
for shielding. Sometimes you will want to know Graphs of the attenuation (reduc-
how much material it will take to tion or weakening) of beams of
Some of the most massive shield- reduce the radiation dose by one- gamma rays in various shielding
ing associated with industrial ra- half. The thickness of a material re- materials are shown in Figures 16-
diography is used where sources quired to reduce radiation dose by 20. The problems given below can
are fabricated and welded into their one-half is called the half-value be answered from these graphs. 3) Lead bricks are placed over the setup. The
stainless steel capsules. Figure 14 thickness or half-value layer. Half- brick behind the film is especially effective
shows a worker using remote- value thicknesses forvarious mate- * because the collimator does not provide any
shielding in the forward direction.
controlled master-slave manipula- rials are shown in Figure 15. For
tors to make sources inside a mas- example, 1/2 inch of steel will re-
sively shielded enclosure. The duce the dose from an iridium
shielding in the walls is concrete source by half. 55
5 Time, Distance, and Shielding
IRIDIUM-192
2" -
1.75"
U)
CO, 1il -
0.50"
CO
0.19" 0.13" 0.11"
COBALT-60
2.38"
2"
E-
V)
C:
0
S1"0.5
+_,
0.49"
0.31" 0.27"
Figure 14. Several feet of heavy concrete Concrete Steel Lead Tungsten Uranium
shielding and glass containing lead are
used to shield enclosures where radiogra- Figure 15. Half-value thicknesses for
phy sources are manufactured. The opera-
tor uses master-slave manipulators to weld
iridium-192 and cobalt-60.2
together the steel capsule containing the
56 radioactive material.
Time, Distance, and Shielding 5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0.1 0.1ý
0.05 0.05
E E
20.01
C 0.01
(0
H
o
t0 0.005
H t0.005
U- U..
0.001 0.001
0.0005 0.0005
0.0001 0.0001
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Thickness of Lead (Inches) Thickness of Steel (Inches)
Figure 16. Attenuation of gamma rays in Figure3 17. Attenuation of gamma rays in
lead.' steel. 57
5 Time, Distance, and Shielding
0.5
0.1
0.05
-o
E E
(n
V- C
C I-Cu
S0.01
0
0
• 0.005 L-
Cu
0.001
0.(
0.0005
0.
0.0001 0 1 2 3 4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Thickness of Concrete (Inches) Thickness of Tungsten (inches)
Figure 18.3 Attenuation of gamma rays in Figure 19. 3Attenuation of gamma rays in
concrete. tungsten.
Time, Distance, and Shielding 5
Problem 1: Answer:
How-thick must a lead collimator be Look at Figure 16, the graph for at-
0.5 to reduce the dose from an iridium- tenuation of gamma rays in lead. A
-URANIUM. 192 source by a factor of 10? How factor of 10 reduction means that
thick must the lead collimator be to the fraction of radiation penetrating
reduce the dose by a factor of 10 if is 0.1, or one-tenth. Locate this
the source is cobalt-60 instead of value on the left-hand scale. Read
iridium-192? across to the thickness of lead. The
0.1__ _ _ _ answers are about 0.5 inches of
lead for iridium-192 and 1.8 inches
of lead for cobalt-60.
0 .05
Note that we need much more lead
to shield cobalt-60 than iridium-192
because cobalt-60 gamma rays are
E balt-60 more energetic. To achieve the
same attenuation, cobalt-60 re-
(n
0 .01 quires the lead shielding to be four
C
times as thick. This is why cobalt-60
C cameras are rarely portable, while
0
0.0)05 iridium-192 cameras can be carried
C-, by hand. The portability of the cam-
era is an important reason for the
widespread use of iridium-192.
0.(0051,
[Kilihi I- I + 4 +-4* 4-
0.0001
Iridium-1 9 2
I I\\
j L.
0 1 2 3 4
Problem 3: Answer: If we multiply these volumes by the The lead shield is about four times
appropriate weight per unit vol- heavier than the uranium shield.
Calculate the weights of spherical Use the graphs for lead and ura- ume, we have for lead: The interesting fact about this re-
lead and uranium shields that nium. From these graphs, you can sult is that eventhough uranium
would have to be used around see that a lead thickness of 4.9 metal is one of the heaviest mate-
cobalt-60 to achieve a dose reduc- inches is needed and a uranium rials known, it makes the lightest
tion of 1000 times. Ignore penetra- thickness of 2.7 inches is needed. Weight = 493 cu in x 0.41 lb/cu in shields. Uranium makes the shield-
tions in the shield. (Lead weighs The volume of a sphere is: ing of least thickness. And the
0.41 pounds per cubic inch and ura- = 202 lb
weight of a shield increases propor-
nium weighs 0.68 pounds per cubic 4 For uranium: tionally to the cube of the thick-
inch.) V =- 7T-r3
ness. Pound for pound, uranium is
3
about the best shielding material.
Weight = 82 cu in x 0.68 lb/cu in
where r is the radius of the sphere.
= 56 lb
Therefore, for lead
4 3
V =-4 x 3.14 x (4.9) 493 cu in
3
For uranium
V -- x 3.14 x 12.7)3 = 82 cu in
3
60
Time, Distance, and Shielding 5
Questions 1. Your radiation survey meter 6. You are working with a 75-curie 9. What is generally the most
reads 10 mR/hr. How much cobalt-60 source. What is the practical way for a field radiog-
dose will be delivered in 1 min- dose rate at 50 feet? rapher to use shielding to re-
ute? 15 minutes? 1 hour? 40 duce dose?
hours? 7. List four situations in which you
could use distance to reduce 10. With an iridium-192 source,
2. You note that your pocket do- your radiation exposure in your how much dose reduction can
simeter has picked up 3 mR job. be achieved with a 1-inch thick
after a 5-minute exposure. What collimator of lead? Of tungsten?
was the radiation dose rate? 8. NRC regulations state that the Of uranium?
radiation dose cannot exceed
3. List four situations in which you 2 mR in any 1 hour in an unre- 11. The dose rate from a cobalt-60
could use time to reduce your stricted area. Assume you are source with no collimator is 20
radiation exposure in your job. performing radiography 100 mR/hr at a distance of 100 feet.
feet from an unrestricted area. What is the dose rate with a
4. The dose rate at 100 feet from a You are using a 60-curie tungsten collimator that is
radiography source is 3 R/hr. iridium-192 source and each 1 inch thick?
What is the dose rate at 20 feet? shot requires a 1.5 minute expo-
45 feet? 1000 feet? 1 foot? sure of the source. How many 12. Cobalt-60 is used in a fixed facil-
exposures can be made in 2 ity with concrete walls. The
5. You are working with a 50-curie hours at this location? (The ex- dose rate outside the wall in
iridium-192 source. What is the posure rate from an iridium-192 one spot is 10 mR/hr. How
dose rate at 100 feet? source at 1 foot from the source much extra concrete thickness
is 5 R per hour per curie.) would have to be added to re-
duce the dose rate to 2 mR/hr?
61
6
How Do You Detect
And Measure
Radiation?
Survey Meters Measure Dose Rate
Reading a Survey Meter the range switch were set at x100, Figure 4 shows a digital readout on
the dose rate would be 0.9 x 100 = a G-M survey meter. This style of
Figure 2 shows a typical G-M sur- 90 mR/hr. meter is a recent development. In
vey meter. The scale on the dial this case, a light shows the range.
reads in mR/hr. The needle is Note the battery-check button on The range shown is mR/hr
pointing to 0.9. To tell the correct the lower left. Pushing this button
dose rate, look at the position of tells whether the batteries are good In general, a needle moving across
the range switch. In this case, the or not. If the button is pushed, the a dial is considered by human fac-
range switch is set at xl0. This needle should fall within the "BATT tors engineers to be superior to a
means the dial reading is multiplied CHECK" bar on the meter dial. If the digital display where frequent
by 10. The dose rate is 9 mR/hr. If needle falls to the left of the "BATT checks on changing conditions are
CHECK" bar, the batteries should be needed. 1-3 For example, in making a
replaced before the meter is used. Figure 4. Digital readout on a G-M survey radiation survey after an exposure,
Otherwise, the survey meter will meter. The reading here is not 5.5 mR/hr, or you will want to frequently check
not operate properly. 8.8 mR/hr, or 9.9 mR/hr. The meter reading
was changing so rapidly that a photograph
taken with a one-second shutter speed re-
corded only a blur of numbers.
your survey meter as you walk to- Starting Work with an Next, check the meter's response to If the survey meter does not have
ward the camera, survey it, and Operable Survey Meter radiation. Some survey meters this feature, place the survey meter
survey the guide tube. A moving have a small radiation source built against the radiography camera
needle is good for this type of Never start work without an opera- into the instrument. Moving a (Figure 6). From previous measure-
measurement. ble survey meter. This is one of the switch to the "source-check" posi- ments, you should know about
most important rules in performing tion should give a response within what dose rate to expect. If it does
In doing your work, you will also radiography. Without an operable a range on the meter specified by not respond as expected, return the
learn the rate at which the survey survey meter, you cannot be sure the instrument manufacturer. survey meter for maintenance and
meter needle moves as you ap- that the source is shielded within obtain a properly working instru-
proach the camera. The speed of the camera when it is supposed to ment. If the meter gives the ex-
needle movement is a good way be. pected dose rate, move the survey
for you to judge how fast the dose meter away from the camera. The
rate is changing. You will also learn The most common cause of survey meter needle should fall. With a lit-
roughly where the needle should meter failure is weak batteries. The tle experience you will be able to
settle and how quickly it should set- condition of the batteries should be tell if the needle is falling at the ex-
tle there. The approximate dose checked each day when a survey pected rate.
rate is more important than a pre- meter is taken for use. Most survey
cise value, because the position of meters have a battery-test position. Even if your survey meter is operat-
the survey meter relative to the When the switch is moved to the ing properly when you start work, it
camera will be a little different battery-test position, the meter can break during the day. What
every time you make a survey. On needle should fall within a marked should you do if your meter starts
the other hand, for types of meas- range on the meter. After radiogra- to behave abnormally in the field
urements where an operator must phy has been completed and the and you have no spare? For exam-
record a precise numerical value, survey meter will not be needed for ple, what should you do if your me-
digital displays are better than some time, switch it off. This will ter starts to give you high read-
moving needles. prolong the life of the batteries. ings? Here are two easy ways you
can check a high reading using
Figure 5 shows an ion chamber sur- Fresh batteries typically last for what you learned in Chapter 5.
vey meter. The meter has a loga- about 100 to 200 hours of opera-
rithmic scale. A logarithmic scale tion, but even newly purchased bat- You can use shielding. If you put
gets more compressed as the dose teries may not always be fresh and the meter behind some shielding
rate gets higher. We saw scales like may give considerably shorter life. material such as 1 inch of steel or
this when we discussed radioactive If there is a short circuit in the in- 6 inches of concrete, does the read-
decay in Chapter 3 and shielding in strument (possibly caused by dirt, ing drop? Is the drop the expected
Chapter 5. You operate the ion moisture, or damage) or if you acci- amount? (Refer to the attenuation
chamber survey meter in essen- dentally leave the instrument graphs in Chapter 5.)
tially the same way that you oper- turned on for several days, the bat-
ate a G-M survey meter. Ion teries can wear out sooner than
chambers provide increased accu- you expect. You should always
Figure 6. Before starting work, check the
racy and increased dose range at have spare batteries available be- operation of your survey meter with a ra-
an increased cost and perhaps a cause it is important to have an op- diation source. The surface of your camera
small loss of ruggedness. erable survey meter. provides a radiation source.
67
6 Measuring Radiation
You can use distance. Back off to electronic circuits and cause the Now secure the source in its signs and ropes based either on
twice the distance. Does the read- survey meter to fail. Cases are gen- shielded position by pushing the calculations like those in Chapter 5
ing drop to about one-quarter of its erally made to be watertight, but a plunger or turning the locking ring. or on your previous experience
former value? If so, the meter is re- bent or cracked case may not keep with similar situations.
sponding properly. (Here you are water out. Damaged cases should If you get unexpected readings,
using the inverse square law you be repaired or replaced. something is wrong. It could be an Carefully note your setup. Note
learned in Chapter 5.) exposed source or a malfunction- where beams of radiation could oc-
Making a Radiation Survey ing survey meter. At this point you cur. If you are using a collimator, in
If you conclude that the meter is will have to analyze the situation to which directions will there be un-
working properly, the high reading The most important radiation sur- determine what is wrong. You will shielded beams? Is there any inter-
may mean the source is exposed. vey you will make is the survey probably want very much to be- vening shielding (such as pipes and
Go back to the crank and try again after an exposure. This survey is to lieve that the survey meter is concrete walls) to affect your
to retract the source. If this does make sure the source has returned wrong. Resist that temptation. As- readings?
not produce results, you should fol- to its fully shielded position in the sume the source is exposed until
low your company's emergency camera. you understandwhat the problem Based on your observations of the
procedures. is. situation, make measurements of
The following description of this the dose rates at enough points on
If the meter is broken, you must survey is a general description of Another important survey you will the boundary of the restricted area
stop work until you get a replace- basic survey technique. Your survey have to make is the survey to make to be sure you have set it up
ment. Retract the source and stay may vary somewhat based on your sure your restricted area bounda- properly.
away from the camera. Check your company's operating procedures ries are properly set. A survey is
pocket dosimeter to make sure you and the specific work conditions. usually conducted during your first Repeat these measurements during
have not been exposed. exposure. You have already set up later exposures any time you have
After returning the source to the changed your setup in a way that
Manufacturers of survey meters camera, look atthe survey meter. i might change the dose rate at the
have succeeded in making them Note the needle position. Is it about I restricted area boundary.
quite rugged, but they can still be where it should be? Approach the
broken by rough handling. Wires guide tube and camera. Is the
inside the case can come loose, the needle rising at about the expected Calibration
G-M tube can break, the battery rate? Move the survey meter along Survey meters used by radiogra-
connections can come off, and the the guide tube. Is the needle posi- phers must be calibrated at least
meter mechanism itself can break. tion about right? every 3 months. Every survey me-
You should handle your survey me- ter should have a label showing the
ter gently. You should never throw Survey the camera. The survey of last calibration date. The calibration
it into a truck or use it as a hammer. the front of the camera is very im- requires a source of radiation
portant because a source that is al- whose dose rate at various dis-
Water entering the case will cause most, but not completely, retracted tances is known. The survey meter
a survey meter to fail by causing a can have a thin beam of radiation
short circuit or battery failure. Salt coming out the front.
or other chemicals can corrode the
Place the survey meter against the
camera surface at a place where Figure 7. A survey at the front of the camera
you know what reading to expect. can detect a thin beam of radiation.
68 Is the needle position about right?
Measuring Radiation 6
When you look through one end of a) Dosimeter fully charged. The quartz fiber
the dosimeter, you see the image of rests near "0" on the scale.
the quartz fiber. The image is pro-
jected on a scale that is divided into
segments you can read by looking
into the eyepiece. The scales.usu-
ally have divisions at each 10 or 20
mR (as shown in Figure 10). When
the dosimeter is fully charged be-
fore use, the image of the fiber is
made to rest at the "0" position on
the scale. The dosimeter used by
radiographers must have a full-
scale reading of at least 200 mR.
I b) Dosimeter exposed to radiation. The
While pocket dosimeters are quite reading is 26 mR.
rugged, they can be damaged by
being dropped or struck by a hard
object. Even if there is no damage, AILLIROENTGE
such shock may cause the dosime- 50 100 150
ter needle to go off scale. 0 1 0 0 1110 130 1 I
Alarm Systems at
Permanent Installations
If the radiography company has a
permanent installation or radiogra-
phy cell for performing radiogra-
phy, regulations require that a
special alarm system be installed
Figure 13. A TLD badge is shown on the left. meter fails to alert you to an ex- (unless the source retracts auto-
A closeup of the TILD chip is shown on the posed source. Use of these dosime- matically upon attempted entry).*
right. The alarm system, often called a Figure 15. A neon bulb used for voltage reg-
ters is optional, that is, they are not ulation in this audible-alarm dosimeter has
required. gamma alarm, must have a warn- broken because it was dropped.
Audible-Alarm Dosimeters ing light that is activated by radia-
Audible-alarm dosimeters are small Use of these devices by industrial tion. Therefore, a radiation detector The gamma alarm is also required
instruments that you can wear and radiographers has not been partic- must be installed so that an ex- to sound an alarm if someone en-
that will sound an alarm if high ularly successful, although a few posed source can be detected. The ters the cell while the source is ex-
dose rates are encountered. Poten- companies and a few radiogra- warning light must operate when- posed. An automatic switch on a
tially, they can save you from a ra- phers favor their use. Some users ever the source is exposed. door or an electric eye in a maze
diation exposure if your survey found the instruments too fragile. entrance can be used to activate
Figure 14 shows how dropping ru- the audible alarm.
ined the ceramic speaker on one *10 CFR Section 34.29, "Permanent Radi-
72 ographic Installations."
Measuring Radiation 6
I
Figure 16 shows a gamma alarm. The radiographer will then survey trained to do so. A special radiation
The radiation detector is on the top the swab with a survey meter to detection instrument and special
right side of the case. A light bulb make sure the swab is not highly procedures are also needed.
in the dome on top lights when the contaminated. If there is a reading
dose rate exceeds a certain set on the survey meter, the radiogra- In Figure 19, a specially trained per-
point. The gamma alarm has been pher should follow company proce- son uses a radiation detection in-
set to alarm at 12 mR/hr, as can be dures and contact the radiation strument to measure any radio-
seen by looking at the dark needle safety officer. active material that has leaked out
on the dial and the range selector. of the source capsule and been
If the survey meter does not detect picked up by the cotton swabs. If
any radiation, the radiographer will the person finds radioactive con-
Testing Sources for Leaks send or give the swab to someone tamination on the swab in excess
Radiography sources may not be who has been specially trained to of 0.005 microcuries, the equip-
Figure 16. A gamma alarm for a permanent
used unless they have been tested radiographic installation. Radiation acti- make a leak-test measurement. The ment must be withdrawn from use
for leaks within the previous 6 vates the light on top. If anyone enters the leak-test measurement can be per- and decontaminated. A report of
months.* A leaking source could area while the radiography source is ex- formed only by people specifically the leaking source must be filed
posed, an alarm will sound. with the NRC.*
spread radioactive materials out-
side the camera where the radia-
tion would not be shielded.
Source manufacturers test sources
for leaks before they are sent to ra-
diographers. A manufacturer's cer-
tification that a source has been
tested for leaks is shown in the up-
per righthand corner of Figure 6 in
Chapter 3 (the decay curve for an
iridium-192 source). This certifica-
tion gives the date the manufac-
turer tested the source for leaks.
The first step in making a leak test
is to use a piece of cloth to pick up
any loose radioactive material that
may be present. Figure 17 shows a Figure 19. A specially trained person places
radiographer wiping the external the cotton swabs against the detector of a
surfaces of a storage container con- radiation detection instrument. If the
source is leaking radioactive material, the
taining a radiography source with a instrument will detect radiation from the
cotton swab. In Figure 18, the ra- cotton swab.
diographer rubs another cotton
swab in the source chamber tube. Figure 17. A radiographer checks a radiog-
raphy source in a storage container for ra- Figure 18. Here the radiographer uses an-
dioactive contamination. He uses a cotton other swab to wipe the inside of the source
*As required by NRC regulations in 10 CFR swab to wipe the external surfaces. chamber. *As required by NRC regulations in 10 CFR
.Section 34.25(b). Section 34.25(b). 73
6 Measuring Radiation
b. C. d.
Measuring Radiation 6
'NTG E N I
rpwpým
MILLIROENTGEN 'I MILLIROENIGEN
0
MILIO
10 30 1 70 90 120130
150
[0 50 100
090 1110
7100 13,0
150
170
200
190
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0
'
0
10 3I
0 I
20 40
50
60
I
1
I 0 00 2
80
I015
700 0 10130 0 6 170190
100 120 140
200
.2
160 I80 200
4. Select the best answer: a. Recharge your dosimeter and c. Follow your employer's pro-
continue working. cedures, and have your film
While performing radiography, badge or TLD sent out for
you note that your pocket do- b. Complete your work and re- immediate processing.
simeter: reads off scale. What cord the fact in your dosime-
should you do? ter log. d. Perform a radiation survey to
make sure that radiation lev-
els are what you expect.
e. Both c. and d.
5. Select the best answer: a. Always wear the personnel c. Request that an alarming do-
dosimetry provided. simeter be provided for use.
What is the most important
thing you can do to avoid an b. Always make proper radia- d. Keep a daily log of pocket
overexposure to radiation? tion surveys. dosimeter readings.
75
6 Measuring Radiation
Questions (cont.) 6. Select the best answer: a. Advance toward the camera; c. Advance toward the tip of the
survey the guide tube; survey guide tube; survey the guide
Which of the following are the * the front of the camera; sur- tube and the front of the cam-
proper steps to take in making a vey sides and back of the era; reach over the camera
survey after an exposure? camera. and survey the back.
b. Advance toward the back d. Any order or sequence of
* side of the camera; survey steps is permissible as long
the back and sides while be- as the radiation level remains
hind the camera; survey the low as the radiographer ap-
front and guide tube connec- proaches the camera.
tion; survey the guide tube.
7. Select the best answer: a. Complete the job quickly c. Send an assistant to obtain a
while keeping a close check new instrument while you
If you arrive at a job and find on your pocket dosimeter. complete the first exposure.
that your survey meter is not
operating properly, what should b. Use past experience to judge d. Go get a properly operating
you do? where the restricted area survey meter.
boundary should be and
complete the job.
Daily Maintenance
Quarterly Maintenance
Radiography Cameras 7
7---=3
Daily Maintenance 4. Look at the pigtail connector for 6. Check the source guide tube for
signs of wear. Look at the drive crimps, dents, fraying, and dirt.
Before you start work with a cam- cable connection for signs of Figure 10 shows a dent in a
era, you should check to see that it wear. The photos in Figure 9 guide tube that could cause a
is in good operating condition. We show a radiographer using source to jam in the tube. Attach
describe here the general principles "go/no-go" gauges to check for the guide tube to the camera.
of maintenance. You should follow wear. This is a good thing to do Check to see that it attaches with-
the detailed procedures that your occasionally. Also check connec- out difficulty.
employer will give you. tors to see that they are not bent.
7. Check the lock for ease of opera-
The description below of a daily 5. Connect the drive cable, but do tion. Lubricate if necessary.
check was written for crank-out not unlock the camera yet. Re-
cameras. But it can be applied to move the safety plug from the 8. During the first exposure of the
beam-type cameras, too, if you front of the camera. Check to see day, check for any hangups or
omit the checks on parts that your that the source outlet-is-round binding as you crankthe source-
beam-type camera does not have and smooth so that the source in and out.
(such as the guide tube and, some- will not get stuck there when you
times, the drive cable). retract it. 9. If you note any problems, contact
your supervisor and do not use
1. Make a radiation survey of the the camera until it has been
camera. The radiation dose rate repaired.
where you make the measure-
ment should have its expected
value. Survey the front of the
camera. There should not be a
beam of radiation, although the
dose rate there may be a little
higher than it is on the top or
sides of the camera.
2. Check the camera for any visible
damage.
3. Inspect the locking mechanism.
Remove the cap, if any, and in-
spect the portion of the pigtail
that you can see for frayed or
broken strands or cracks. Figure
8 shows a radiograph of a pigtail
cable whose strands have started
to separate or "birdcage." Do not
unlock the camera yet.
Figure 8. "Birdcaging" of a pigtail cable can
cause eventual cable breaks or source
hangups in the guide tube.
Radiography Cameras 7
83
7 Radiography Cameras
Quarterly Maintenance Whenever the guide tube and drive In general, the camera itself should Discussion
cables become dirty, they should not be disassembled unless there is
Quarterly maintenance is done by be cleaned according to the manu- a definite need to do so. Disassem- This is a good time to ask your in-
specially trained personnel. Often facturer's instructions. Disconnect bly of a camera containing a source structor questions about the opera-
these people are not radiographers. the drive cable from the crank, and could result in a serious radiation tion and maintenance of the
Although we call this "quarterly" remove it from its protective tub- overexposur~e. Also, disassembly of cameras you will be using.
maintenance to indicate a periodic ing. Clean it in a recommended sol- a properly functioning camera may
maintenance, this maintenance vent. Pour a recommended solvent cause more problems than it
should be done whenever neces- into the-protective tubing and the solves, especially if the camera is
sary. Depending on how the cam- guide tube. Blow the solvent out not perfectly reassembled.
era is used, maintenance may be the other end using compressed
needed more often. Sometimes a air. Lubricate the drive cable as rec-
quarterly check of the operation ommended. Lubricate the locking
may find that no specific work is mechanism as recommended by
necessary.-Generally, your supervi- the-manufacturer. -
sor will schedule the maintenance,
but you should bring any problems
you've noticed to his attention.
The most important thing is to
clean dirt out of the camera, guide
tube, cranking mechanism, and
drive cables. Dirt-clogged tubes, ca-
bles, and cranks can make it impos-
sible to fully retract the source. Dirt
can also prevent the locking mech-
anism from operating-correctly.
8
What Are The Basic
Rules For
Radiography?
Who Regulates You?
Reciprocity
NRC Regulations
Basic Rules 8
"...Any person who willfully vio- The NRC can relinquish to any state As of November 1982, 26 states had map showing the Agreement States
lates any provision of the Act or
government its authority to regu- accepted this responsibility. These is shown in Figure 1. States that do
late the use of radioactive materials states are called Agreement States. not have an agreement with the
any regulation or order issued in gamma radiography if the state They have signed an agreement NRC to regulate gamma radiogra-
thereunder may be guilty of a crime
and, upon conviction, may be pun- (1) wants the authority and (2) pro- with the NRC that ends NRC au- phy within the state are called non-
ished by fine or imprisonment or vides adequate resources to ensure thority within the state, except at Agreement States. Gamma radiog-
that radioactive materials are used federal institutions. The states reg- raphy in non-Agreement States is
both, as provided by law." [NRC regulated by the NRC.
Regulations, Section 20.601] safely. ulate gamma radiography per-
formed within their boundaries. A
In your work as a radiographer's
assistant, you have already been NRC AGREEMENT STATE PROGRAM
following your company's operat-
ing procedures. These procedures
have been written to conform with
federal and state regulations.
Knowing these regulations will help
you better understand your com-
pany's procedures. Understanding
the regulations and following ap-
proved procedures may not neces-
sarily lead to better radiographs,
but it will lead to a safer work " -- 5 0 ISTR
ITOFCOl SI
environment.
Your company must have a license up-to-date copies of NRC regula- working in that state. Your com- Under reciprocity your company is
to perform gamma radiography us- tions is given in Appendix C. pany informs NRC by sending three usually limited in performing ra-
ing radioactive materials. If your copies of Form NRC-241 (see diography to a total of 180 days per
company is located in a state where Appendix D for a copy of this NRC calendar year in any Agreement
the NRC regulates radiography (a Reciprocity form) and three copies of its state State where it is not licensed. If the
non-Agreement State), the com- What happens if your company is license at least 3 days in advance. company keeps radiography
pany must have an NRC license. If licensed in one state by either the NRC limits companies licensed by sources in an Agreement State
your company is located in an NRC or by an Agreement State and an Agreement State to working a where it is not licensed for more
Agreement State, the company wants to perform radiography in a total of 180 days per calendar year than 180 days, it must obtain a li-
must be licensed by that state. If different state where different regu- in non-Agreement States. cense from the authority responsi-
your company performs industrial lations are in effect? Your company ble in that state. The following
radiography using x-rays only, the may do so without applying for a After you enter New Jersey, you are Agreement States, however, have
radiography is regulated by the new license. The license your com- subject to NRC's regulations (Figure periods different from 180 days:
state where it is performed, pany holds will be recognized and 2). You, always obey the regula- Idaho (20 days), Kentucky (unlim-
whether it is an Agreement State or --accepted in other states.-This is tions in effect in the state where ited), and Louisiana (unlimited).
a non-Agreement Statew. you are-working, rather than those
called reciprocity.*
rules of the state where your com- Offshore Work Sites
Both the NRC and the Agreement Reciprocity works the same for ra- pany is licensed. In Agreement
States have regulations that must States, you must comply with the Who regulates you when you work
diography licenses as for licenses offshore? Both the water and the
be followed. By federal law, Agree- to drive automobiles. You are is- regulations of the particular Agree-
ment State regulations must be ment State. In non-Agreement land underneath the water off the
sued a driver's license by the state shore or coast from any state are
compatible with NRC regulations. that you live in. You can use that States, you must comply with NRC
Compatible means that in certain regulations. considered to be part of that state
license to drive in any other state,
important areas, the state regula- within an area of about 3 miles for
because each state recognizes the most states (and about 10 miles for
tions must be the same as NRC reg- driver's licenses of every other You are also subject to inspection
ulations. Therefore, Agreement state. But you obey the traffic laws by the regulatory authorities of the the Agreement States of Florida
State regulations are much the state where you are working. In this and Texas). This area can be called
of the state where you are driving a state's territorial limit.
same as NRC regulations, but they rather than the laws of the state case, you would be inspected by
are not identical. that issued your driver's license. NRC inspectors, not New York State
The same is true for radiography. inspectors, even though your com- Radiography performed within an
This manual discusses NRC regula- pany holds a New York State li- Agreement State's 3-mile or 10-
tions. As part of your training, your cense, not an NRC license. The NRC mile territorial limit is regulated by
For example, let's assume your the state. Radiography performed
employer must provide you a copy company is located in New York, an inspectors would make sure you
of relevant NRC regulations. If you Agreement State, and has a New were obeying NRC regulations outside this 3-mile or 10-mile limit
will be working in an Agreement while working in New Jersey, not (including the high seas) by any
York State license. You are sent to company licensed by the NRC or an
State you must learn about any dif- work in New Jersey, a non- New York State regulations.
ferences between NRC regulations Agreement State, where radiogra- Agreement State is regulated by
and the state's regulations. The ad- phy is regulated by the NRC. First, If you want to work in an Agree- the NRC.' However, the NRC has an
dresses and telephone numbers of ment State where you are not li- agreement with Louisiana that al-
your company must inform the lows Louisiana to perform these
the Agreement State regulatory NRC of the dates that you will be censed, your company must inform
agencies are listed in Appendix A. that state in advance (at the ad- offshore inspections for the NRC.*
You can obtain copies of the state *Details of reciprocity are found in NRC reg- dresses listed in Appendix A). *As of December 1981, the NRC was consid-
regulations from those agencies. ulations, 10 CFR, Section 150.20, "Recogni- ering similar agreements with Texas and
88 The address where you can obtain tion of Agreement State Licenses." California.
Basic Rules 8
1. Training [§ 19.12] 3. Talking to NRC Inspectors If the NRC does not agree with your 1. Radiation Dose Limits*
You have a right to adequate train- [§ 19.15(b)] letter about the existence of a [N 20.101 and § 20.102]
ing to protect yourself against ra- During an inspection, you have a safety problem, they must tell you The NRC has quarterly (3-month)
diation. Your company must right to talk to NRC inspectors. You in writing why they don't think your radiation dose limits. The following
provide you with adequate training can privately bring to the attention employer (the licensee) is in viola- are the NRC limits for adults in
to do your job safely and to avoid of NRC inspectors any safety con- tion of the regulations. areas where access is restricted for
excessive exposure to radiation. cerns you may have, either orally 5. A Worker Representative May the purpose of radiation pro-
Training is discussed more specifi- or in writing. Accompany an NRC Inspector on tection:
cally for radiographers in Part 34 an Inspection [§ 19.14]
[§ 34.31]. This manual covers some 4. Requesting an NRC Inspection
[§ 19.16 and § 19.17] If workers have selected someone Radiation Dose Limits
of the information you must know.
You must also learn your com- You have a right to request that the to represent them, for example, by Whole body 11¼ or 3 rems
pany's own operating and emer- NRC conduct an inspection if you labor union selection processes, per quarter year
gency procedures. think there are safety problems. the licensee must inform the NRC (as explained
These requests should be made in inspector of that person and must below)
2. Reports of-Radiation Dose~ writing to your regional NRC office. allow that person to accompany the
[§ 19.13] NRC inspector during the inspec- Hands,
Your employer will be given a copy forearms, 18% rems per
You have a right to know how of your letter. However, you may re- tion of the workplace. The workers'
representative must be routinely feet, ankles quarter year
much radiation you have been ex- quest in your letter that your em-
posed to. Your company is required ployer not be told who made the engaged in licensed activities under Skin of the 71/2 rems per
to keep a record of your radiation complaint or not be told the names control of the licensee and must be whole body quarter year
dose (such as on Form NRC 5 in of other workers mentioned in your trained in radiation protection (as
Appendix D). At your request, your Iette r. described in § 19.12).
The limit on radiation delivered to
company must tell you in writing the whole body is 3 rems per
each year how much radiation you If you are not sure whether you Part 20 - Basic quarter year if your employer keeps
received that year. want to write the letter or are not Radiation Safety records to show that your lifetime
sure if there really is a safety prob- radiation dose does not exceed
Any company must also provide lem, you can telephone the NRC re- Part 20, "Standards for Protection
Against Radiation," sets down the 5(N-18) rems, where N is your age
former employees, if they request gional office to discuss your in years. For example, if you are
it, a record of their radiation dose problem with them (see Appendix basic terms and rules for radiation
safety, including radiation dose lim- 28 years old, your lifetime dose
within 30 days of their request. B for addresses and telephone
Your company must report to you numbers). its. We will discuss here only those
your dose within 30 days if you requirements in Part 20 that are not
have been overexposed. When you You have a right to expect that the covered in more detail in Part 34. *Note: In this manual, we are concerned
terminate your job, your company NRC will pay careful attention to only with radioactive sources located out-
must send you a report of how your problem. side the body. In Chapter 3, we mentioned
that radioactive materials can also be taken
much radiation dose you received into the body, for example, by inhaling ra-
while you were employed by that If you file such a complaint of a dioactive materials. There are separate NRC
company. safety problem, your employer may limits for such intakes of radioactive mate-
not fire you or discriminate against rials into the body. But we do not consider
those limits here. They are not relevant be-
you in any way as a consequence cause the radioactive materials in radiogra-
of filing the complaint. phy sources are sealed inside steel capsules
that rarely allow particles of radioactive ma-
terial to get into the air.
Basic Rules 8
cannot exceed 50 reins [5(28-18) = If you are under the age of 18, the 2. Restricted Areas, Unrestricted mrem in any 1 hour or 100 mrem
50]. This means your-average an- dose limits are one-tenth (10%) of Areas, Radiation Areas, and High in 5 consecutive days. Radiation
nual dose for those years over 18 the amount allowed an adult.* For Radiation Areas areas must be posted with signs
cannot exceed 5 rems per year. example, a minor under 18 years a. Restricted Areas [§ 20.3(a)(14)]. A saying "Caution, Radiation Area"
old is permitted a quarterly whole- restricted area is an area to which (the sign can also say "Danger" in
If your employer uses the 3-rem- body dose of only 0.125 rems or the licensee restricts access for the place of "Caution") and displaying
per-quarter dose limit, the com- 125 millirem [§ 20.104]. purpose of radiation protection. the radiation symbol [§ 20.203(b)].*
pany must keep records to show Restricted areas are established to These are shown in Figure 4.
that your lifetime dose since age 18 The NRC permits higher dose lim- protect the public from radiation.
has been limited to an average of its, 18% reins, to hands and feet You cannot let anyone into a .In radiography, the radiation area
5 rems per year. The form used to [§ 20.101]. Still you should not restricted area unless the person will be not very different in size
keep track of your past dose is touch a radiography source since has been told of the presence of from the restricted area. Therefore,
called Form NRC-4, shown in Ap- the dose to your hands would be radiation in the area and told what it is often practical to post the ra-
pendix D. much-higher than that limit. Doses to do to avoid or control their diation area signs at the restricted
to the hands are not normally cal- exposure to radiation [§ 19.12]. If area boundary and not have a sep-
If your employer does not keep an culated for radiographers unless you are at a field site, you will arate radiation area.
up-to- date copy of Form NRC-4 (or the radiographer is involved in a ra- frequently use ropes and signs to d. High Radiation Areas
equivalent) giving your lifetime ra- diation overexposure accident. mark off the restricted area and [§ 20.202(b)(3)]. If the dose to
diation dose history, your employer keep people from entering. If anyone could exceed 100 mrem in
must use a quarterly dose limit of There is a special limit on radiation people ignore the ropes, you any 1 hour, the area is a high
1.25 reins instead of 3 rems. dose to the skin from radiation that should be prepared to approach radiation area. High radiation areas
does not penetrate beyond the skin. them and tell them that a radiation must be posted with a sign saying
The whole-body dose is a measure This limit for the skin is rarely of source is in use and that they "Caution, High Radiation Area" and
of the amount of radiation that has interest to radiographers. Skin dose should keep away. displaying the radiation symbol, as
been received by a large-portion of generally comes from beta parti- shown in Figure 4. (The sign can
your body, particularly the parts im- cles. Beta particles can expose the b. Unrestricted Areas [§ 20.105(b)].
An unrestricted area is an area also read "Danger" in place of
portant from a radiation protection skin but usually do not have "Caution.")
point of view. These parts are the enough energy to reach deeply into where access is not restricted. The
bone-marrow where leukemia the body. Therefore, they do not maximum dose allowed to anyone 3. Receiving Radioactive Sources
would originate or the gonads contribute to the whole body dose. in any area where access is not [§ 20.205(a)]
where genetic damage to offspring The radioactive materials in radiog- restricted is 2 mrem in any 1 hour
would originate. Usually the dose raphy sources emit beta particles, or 100 mrem in any 7 consecutive Licensees must promptly pick up
reading on the film badge or TLD is but the beta particles do not pene- days. (In Chapter 5, we worked packages from shippers as soon as
considered to be the whole-body trate the steel capsule containing problems on how to calculate they are notified the packages are
the radioactive material. doses such as 2 mrem in any ready. This reduces the chance that
dose.
1 hour.) Often radiographers find it someone unfamiliar with radiation
convenient to simply set up will accidentally mishandle a poten-
restricted area boundaries where tially dangerous source.
the dose rate is less than 2 mR/hr.
*Note, however, that Department of Labor
regulations prohibit individuals under the c. Radiation Areas N§20.202(b)(2)].
age of 18 from working in occupations in- A radiation area is an area in which
volving exposure to radiation [29 CFR radiation exists where anyone
§ 570.120 and § 570.57]. You are not allowed *Some of the requirements of Part 20 such
to work as a radiographer if you are
could receive a dose to a major as posting signs are discussed in more de-
younger than 18. portion of the body in excess of 5 tail under the discussion of Part 34. 91
8 Basic Rules
You must perform the following tion area signs, generally at the re-
surveys: stricted area boundary, and you
must post high radiationarea signs
(1) A survey of the camera and anywhere the dose is sufficient to
guide tube after each radiography expose anyone to a dose of 100
exposure to make sure that the mrem in any one hour.* No radia-
source is in its shielded position. tion survey is necesssary at the
We discussed how to make this high radiation area boundary. The
survey in Chapter 6. signs must be conspicuously
posted so that anyone approaching
(2) A survey of the restricted area these areas can see them
boundary to make sure that no per- [§ 20.203(b) and (c)].
son outside the restricted area
could receive a dose of more than
2 mrem in any 1 hour or 100 mrem
in any 7 consecutive days
[§ 20.201(b) and § 20.105(b)(1)].
Your survey meter will tell you the Figure 6. During the first exposure, this ra-
diographer surveys the restricted area
dose rate, for example, 10 mR/hr. boundary to measure the dose rate.
To obtain the dose, multiply the
dose rate by the fraction of the
hour that the source will be ex-
posed. We showed you how to do
this in Chapter 5.
If you are good at doing these cal-
culations, you will be able to con-
vert any survey meter reading into
the dose. If you are not very good
at calculations, you can assume
that the source is exposed for the Figure 5. Probably the most important sur-
vey you will make is the survey of the cam-
whole hour. As long as your meter era after an exposure. The radiographer
reading is less than 2 mR/hr, the here is surveying the guide tube entrance.
dose at the restricted area bound- This is a particularly important place to sur-
ary is acceptable. vey because the source can get hung up as
it reenters the camera, or it can creep out Figure 8. The radiography shown in the pre-
after it has been fully retracted. vious figures is being done on the hull of a
2. Posting of Signs [§ 34.42] ship being constructed. The restricted area
Signs are posted to warn other Figure 7. This is another view of the same and the high radiation areas extend be-
survey of the restricted area boundary. neath the deck shown in the previous
people that radiation is present in *You may post high radiation area signs at Note that the radiographer has used a colli- figures. This figure shows another radiogra-
the area and that they should be the restricted area boundary and omit radia- mator to reduce the distance to the re- pher making a survey of the restricted
careful to avoid the area. Ropes are tion area signs. But if you do this, all the stricted area boundary. The radiographer area boundary below the deck. The radiog-
requirements for the high radiation area will will not survey the high radiationarea near rapher on the deck has moved to the edge
often used with the signs, although apply to the entire area, for example, sur- the source. Such a survey would needlessly of the deck in making his survey of the re-
the regulations do not specifically veillance to protect against unauthorized expose him to high levels of radiation. stricted area boundary.
require ropes. You must post radia- entry. 93
8 Basic Rules
97
8 t.
Basic Rules
98
9
What Are The Rules
For Transporting
Sources?
Packaging
The transportation of radioactive escape-proof capsule to prevent the tive waste material such as contam-
materials is highly regulated. As a
Packaging spread of radioactive contamina- inated towels in plastic bags.
radiographer, you will be involved Radiography sources must be prop- tion. Radiography sources are spe-
with regulated transportation of ra- erly packaged for transportation. cial form. A radiography source is The remainder of this chapter deals
dioactive materials every time you The proper packaging depends on encapsulated in a high strength only with special form materials
take your camera out into the (1) the amount of radioactivity in- metal such as stainless steel as since radiography sources are spe-
field.* volved and (2) the form of the ma- shown in Figure 1. cial form.
terial. There are two forms: special
The U.S. Department of Transporta- form and normal form. Normal form radioactive materials Amount of Radioactivity in
tion (DOT) regulates the transpor- are those in a form that does not Packages [49 CFR § 173.389]
tion of radioactive materials give as much protection against es-
Special Form and Normal cape of the radioactive materials There are three special kinds of
between states. The NRC and
Agreement States also regulate the Form [49 CFR § 173.389(a) and and that does not qualify as special packaging depending on the
transportation of radioactive mate- § 173.398(a)] form. Examples of normal form amount of radioactive material that
rials. However, NRC regulations Special form means the radioactive material are glass or plastic vials of
[10 CFR § 71.5] and state regula- material is contained in a leakproof, radiopharmaceuticals and radioac-
tions require that some DOT regu-
lations be met. So, certain DOT
regulations must be met whether
the shipment crosses a state line or
not.
The DOT regulations for transport
of radiography sources are DOT's
"Hazardous Materials Regulations,"
Parts 171 through 179 of Title 49 of
the Code of Federal Regulations
[49 CFR Parts 171-179]. Your
employer's procedures for trans-
porting radiography sources are
written to be consistent with fed-
eral and state regulations.
FigurelO. Radioactive White I warning-label . .. Figure11k.-Aworker measures-the surface Figure 12. Radioactive Yellow III warning
on a package. dose rate on a package with a Radioactive label on a source changer.
Yellow IIwarning label. Note that another
kind of label (on the left) shows that this
container meets the requirements for Type
A packaging.
In addition to the requirements on radiation dose rates near the pack- dose rate at 3 feet (transport index) will require the Radioactive Yellow
how the packaging is made, the age. There are three types of warn- greater than 1 mR/hr (shown in III label while being shipped if no
DOT regulations have limits on the ing labels, depending on the dose Figure 12) [49 CFR § 172.440]. outer container is used. As the
dose rate at the surface of a pack- rates. source decays, the dose rate at the
age and the dose rate at 3 feet from The dose rates for the three types surface will eventually drop below
the package. The dose rate limit at If the surface dose rate is 0.5 mR/hr of warning labels are summarized 50 mR/hr and a Radioactive
3 feet from a package is expressed or less, Radioactive White I labels below [49 CFR § 172.403]: Yellow II label would be acceptable.
in terms of a transport index. The are used [49 CFR § 172.436]. Figure There is no need to worry about
transport index (TI) is the highest 10 shows a Radioactive White I la- Maximum
Maximum dose rate the exact moment when the transi-
dose rate in mR/hr at 3 feet from bel on a package. dose rate at at 3 ft from tion occurs. However, as long as
the package. If the highest dose the surface the package the Radioactive Yellow III label is
rate at 3 feet is 5 mR/hr, the trans- Radioactive Yellow II labels are Warning of the (transport used during transportation, all the
port index is 5. used if the surface dose rate does label package index)
precautions required for this label
not exceed 50 mR/hr and the dose Radioactive such as vehicle placarding (dis-
rate at 3 feet (the transport index) White I 0.5 mR/hr Not specified
Warning Labels cussed below) are necessary.
does not exceed 1 mR/hr [49 CFR Radioactive
Packages containing radioactive § 172.438]. Figure 11 shows a Ra- Yellow II 50 mR/hr 1.0 mR/hr
Radioactive No maximum No maximum
Trucks carrying radiography
materials must be labeled on two dioactive Yellow II label on a sources often have special boxes
opposite sides with warning labels. Yellow III limit limit
package. that the camera is locked in. If the
These (abets tett what radioactive For portable iridium-192 cameras dose rate on the surface of the box
material is in the package and the Radioactive Yellow III labels are with new sources, the dose rate is less than 50 mR/hr and is less
used for all packages with a surface at the surface usually exceeds than 1 mR/hr at 3 feet, a Radioac-
dose rate greater than 50 mR/hr or 50 mR/hr. Therefore, the camera tive Yellow II label can be used.
Transporting Sources 9
,I
Cameras containing no source are
still radioactive if they use uranium SECTION
C~ DOT for trucks carrying packages with Ra-
QUALITY-
CONTROL
I" dioactive Yellow Ill warning labels.
for their shielding. Dose rates at the CONTSIRS
QUALITY
surface are about 0.5 mR/hr. DOT
regulations [49 CFR § 173.391(c)]
exempt uranium from labeling if The radiation dose rate outside the
the surface dose rates on the pack- truck should be measured. The
age are below 0.5 mR/hr. There- dose rates allowed by DOT regula-
fore, either no label or the Radio- tions outside the truck are higher
active Yellow II label may be appro- than would be encountered with a
priate depending on exactly what radiography source properly
dose rate you read on your survey shielded within a camera. But you
meter. may want to use the truck as a stor-
age area if you work in the field. If
you do, the area outside the truck
Moving the Source to must meet NRC's regulations for
the Work Site unrestricted areas. Dose rates in
unrestricted areas must be below 2
Now that your source is in the mR/hr or 0.6 mR/hr if you will be in
proper packaging and the package one place for a long time (to meet
has the correct label, you are ready the 100 mrem in 7-day limit)
to take it to the work site. [10 CFR § 20.105(b)].
to report the accident to the U.S. The dose rate at 3 feet must also be mark on the package [49 CFR
Department of Transportation measured [§ 20.205(c)]. The dose § 173.393(b)]. The security seal lets
[49 CFR § 177.861]. rate measured should be about the the person receiving the package
same as the transport index written know that the source has not been
on the package warning label. The tampered with.
Receiving and dose rate at 3 feet cannot exceed
Shipping Sources 10 mR/hr. A record of this survey Apply the proper warning labels to
must also be made [10 CFR two sides of the package [49 CFR
§ 20.401 (b)]. § 172.403(f)]. (The warning labels
Receiving a Source* were shown in Figures 10-12.) Most
NRC regulations do not require -spent (used) sources will use a Ra-
Radiography sources shipped to wipe tests for contamination for dioactive Yellow II label because the
your company must be picked up packages you receive that contain surface dose rates will be less than
from the carrier promptly [10 CFR radiography sources because the 50 mR/hr and the dose rate at
§ 20.205(a)]. This is so that the car- sources are special form material 3 feet will be less than 1 mR/hr.
rier's employees are not needlessly [1O-CFR § 20:205(b)(1)(iii)]. .. . . Figurei15 shows a properly labeled-
exposed to radiation from keeping container with Radioactive Yellow
the source and so that someone If dose rates exceed 200 mR/hr at III labels filled out. The lock and se-
does not take the source out of its the surface or 10 mR/hr at 3 feet, curity seal are also visible. Remove
shielding. your company must report this to .any old warning labels from the
After you pick up the source from the NRC and the carrier immedi- package so that it does not have
the carrier, you must make a radia- ately [10 CFR § 20.205(c)(2)]. confusing or contradictory labels.
tion survey to make sure that
radiation levels do not exceed Shipping a Source Mark the outside of the package:
200 mR/hr at the surface [10 CFR "Radioactive material, Special
Before you deliver a radiography form, N.O.S." [49 CFR § 172.300].
§ 20.205(c)]. Figure 14 shows a ra- source to a commercial carrier, the
diographer surveying a newly re- This was shown in Figure 13 in
most important thing to do is to Chapter 5. ( N.O.S. means "not oth-
ceived camera containing a source. make sure the source is securely
He makes sure his meter reads less erwise specified.") If the package
Figure 14. When a radiography source is re- locked in the fully shielded posi- weighs more than 110 pounds,
than 200 mR/hr on all sides of the ceived, a survey of surface radiation levels tion. You do this by making a radia- write its weight on the package
camera. A record of the survey and radiation levels at 3 feet must be made. tion survey of the shipping
must be made [10 CFR § 20.401(b)]. Here the radiographer makes sure his meter [49 CFR § 172.31 0(a)].
reads less than 200 mR/hr on all surfaces. container and by checking to see
Usually your company will have a The front of the camera where the source that the source is locked in the
standard form for recording the re- If a shipping container is packaged
comes out is most important. If the source shielded position. This will prevent
ceipt of a source. The form will is not properly shielded, high radiation lev- inside a crate or other packaging,
cargo handlers and others from mark the outside package, "Inside
usually ask for the source serial els would be found at the front of the
being exposed to an intense beam-
number, model number, isotope camera. container in accordance with
of radiation from the source. _ ,"(in the blank put the DOT
type, and activity. It will also ask for Specification Number or Type B
*Note: We assume the radiography source Now that you have surveyed and Certificate Number). Also indicate
requires Type B packaging and that it will be
the serial number and model num- checked the lock to make sure the the appropriate type of package
shipped by a common carrier in a vehicle ber of the shipping container. source is locked in the fully ("Type B" or "Type A") [49 CFR
that will carry many different packages from shielded position, you must attach
different shippers (DOT calls this a non- § 172.310 and 49 CFR § 173.393(a)].
106 exclusive-use vehicle).
a security seal with an identification
Transporting Sources 9
Fill out the shipping papers. This For air shipment, radiography
will include: sources can only be shipped on
cargo aircraft. Years ago radiogra-
" "Radioactive material, special phy sources were permitted on
form, N.O.S." passenger aircraft. The change hap-
pened because, in 1974, a radiogra-
* Type of radioactive material phy camera was shipped in a
("iridium-192" or "cobalt-60") passenger aircraft with the source
not fully shielded. 2 The receivers
* "Special form" discovered and reported the condi-
tion. The passengers and crew on
Number
' of curies the aircraft were exposed to radia-
tion from the source. Because of
* Type of warning label (such as this accident, Congress banned the
"Radioactive Yellow I1") shipment of radiography sources
from passenger aircraft.
* Transport index
Air shipments must be labeled
* NRC identification number or "Cargo Aircraft Only" [49 CFR
DOT specification number. § 172.402(b)] and the shipping pa-
pers must state, "This shipment is
You must also certify that the ship- within the limitations prescribed for
ment is properly classified (such as cargo-only aircraft."
Radioactive Yellow II), described,
packaged, marked, and labeled
[49 CFR § 172.204(a)].
Figure 15. Radiography source changer
ready for shipment.
107
9' Transporting Sources
Questions 1. Radiography sources are: (a) Special form radioactive (c) Safe radioactive material
material
(b) Normal form radioactive
material
2. The "transport index" refers to: (a) The surface dose rate of a (c) The dose rate at the surface
package containing radioactive of a truck carrying packages
material. containing radioactive material.
(b) The highest dose rate at (d) The dose rate in the driver's
3 feet from the surface of a compartment of a truck carrying
package containing radioactive packages containing radioactive
material. material.
3. The type of distinctive warning (a) The highest dose rate at the (c) The transport index.
llabel that must be-applied to the -surface and -at-3 feet from-the (d)-The type of vehicle in which-
surface of a package containing surface of the package. the package will be shipped.
radioactive material is deter- (b) The weight of the material.
mined by:
5. A package contains radioactive (a) A Radioactive Yellow III label. (c) A Radioactive White I label.
material. The highest dose rate (b) A Radioactive Yellow II label. (d) No label is required; the
at the surface is 25 mR/hr and dose rate is too low.
the highest dose rate at 3 feet
from the surface is 2.5 mR/hr.
The proper radioactive warning
label to apply on two opposite
sides of the package would be:
,Emergency Procedures
Following Procedures 10
Your employer provides you with a Figure 1. Operating procedures give you
step-by-step instructions for your work.
set of specific operating and emer- Major steps in transferring an old source
gency procedures for performing from a camera to a source changer are illus-
radiography for your company. trated here.
These procedures will vary from
company to company to allow for
the differences in the work per-
formed and the needs of the com-
pany. It is very important to follow
these procedures to avoid exces-
sive exposure to radiation. Most
overexposure. accidents can be re-
lated to failure of the radiographer
to follow procedures.
Operating Procedures
A great deal of your job is routine, 1) The radiographer connects a guide tube 3) After the source has been transferred into
hard work. You may be tempted to the source changer. the changer, the radiographer surveys both
the camera and the changer to make sure
take shortcuts. Don't. Your com- the source is shielded Within the changer.
pany's operating procedures are
the result of many years of experi-
ence in the radiography field. Every
step is there for a reason. Radiation
cannot be seen, heard, or felt. If
you are not following your com-
pany's procedures, you may not
know that something is wrong until
it's too late. 5) He inserts a plunger against the pigtail to
lock the source in place.
Your company's procedures are the
commitment your company makes
to safety. Sometimes these proce-
dures may seem to be time con-
suming, but your company has
carefully considered what steps are
needed to work safely. The steps in
the procedures have reasons be-
hind them based on years of expe-
rienceworking with radiography
2) The equipment is ready. The radiographer
sources. can crank the source out of the camera into
the source changer.
111
10 Following Procedures
Emergency Procedures This instruction manual does not The Immediate Response Fourth, call for help, but don't leave
train you in your employer's spe- an exposed source unattended. If
In an emergency situation, some- cific emergency procedures. Your What should you do if a source is there is no one there to help, you
thing has gone wrong in some un- company must provide that train- exposed?. Once you have recog- should remain in the area if possi-
predictable manner. You must act ing separately. However, we want nized that an emergency exists, ble, but not too close to the source.
to eliminate any danger that exists. to discuss some general aspects of there is usually plenty of time to Sooner or later someone will come
You will have to make judgments responding to emergencies. make a correct judgment. along. Don't try to do anything
(and often in a short span of time). yourself that you are not trainedto
To help you make sound judgments Recognizing the Emergency First, move away 'from the exposed do.
in these unforeseen situations, your source and keep other people away.
employer provides you with gen- An emergency situation must be Just a few yards reduces radiation
eral rules on what to do. These are recognized before any suitable re- levels considerably. For a 100-curie
your emergency procedures. Your sponse can be made. Sometimes iridium-192 source, moving just 10
recognizing a problem is easy. If or 15 feet away reduces the radia-
employer is most familiar with the you see the source guide tube
types of jobs you do and the equip- tion level to roughly 4 rem/hour.
ment you work withYour employer crushed by-a piece of heavy equip-- The worst thing you can do is to-- -
ment and you cannot retract the touch the source with your hand.
also knows what training you've
had and what your capabilities are. source, you know you have a Don't try to put the source back
problem. into the camera by hand or recon-
However, even these written emer- nect it to the drive cable by hand.
Sometimes emergencies may not Touching a 100-curie iridium-192
gency procedures are not likely to be immediately recognized. A
be able to tell you exactly how to source causes radiation burns in
source can disconnect in the guide seconds.
handle a particular emergency. tube without your knowledge. Ill-
Emergency situations are just too ness or fatigue may impair your
unpredictable. For example, the Second, relax, remain calm, don't
Norfolk Naval Shipyard, as part of ability to work properly without panic, and think. When you are a
your being aware of what is hap- few yards away from the source,
their training program, periodically
pening. Serious distractions can you have time to think about what
held emergency drills. Their practi- confuse you and lead you to make
cal experience during these drills to do. Don't panic if the source can-
errors. not be immediately shielded.
was that many situations contained
some peculiarity that made it im- The first step is to recognize that a
possible or hazardous to follow Third, establish a restricted area,
dangerous situation exists. Recog- and make sure no one approaches
their emergency procedures.1 nize the conditions that mean a
Sound judgment was usually nec- "warning sign." These will provide the source. Rope off the area, if
essary to improvise a procedure possible, if this has not already
a signal to alert you to what could been done. Use your survey meter
that would work safely in a particu- be a dangerous situation. By learn-
lar situation. It is to the credit of ra- to make sure the restricted area has
ing what situations have caused ac- been properly roped off. Figure 2. The worst thing you can do is hold
diographers that experienced cidents in the past, you may be a source like this. The dose rate on the sur-
radiographers have usually han- able to avoid an accident if you are face of the source capsule can cause radia-
dled emergencies safely tion burns in seconds. Of course, a dummy
2 once they in the same situation yourself some source was used for this picture.
have been recognized. day. In the next chapter, we will dis-
cuss some accidents that started
without the radiographer knowing
that anything was going wrong.
Following Procedures 10
113
10 Following Procedures
Group Discussion not? Discuss how you would 7. You are working by yourself. In 8. A crane has just rolled over the
handle this situation. the middle of a shot, you get crank of your camera while the
The situations below are meant to dizzy and collapse. A few min- source is out. The crank assem-
be discussed in a class of people 4. You have just finished an expo- utes later you feel somewhat bet- bly looks like the one in Figure 4.
training to be radiographers. In sure and are trying to retract the ter. Should you continue your What do you do?
most instances, the students will source when you realize that it is work?
have to invent additional informa- stuck. Discuss what you would
L
tion to fully describe the situations. do.
There are many different ways to
handle these situations safely. 5. You are working in a permanent
There is more than one correct way. radiography cell equipped with a
radiation alarm. The alarm goes
1. You are at your lunch break when off with no source being ex-
another radiographer, who is a posed, and you are able to deter-
friend of yours, approaches you mine that the alarm is malfunc-
and asks you if-he could-use your tioning- There is no one on site
film badge. He says he has to available at this time to repair the
make some exposures and does alarm so you are left with two
not have his with him. Discuss options: (a) turn the power to the
what you would do. alarm off and continue your work
using your survey meter, or (b)
2. You are a radiographer's assist- don't take any more shots until
ant in training at a field site un- the alarm has been repaired.
der the supervision of an What would you do?
experienced radiographer. After a
few exposures, you notice that 6. It is early afternoon. You have
your dosimeter reads about half just charged your pocket dosime-
scale (approximately 100 mR), ter and you are setting up for a
and you bring that to the atten- shot. You take a survey prior to
tion of the radiographer. He the exposure of the source and
assures you that there is no your survey meter shows every- Figure 4. A crank assembly run over by a
crane.
problem and tells you to get back thing is fine. But when you check
to work. Discuss what you your dosimeter, it reads off scale.
should do. Would you assume your dosime-
ter is malfunctioning and pro-
3. You are setting up an exposure at ceed with the shot? Or would
a site when you find out that you assume your survey meter is
your survey meter is not work- inoperable and try to get another
ing. This is a common radiogra- one before completing the shot?
phy shot that you have What would you do?
performed many times in your
career as a radiographer. Should
you go ahead with the shot,-
114 based on previous experience, or
11
Why Do Radiography
Accidents Happen?
How Radiography Accidents Happen
But Why?
Radiography Accidents 11
Throughout this radiography man- This is not to say that the record of The most common event was hav-
ual we have talked about radiation gamma radiography is poor. Ra- ing the source near the entrance to
overexposures and how to avoid diography sources are potentially the S-tube of the camera (Figure 1).
them. Why are we so concerned very dangerous. They are used tens This happened in about one-
about overexposure accidents? of millions of times a year by thou- quarter of the accidents. Why this
sands of people. In comparison to happened is not clear. However, we
The reason is that industrial radiog- the opportunities for accidents, the can list several possibilities:
raphers suffer a major portion of accidents are very rare. In Chapter
the overexposures among workers 4, we concluded that gamma ra- " The source caught or hung up on
employed by NRC licensees. For diography is safer than most types the joint between the guide tube
example, in the 10-year period from of industrial work. Still, severe and the camera.
1971 to 1980 about 600 overexpo- overexposure accidents sometimes
sures were reported by all NRC li- do happen. " The source was fully cranked in
censees (see Appendix F, Table 1). but the crank handle jumped back
Of these, about one-quarter were half a turn after the ballstop hit its
received by radiographers even How Radiography stop.
though they make up only a few Accidents Happen
percent of the people working with " Tension in the control cables in Figure 1. A dummy camera with transpar-
radiation at NRC-licensed activities. Radiography accidents usually hap- some way caused the source to ent sides and guide tube is used here to
pen because of the following fail- be pushed out. show the position of an incompletely re-
The figures for serious overexpo- ures. First, the radiographer does tracted source. The arrow shows the loca-
not return the source to the fully tion of a source near the entrance to the S-
sures are even more striking. We " A sharp bend in the guide tube tube. While disconnecting the guide tube,
consider a serious overexposure to shielded position, which leaves the near the camera caused the you can experience a particularly severe
be a dose greater than 25 rems source exposed. Second, the ra- source to get stuck. overexposure to your hands because they
given to the entire body or over 375 diographer omits the radiation sur- will be so close to the source.
reins to a portion of the body such vey or does not survey adequately. The second most common event
as the hands. These doses are just Third, in some cases, the radiogra- was forgetting to retract the source. kinked when bent. The kinks have
below the dose levels where physi- pher does not use the locking ring From what is known about the fre- caused sources to jam.
cal symptoms would be evident or plunger to secure the source in quency that humans make an error
shortly after the overexposure. Dur- its shielded position. like omitting one step in a process, In 3 of the 48 accidents, a source
ing the 10 years 1971 to 1980, there the performance of radiographers disconnected from the control ca-
were 21 overexposures reported A Source Is Left Exposed in remembering to retract the ble. This can happen if the source is
that exceeded these doses. Of source is quite good. However, be- not connected properly in the be-
these 21, 15 were received by ra- Why are sources left exposed when cause of the serious consequences, ginning. It can also happen if the
diographers. This means radiogra- they should not be? To answer this this type of accident is still of cable breaks or the connector is
phers suffered over 70% of the question we looked at the 48 most concern. worn.
most serious overexposures re- serious radiography accidents re-
ported by NRC licensees. A few ported to the NRC from 1971 to The third most common event is
of these serious overexposures 1980. The accidents are listed in when the source jams somewhere
caused permanent harm to the peo- Appendix F, Table 2. in the guide tube. This can happen
ple exposed. if some heavy object crushes the
guide tube or if the guide tube is
bent too sharply. Rigid guide tubes
(used for special purposes) have 117
In three cases at permanent radi- veys are not made or are not made Similarly, a survey meter left on the Your safety may depend on how
ographic installations, two sets of correctly. ground next to the camera may not well you handle an unexpected
controls for two sources were pres- detect a source at the entrance of situation.
ent. Instead of cranking in the An overexposure can still happen if the S-tube. A radiographer who
source they were working with, the you conduct a survey but don't sur- makes a survey that does not in- Not Locking the Camera
radiographers cranked out the vey properly. This is easy to do if clude surveying the front of the
other source. Now two sources the source is located at the en- camera may not discover a source Many cameras in use today cannot
were exposed. The radiographers trance to the S-tube in the camera. at the entrance of the S-tube. be locked unless the source is in
conducted surveys but could not When the camera is approached the fully shielded position (Figures
understand why cranking their from the back, radiation levels will Broken survey meters contributed 3 and 4). A quick motion to push in
sources in and out did not lower be near normal because the shield- to two of the overexposures. At a plunger or rotate a locking ring
the radiation level. They assumed ing in the camera will shield the ra- times, a zero reading has led the will tell you for sure whether the
the survey meter was broken and diation (Figure 2). radiographer to think mistakenly source is in its fully shielded posi-
continued their work. Overexpo- that the source was in its shield. tion. This is a third level of protec-
sures resulted. Your survey meter should not read tion. First, you crank in the source,
zero-near-the-side-of a-camera:-You- -- noticing whether the-feel-ofthe-
There have been a few other should know what to do if you get cranking is normal. Second, you
causes for the source being out. Ra- an unusual reading like this on your use your survey meter to ensure
diographers have confused "in" survey meter. that the source is properly shielded.
and "out" while fatigued or dis- Third, you lock the source in its
tracted. Also, in a few cases, There have been overexposures shielded position. Difficulty in using
sources have been intentionally ex- where the radiographers thought the locking mechanism may mean
posed by disgruntled workers. the survey meter was malfunction- that the source is exposed.
ing because it was reading too
The Omitted Survey high, but the real reason the meter In addition, locking the source in
was reading high was because the position guarantees that the source
An exposed source will be discov- source was exposed. As many cannot slip out of the shielded posi-
ered quickly if the required radia- overexposures have occurred when tion later. In several instances, ra-
tion survey is done and done the radiographer did not believe a diographers have moved cameras
properly. If the exposed source is high reading on the survey meter that were not locked. The source
detected, an overexposure is un- as when a meter was broken and moved out of its shield and ex-
likely. But in about half of the seri- Figure 2. When the source is at the entrance did not respond to radiation. posed them.
ous overexposures reported to the to the S-tube, a survey meter at the rear or
NRC between 1971-1980, no radia- side of the camera may have a nearly nor- In normal situations, most radiog-
tion survey was attempted (see Ap- mal reading. raphers know what to do. Difficulty
pendix F, Table 2). It is difficult to arises, however, when unusual or
know exactly how often radiogra- unexpected things happen. In
phers omit surveys. We estimate Chapter 6 we discussed how you
that radiographers survey 80% to can check a survey meter in the
90% of the time after the source is field if it starts to behave abnor-
retracted.' Radiography overexpo- mally. Although abnormal survey
sures usually happen during the meter readings don't happen very
10% to 20% of the time that sur- ,often, you should prepare yourself
to deal with an unusual situation.
Radiography Accidents 11
But Why?
: So far we have told you what hap-
pens. But we have not told you
why. Why does a radiographer for-
get to retract a source? Why
• doesn't a radiographer survey?
Why doesn't a radiographer lock in
the source?
In many accidents, it is not possible
< to answer these questions. The re-
ports written about radiography ac-
cidents often do not deal.with why
the radiographer did what he did
because the radiographer's motiva-
tions cannot be positively known.
Often the radiographer really does
not know or will not tell. But by
looking at accidents that have hap-
pened and by drawing on knowl-
edge about how accidents happen,
we can put together a picture of
why radiography accidents happen.
First, let's discuss equipment fail-
ure. Considering the 48 accidents
mentioned earlier, there did not
seem to be any cases where a cam-
era failed that was properly oper-
ated and maintained. In the large
majority of cases, there was no
equipment failure at all. In no case
did equipment failure cause an
overexposure itself without some
errors on the part of the radiog-
rapher. Even in those cases where
there was some equipment failure,
Figure 3. You cannot rotate the locking ring Figure 4. You cannot piush in the plunger in the failure could be traced to some
on this camera to lock it if the source is not this camera if the sour ce is not in the fully error on the part of the radiogra-
in the fully shielded position. shielded position.
pher in operating the equipment, or
the equipment was not properly
maintained or repaired when dam-
aged. In short, equipment failures 119
11 Radiography Accidents
do not play a leading role in radiog- The radiographer involved had 32 tice that the source was already dis- The radiographer says he con-
raphy overexposures. years of experience, had an excel- connected when he thought he was ducted a survey, but if he did, he
lent record, and was the radiation disconnecting it from the drive did not pay attention to what the
Second, let's discuss training. Poor safety officer for his company.. How cable. survey meter was telling him.
training is often blamed for radiog- did he end up dropping a source
raphy accidents. If an accident hap- and leaving it behind? He does not
pens when a radiographer does not say and we do not know. But let's
survey, this is sometimes seen as a look at some of the things that
training failure. However, sending were involved. A doctor who exam-
the radiographer for refresher train- ined the radiographer after the acci-
ing on the importance of making dent found he had severe anemia.
surveys may not be the answer. If The doctor thought the condition to
the radiographer already knew he be so severe that the man could not
was supposed to survey, this train- perform reliably. The radiographer
ing would avoid dealing with the disagreed. He said he felt fine.
real problems that may exist.--
What else happened? The radiogra-
In the 48 accidents studied, it was pher was working in a shop during
rare for the radiographer to be lunch hour, but the work was taking
completely untrained. In some longer than he had expected. The
cases, however, the radiographer shop workers had finished lunch
did not react properly to unusual and were banging on the door and
situations. Overall, we can say that shouting to be let in. The radiogra-
better training, especially on how pher attempted to disconnect the
to deal with unusual situations, control cable from the source and
would have reduced the number of disconnect the guide tube at the
overexposure accidents. However, same time. In order to disconnect
usually there were other factors in- the source pigtail, he had to crank
volved as well. out the drive cable to enable the
drive cable connector to clear the
A Case History sheath.
Where then do we look to under- Working quickly, he probably Figure 5. The hook-and-eye connector in the
stand what has been happening? cranked the source assembly out of California case.
Let"s s art with the case We dis- the camera after the guide tube had
cussed in Chapter 4, when a factory been removed. The source assem-
work'er in Ca lifornia got a radiation bly was attached with a hook-and-
burn from 'a source left behind by a eye connector (Figure 5). Once out
radiographer. of the camera, the assembly was
free to swing down and drop off.
Since he was working quickly and
using only one hand to disconnect
the source, he probably did not no-
120
Radiography Accidents 11
Hours later the radiographer re- In Virginia, an experienced radiog- The Human Factor Too little stress can also lead to ac-
turned to the shop after he had rapher with an excellent safety rec- cidents. If people are either not
been called and told he had left ord came in to work overtime on Overall, what can we conclude? stimulated or overly stimulated,
something behind. The radiogra- Sunday morning. The radiographer Overexposures happen when the their performance is likely to suffer
pher told the shop workers that the propped open the door to the expo- source is left out and a radiation and more accidents will result. If
source they had found was not ra- sure room because the room was survey is not made or is not made your job is going at an unusually
dioactive and not dangerous. too hot to work in. But in order to correctly. Occasionally equipment slow pace, if you are unusually
do this, he had to disconnect the does not operate as expected. Oc- sleepy, or if there is little incentive
Why did the radiographer make the alarm system. He did his work with- casionally the people involved are for you to produce, Y6ur alertness
mistakes that he did? Perhaps a out a film badge or pocket dosime- not sufficiently trained, especially will be low and your performance
combination of poor health, of ter and without making surveys. He for dealing with an unusual situa- may be ihmpaired.
which he was not even aware, and forgot to retract the source after an tion. But usually their training is
being hurried by the workers want- exposure and got overexposed. A reasonably adequate. These are the personal factors so
ing to be let in caused the radiogra- company manager concluded that often involved when an a6cident
pher to rush, become distracted, the man was probably distracted These accidents seem to happen happens.
and not pay attention to what he because he was thinking about his when the radiographer is under
was doing. wife, who was at that time in the stress or cannot concentrate on his If you are under stress or cannot
hospital giving birth to a baby in a work. The reason may be that he is concentrate on your work, try to
difficult delivery. tired, sick, worried about some- change the situation. Take a break
Some Other Examples thing, in a great hurry, or thinking or ask your supervisor and co-
In Chapter 4, we also showed radia- In another case, the work was about other things. Many studies workers for help. Recognize any un-
tion burns on the hands of a ra- being performed just after mid- have shown that accidents are usual circumstances that might
diographer. That radiographer night. The work load that week had more probable after violent quar- cause you to have an accident.
confused "in" with "out," so that been heavy and things were "hec- rels or after family trouble or stress. Then, take special care to follow
the source was out whenever he tic" at times. Just prior to comple- correct procedures.
moved the guide tube. This rever- tion of the shot the radiographer Be alert to the known warning
sal error is a common type of error. was paged on the'intercom, but he signs of too much stress that can Remember also that you will be-
Also the radiographer did not make wanted to complete the shot before lead to mistakes - and accidents: lieve what you want to believe. At
a survey. But why did he make responding. The radiographer was irritability, hyperexcitation, depres- the times when you least want the
these mistakes? In this case, the ra- paged again, and this time recog- sion, excessive drinking, "prima source to be out, you will ignore
diographer was working at night, nized that the call was from his su- donna" behavior, pounding of the the signs that it is out. We see this
he said he was tired, and he said he pervisor. He thought there was a heart, impulsiveness, the urge to in case after case. A worker hears
was in a hurry. problem with his earlier shots and cry or run and hide, inability to con- an alarm and assumes that the
was concerned about getting to a centrate, feeling of unreality, fa- alarm is malfunctioning rather than
A radiographer in Massachusetts phone to see what the problem tigue, fear of nothing in particular, that the source is exposed. A high
got sick during work. He stopped was. In his hurry he did not survey trembling or nervous tics, high- meter reading is taken to mean that
work, loaded the camera into his carefully and he twisted the camera pitched nervous laughter, insomnia, the meter is malfunctioning.
truck without making a survey, and locking ring, but not sufficiently. inability to sit still, nightmares, and Audible-alarm dosimeters are not
drove home. The next day he found The assistant radiographer was ex- being accident-prone. heard. Failure to be able to turn a
out that he had left the source posed after the radiographer went locking ring means the locking ring
exposed. to answer the page. is broken. If any of these events oc-
curs, expect the worst. Until you
have the situation under control,
121
11 Radiography Accidents
122
Appendices
Appendix A
Regulatory Agencies in Agreement States
Appendix B
NRC Regional Offices
Appendix C
How to Obtain NRC Regulations and Guides
Appendix D
NRC Forms
Appendix E
Glossary
Appendix F
Overexposure Accidents (1971-1980)
Appendix G
References and Notes
Appendix H
Photo Credits and Acknowledgments
Agreement States A
125
A Agreement States
*Oklahoma 405-271-7484 South Carolina 803-896-4244 Texas 512-239-6073 Updated lists of state addresses'and
Mike Broderick, Virgil R. Autry, Director Minor Brooks Hibbs, RE., Director telephone numbers are available
Environmental Program Division of Radioactive Waste Industrial and Hazardous Waste upon request from:
Administrator Management Division
Radiation Management Section Bureau of Solid and Hazardous Texas Natural Resource Richard L. Bangart,
Department of Environmental Waste Conservation Commission Director
Quality Department of Health and PO. Box 13087 Office of State Programs
1000 NE 10th Street Environment Control Austin, TX 78711-3087 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Oklahoma City, OK 73117-1212 2600 Bull Street FX 512-239-6383 Commission
FX 405-271-8425 Columbia, SC 29201 OWFN 3D23
FX 803-896-4242 512-834-6688 Washington, DC 20555-0001
Oregon 503-731-4014 Richard A. Ratliff, RE., Chief 301-415-3340
Ray D. Paris, Manager 803-737-7400 Bureau of Radiation Control FX 301-415-3502
Radiation Protection Services Max K. Batavia, RE., Chief Texas Department of Health
State Health Division Bureau of Radiological Health 1100 West 49th Street
Department of Human Resources Department of Health and Austin, TX 78756-3189
PO. Box 14450 Environmental Control FX 512-834-6708
Portland, OR 97214-0450 2600 Bull Street
FX 503-731-4081 Columbia, SC 29201 Utah 801-536-4250
FX 803-737-7412 William J. Sinclair, Director
*Pennsylvania 717-787-2480 Division of Radiation Control
William R Dornsife, Director Tennessee 615-532-0360 Department of Environmental
Bureau of Radiation Protection Michael H. Mobley, Director Quality
Department of Environmental Division of Radiological Health 168 North 1950 West
Resources Department of Environment and PO. Box 144850
PO. Box 8469 Conservation Salt Lake City, UT 84114-4850
Harrisburg, PA 17105-8469 L&C Annex, 3rd Floor FX 801-533-4097
FX 717-783-8965 401 Church Street
Nashville, TN 37243-1532 Washington 360-586-8949
Rhode Island 401-277-2438 FX 615-532-7938 Terry R. Strong, Director
Marie Stoeckel, Chief Division of Radiation Protection
Division of Occupational and Department of Health
Radiologic Health Airdustrial Center Building #5
Department of Health PO. Box 47827
206 Cannon Building Olympia, WA 98504-7827
3 Capital Hill FX 360-753-1496
Providence, RI 02908-5097
FX 401-277-6953
How to Obtain NRC Regulations Regulatory Guides and Other NRC Documents
Regulations and Guides Technical Reports
To purchase a complete copy of The only regulatory guide dealing Copies of other NRC documents
NRC regulations, which are exclusively with industrial radiology may be obtained from:
contained in Title 10 of the is Regulatory Guide 10.6, "Guide for
Federal Regulations (10 CFR), the Preparation of Applications for Public Document Room
Chapter 1 (printed annually), write Use of Sealed Sources and Devices U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
to: for Performing Industrial Commission
Radiography." 2120 L. St., N.W.,
Superintendent of Documents Washington, D.C. 20037
Government Printing Office To inquire about pricing and Telephone: (202) 634-3273
RO. Box 371954 availability of active guides and
Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954 technical reports, write to: Copying charges are 9 cents per
Telephone: (202) 512-1800 page.
U.S. Government Printing Office
Specify that you want 10 CFR Parts PO. Box 37082
0-199. The cost of Parts 0-50 Washington, D.C. 20013-7082
($30.00), Parts 51-199 ($23.00). Telephone: (202) 512-1800
Specify that you want the U.S. Draft guides are free upon written
Nuclear Regulatory Commission request. Requests for single copies
Rules and Regulations, Title 10, of draft guides should be sent to:
Chapter 1, Code of Federal
Regulations - Energy. The cost of Distribution and Mail Services
this subscription is $482.00 Section
(domestic) per year. You may refer U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
to stock number 952-003-00000-3 Commission
(ID NRARR) when placing your Washington, D.C. 20555-0001
order. Payment may be made by
check, GPO charge account Requests for placement on an
number, Visa or Mastercard. automatic distribution list to receive
draft guides should be sent to the
same address.
Updated December 1995 129
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'32
Glossary E
Gamma Radiography Terms This glossary contains terms as alpha particle A small electrically charged particle
and Common Abbreviations they are used in gamma radiogra- (alpha ray, alpha radiation) of ionizing radiation thrown off by
phy. Terms shown in bold face type some radioactive materials. Alpha
in the text are defined in this glos- particles have a short range and
sary. However, some terms in this cannot penetrate the outer dead
glossary have not been used in the layer of human skin. But, if radio-
text. They are included for your in- active materials emitting alpha
formation because you may hear particles are inhaled or swallowed,
them during your work. they can be very dangerous.
ASNT American Society for
Nondestructive Testing: a
professional organization
concerned with nondestructive
testing, including industrial
radiography.
absorbed dose A highly technical term meaning atom A unit of matter. An atom consists
the radiation dose or amount of of a central charged nucleus (made
radiation that has been absorbed up of neutrons and protons) and
by some substance. Absorbed dose electrons that surround the
is measured in units of rads. nucleus.
activity A measure of the strength of a The reduction in the intensity of
radioactive source. Activity is attenuation
radiation as it passes through any
measured in units of curies. material, for example, through lead
acute radiation exposure Exposure to a large dose of shielding.
radiation in a short period of time. audible-alarm dosimeters Small electronic instruments that a
In radiography, this usually refers person can wear. These dosimeters
to the dose a person receives from will sound an alarm when a high
coming very near a source. radiation dose rate is encountered
acute radiation syndrome The medical term for radiation or when a certain radiation dose
sickness. has been exceeded. Sometimes
called "alarming pocket
Agreement State A state that has signed an dosimeters" or "electronic pocket
agreement with the Nuclear dosimeters."
Regulatory Commission allowing
the state to regulate certain autoradiographs Radiographs of an object made by
activities using radioactive using the radiation that comes from
materials, for example, gamma the object itself without using any
radiography using iridium-192 or other radiation source.
cobalt-60 sources.
133
E Glossary
background radiation (natural) Radiation that is emitted from the byproduct material Radioactive material, such as
naturally occurring radioactive cobalt-60 or iridium-192, obtained
materials in the earth and from as a byproduct of running nuclear
cosmic rays that bombard the earth reactors or making nuclear fuel.
from outer space.
calibration Adjustment of a radiation survey
ballstop A ball attached to the pigtail of a meter to make it read a radiation
radiography source that prevents dose accurately. A radiation source
the source from being pulled out must be used for proper cali-
the back of the camera. bration.
battery check A check to see that the batteries of camera, beam-type A radiography camera where the
a radiation survey meter are strong radioactive source never leaves the
enough. Generally, a "battery-check camera. The source is exposed by
button" is pushed and a needle moving it in front of an opening or
moves to show if the batteries are by moving a piece of shielding
strong enough. away from the front of the source.
Becquerel, Henri The French scientist who first camera, crank-out A radiography camera where the
discovered a naturally occurring source is cranked or pushed out of
radioactive material, uranium, in the shield to make the radiography
1896. exposure.
BEIR Committee Biological Effects of Ionizing camera, fixed A radiography camera that is not
Radiation Committee of the movable.
National Academy of Sciences. This
committee is composed of a group camera, mobile A radiography camera that can be
of eminent scientists from through- moved by pushing it on wheels.
out the U.S. who report to the
Academy on the health effects of camera, pipeline A beam-type radiography camera
radiation. especially made for radiographs of
pipelines. Often called a "pipeliner."
beta particle An electrically charged particle of
(beta ray, beta radiation) radiation emitted by many camera, portable A radiography camera that can be
radioactive materials. A beta carried by hand.
particle is a fast-moving electron,
sometimes moving close to the camera, radiography A container with a shield inside to
speed of light. (or gamma radiography camera) hold a gamma radiography source.
A means is provided to move the
bill of lading A document accompanying a source outside the shield or
shipment of goods that lists the remove part of the shield to make
contents of the shipment. radiographs. It is called a camera
because it is used to take pictures
(radiographs). Also called a
radiography exposure device or
radioqraDhic exoosure device.
Glossary E
cancer A disease in which rapidly chromosome All the genetic material or genes
multiplying cells grow in the body, contained in a living cell.
interfering with its natural Chromosomes control the
functions. Ionizing radiation may reproduction of cells and the
increase the probability that a characteristics of the cells produced
person will get cancer. from the original cell. See gene.
capsule, radiography source The small sealed metal capsule cobalt-60 A radioactive material used in
containing the radioactive materials radiography, noted for very
that emit the gamma rays used in penetrating gamma rays. An
gamma radiography. isotope of the element cobalt. It
emits gamma rays of energy
cassette The covering that radiography film 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. It has a
is placed in to prevent light from half-life of 5.3 years. Symbols:
striking the film. Co-60, 6°Co, Co 6 °.
cataract A medical term for the loss of Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) The volume of books containing
transparency of the lens of the eye. the regulations issued by federal
agencies.
cell, radiography A shielded room in which
radiography exposures are made. collimator A small radiation shield of lead or
Called a "permanent radiographic other heavy metal used in
installation" in NRC regulations. radiography. A collimator is placed
Also called an exposure cell. on the end of the guide tube and
has a small opening through which
cesium-137 A radioactive material sometimes a narrow cone of radiation escapes
used in radiography. An isotope of when the source is cranked into
the element cesium. It emits position. Use of a c ollimator can
gamma rays with an energy of greatly reduce the size of the area
0.662 MeV and has a half-life of 30 to which access must be restricted.
years. Symbols: Cs-137, 137Cs, Cs 137.
CFR See Code of Federal Regulations. contamination, radioactive The presence of radioactive
material spread on surfaces where
chirper An electronic dosimeter that it is not supposed to be.
"chirps" or "beeps" periodically in
control cable Means the same as drive cable.
the presence of radiation. It is a
type of audible-alarm dosimeter. It cosmic radiation Ionizing radiation that comes from
chirps faster when the dose rate outer space. See background
increases. radiation, natural.
coupon, test A test sample of a welder's work.
The coupon will be radiographed to
determine whether the welder is
qualified for the welding job.
135
E Glossary
crank or crank handle The handle used to crank the delayed effects Those effects caused by radiation
source in or out in a crank-out that do not become evident until
camera. years after exposure to radiation.
The possible delayed effects of
crank-out camera or device See camera, crank-out. radiation are cancer in the exposed
persons and genetic defects in their
curie A basic unit to describe the offspring.
intensity (strength) of radioactivity
in a material. A curie is a measure densitometer An instrument used to read how
of the rate at which a radioactive dark a piece of film is.
material throws off particles or
disintegrates. One curie is equal to depleted uranium Uranium having a smaller
37 billion disintegrations per percentage of uranium-235 than
second. that found in uranium as it occurs
naturally. Depleted uranium is an
Curie, Marie and Pierre The French scientists who excellent shielding material.
discovered radium in 1898 and
made possible the start of gamma detector, gas-filled A radiation detector filled with gas.
radiography. It detects ions formed by radiation.
decay constant A numerical constant that detector, radiation The part of a radiation survey
expresses the rate at which meter that is sensitive to radiation.
radioactive materials decay.
disintegration The breaking up of an unstable
decay curve A graph showing the decreasing atom. Radiation is emitted in the
radioactivity of a radioactive source process. See decay, radioactive,
as time passes. The term can also and curie.
refer to the line or curve on the
graph that indicates the activity. DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid. The long
spiral molecules found in all living
decay, exponential A mathematical expression to cells that control cell functioning
describe the rate at which a and reproduction. Radiation injury
radioactive material decays. is the result of damage of these
molecules.
decay, logarithmic The same as exponential decay.
dose Dose is the amount of radiation
decay, radioactive The breaking up or disintegration absorbed by an object. Dose can be
of atoms that have excess energy. expressed in units of roentgens,
Radiation is emitted in the process. reins, or rads.
dose equivalent A highly technical term referring to
radiation dose expressed in units of
rems.
Glossary E
dose rate A measure of how fast a radiation element A basic type of matter. Each
dose is being received. It is a dose element has distinct chemical
per unit of time. For example, "The properties. There are 92 different
dose rate is 10 millirems per hour." elements that are found in nature,
for example, hydrogen, oxygen,
dosimeter A device used to determine the lead, uranium, carbon, tungsten,
radiation dose a person has and iron.
received. See dosimeter, pocket;
film badge; and dosimeter, "empty" label A DOT label used when a container
thermoluminescent. normally used for transporting
radioactive material does not
dosimeter, pocket A small air-filled ionization contain any radioactive material.
chamber (about the size and shape
of a cigar) that measures radiation erythema A medical term for a reddening of
dose by responding to ionization in- the skin caused by increased local
the air. circulation of blood as a reaction to
tissue injury. It can be caused by
dosimeter, thermoluminescent A dosimeter worn by a person to very large doses of radiation.
measure radiation dose. It-contains
a radiation-sensitive crystal that exclusive-use vehicle A vehicle that carries no cargo
responds to radiation like the film other than a shipment of
in a film badge. radioactive material.
DOT U.S. Department of Transportation. exponential decay See decay, exponential.
A federal agency that regulates the
transport of radioactive materials. exposure Being exposed to radiation. People
can be exposed to a radiation dose,
dr ive cable A cable used to push a source out or a film can receive an exposure to
of a crank-out camera. Usually radiation. In radiography, "an
operates with a crank. Also called a exposure" or "shot" is the making
control cable. of a radiograph. Exposure is also a
highly technical term meaning the
electromagnetic radiation See radiation, electromagnetic. amount of ionization in air caused
(or waves) by x-rays or gamma rays, which is
measured in units of roentgens.
electron A very light particle that rotates
around the nucleus of an atom and exposure device, radiographic The term used in NRC regulations
carries a negative electric charge. to mean-a radiography camera.
Electricity is the flow of electrons.
fallout, radioactive Radioactive debris from the
electron volt A small unit of energy. The energy explosion of nuclear weapons that
of x-rays and gamma rays is often falls out of the atmosphere onto the
given in units of electron volts. earth.
Abbreviations: eV - electron volts;
KeV - thousand electron volts;
MeV - million electron volts. 137
E Glossary
high radiation area An area where the radiation dose to ion An atom that has gained or lost one
a person could exceed 100 or more electrons or an electron
millirems in 1 hour. There are that is not attached to an atom.
special requirements for controlling Ions have an electrical charge.
access to high radiation areas.
ion pair A positively charged ion and an
ICRP International Commission on electron. The production of ion
Radiological Protection. An pairs is the method by which
international group of scientists ionizing radiation gives up its
representing their countries who energy.
develop recommendations on
radiation dose limits and other ionization The process of adding electrons to,
radiation protection measures. or removing electrons from, atoms
or molecules. This creates ions.
industrial radiogrraphy See radiography, industrial.
ionization chamber An instrument similar to a Geiger
infrared radiiation Radiant heat. Heat that is (or ion chamber) counter that is used to detect and
transmitted from one object to measure radiation.
another by rays instead of by
conduction between objects that ionizing radiation See radiation, ionizing.
touch each other. Infrared radiation A radioactive isotope of the
is not ionizing radiation so the iridium-192
health effects discussed in Chapter element iridium that emits gamma
rays of energies from 0.3 MeV to
4 do not apply to this kind of 0.61 MeV. It has a half-life of 74.2
radiation. days. A radioactive source used in
internal contamin ation Radioactive contamination within a gamma radiography. Symbols:
192
person's body caused by radio- Ir-192, 1r, Ir192 .
active material that has been
inhaled or swallowed. isotope A particular form of an element.
The isotopes of an element have
inverse squar re law A law of nature that states how the the same chemical properties but
intensity of radiation decreases as a different nuclear properties. One
person moves away from a radia- isotope of an element may be
tion source of small dimension. The radioactive while another isotope
.of the element is stable.
law states that the intensity will
decrease proportionately to the
distance squared. This means that keV (kilo electron volts) A unit-of energy equal to 1,000
moving twice as far from a source electron volts.
decreases the intensity of the
source by a factor of two squared
(2 x 2), or four.
139
E Glossary
molecule The smallest unit of a chemical nondestructive testing (NDT) The testing or examination of an
compound. A water molecule object without destroying the
consists of two hydrogen atoms object to ensure that it is free from
combined with one oxygen atom; flaws. Industrial radiography,
hence, the well-known formula, ultrasonic testing, magnetic particle
H2 0. testing, and dye penetrant testing
are examples of nondestructive
mutation In a cell, a change in the genes or testing.
genetic material of the cell. In
humans, people who have genetic non-exclusive-use vehicle A vehicle used by a commercial
defects in all their cells. See genetic carrier to transport packages to and
defect. from many destinations. Packages
may be either radioactive or not.
natural background radiation See background radiation, natural. See exclusive-use vehicle.
natural radioactivity The radioactivity from naturally non-ionizing radiation See radiation, non-ionizing.
occurring elements that are
radioactive, for example, radium, normal form Radioactive materials that do not
carbon-14, uranium, thorium, and have special escape-proof
potassium-40. containers. For example, liquids
and powders in jars are normal
NCRP National Council on Radiation form. But iridium-192 welded inside
Protection and Measurements. A a steel capsule is not normal form
group of eminent scientists in the (it is special form).
U.S. that develops recommenda-
tions on radiation protection. NRC U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission. A federal agency that
negative electrical charge An electrical charge that is attracted regulates the use of certain
to positive electrical charges. radioactive materials, for example,
Electricity-is the movement of the use of iridium-192 and
negative electrical charges cobalt-60 in industrial radiography.
(electrons).
nucleus The inner core of an atom or a
neutron One of the basic particles within living cell. In an atom, the nucleus
atoms (the others are electrons and consists of neutrons and protons
protons). tightly locked together. In a living
cell, the nucleus contains the genes
neutron radiography See radiography, neutron. or genetic material of the cell. The
plural of nucleus is nuclei.
non-Agreement State A state in which the NRC regulates
the use of radioactive materials, for operating procedures A set of instructions supplied by
example, gamma radiography. See the company on how to perform
also Agreement State. radiography exposures in that
company.
141
E Glossary
OSHA U.S. Occupational Safety and pigtail The part of a radiography source
Health Administration. A federal assembly that includes the short
agency that regulates safety in the cable and connector, but not the
work place, excluding radiation source capsule. The term some-
safety when regulated by NRC or times includes the source capsule
an NRC Agreement State. as well.
overexposure, radiation Receiving a radiation dose in pill The sealed source capsule at the
excess of legal regulatory limits. end of a radiography assembly
Most radiation overexposures do containing the radioactive material.
not have any visible medical
symptoms. placard In transporting radioactive
materials, a sign on a vehicle that
overpack An outer container for a indicates the vehicle is carrying
radiography camera used to meet packages containing radioactive
certain rjequirements for materials that requireRadioactive -
transportation, for example, to Yellow III warning labels on the
lower the radiation dose rate at the packages.
surface of the package or to add
protection to an inner package. pocket chamber Another name for a pocket
dosimeter.
panoramic shot or exposure A radiographic shot or exposure in
which film is exposed on a pocket dosimeter See dosimeter, pocket.
360-degree circle around the
source. For example, if the source positive electrical charge An electrical charge that is attracted
is in the center of a pipe, a to electrons or other negative
panoramic shot will radiograph the electrical charges.
entire circumference of the pipe. A radiation detector mounted
probe, radiation
penetrating radiation See radiation, penetrating. outside the case of a survey meter.
penetrameter A piece of metal of specific projector, gamma ray A radiography camera.
thickness with holes or slots in it.
It is placed in front of the. prompt effects The harmful health effects of
radiographic film near the area radiation appearing within a day or
being inspected to show what size a few weeks after exposure to a
defects can be detected. large radiation dose. The prompt
effects are radiation burns and
pig A casting of metal from a mold. In radiation sickness.
radiography, pig generally refers to
lead or uranium that has been cast proton One of the basic particles of an
as a shield. atom (the others are neutrons and
electrons). Its electrical charge is
the same size as that of the
electron, but positive rather than
142 negative.
Glossary E
quality factor The factor by which the energy radiation burns Burns in flesh caused by ionizing
deposited by radiation (absorbed radiation. The burns are not caused
dose) is to be multiplied to obtain a by heat but by chemical break-
quantity that expresses, on a downs in the nuclei of living cells.
common scale for all types of However, radiation burns are
ionizing radiation, the biological medically similar to heat burns in
damage to an exposed person. It is effect and in treatment.
used because some types of
radiation such as alpha particles radiation dose See dose
are more biologically damaging radiation dose limits A limit on the radiation dose that a
than other types such as gamma
rays and x-rays. person may receive, as established
by a government regulatory
quartz fiber dosimeter A pocket dosimeter. The moving agency.
part of a pocket dosimeter is a radiation, electromagnetic A technical term for radiation that
quartz fiber. travels as waves, composed purely
rad A unit of radiation dose. The rad is of electrical and magnetic energy.
used to tell how much energy per For example, gamma rays, x-rays,
unit mass is deposited by radiation microwaves, visible light, radio
(absorbed dose). For gamma rays waves, infrared waves, and
and x-rays, one rad is equal to one ultraviolet waves or rays.
roentgen or one rem.
radiation, ionizing Any radiation that has enough
radiation A very broad term that refers to energy to break apart chemical
vibrating waves or clouds of pure bonds and cause atoms to form
energy or very fast-moving atomic ions (charged particles). For
particles (such as electrons, beta example, gamma rays, x-rays,
particles, alpha particles). Radiation beta particles.
made of pure energy includes radiation, non-ionizing Radiation that does not have
gamma rays, x-rays, visible light, enough energy to create ions
microwaves, infrared waves, (charged particles). For example,
ultraviolet rays, and radio waves.
visible light, radio waves,
See also radiation, ionizing, and
radiation, non-ionizing. microwaves.
radiation, penetrating Radiation that can penetrate matter
radiation area An area where a person could deeply, such as gamma rays or
receive a radiation dose in excess
of 5 mrem in any 1 hour or 100 neutrons. Visible light is radiation,
mrem in any 5 consecutive days. but it is not penetrating. Microwave
radiation can penetrate many
materials but is not usually
included as a type of penetrating
radiation.
143
E Glossary
radiation safety officer (RSO) A person who has been selected to Radioactive Yellow II Label A warning label for packages
be responsible for overseeing containing radioactive material
radiation safety in an organization. when the dose rate at the surface of
Also called by other names such as the package is less than 50 mrem
radiation protection officer, per hour and the dose rate at 3 feet
radiation safety manager. from any surface of the package is
less than 1 mrem per hour.
radiation sickness Sickness, possibly fatal, resulting
from a large exposure to radiation Radioactive Yellow III Label A warning label for packages
(hundreds of rems) in a short time containing radioactive material
(within several days). when the dose rate at the surface of
the package is more than 50 mrem
radiation survey See survey, radiation. per hour or the dose rate at 3 feet
from any surface of the package is
radiation, wavelike Any radiation that travels as waves more than 1 mrem per hour.
-composed purely of electrical and
magnetic energy. For example, radioactivity The emission of radiation from an
x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, unstable atom.
visible light, radio waves. See
radiation, electromagnetic. radiograph A picture of an object made by the
penetrating and ionizing radiation
radioactive An adjective describing anything that passes through the object.
that emits radiation when unstable Details of the inside of the object
atoms break up. will be visible.
radioactive contamination See contamination, radioactive. radiographer A person who uses ionizing
radiation, such as gamma rays or
radioactive decay See decay, radioactive. x-rays, to make radiographs for the
radioactive material A material containing unstable or purpose of detecting flaws in
radioactive atoms that break up or objects without destroying them.
decay and emit radiation in the radiographer's assistant An individual who helps a
process. radiographer and who has received
radioactive waste Waste that contains radioactive some training and is being trained
material. It must be disposed of in a to become a radiographer.
safe manner according to certain radiographic exposure device The term used in NRC regulations
regulations. to mean a radiography camera.
Radioactive White I Label A warning label for packages (See camera, radiography.)
containing radioactive material
where the dose rate at the surface
of the package is less than 0.5
mrem per hour.
Glossary E
radiography The use of penetrating radiation to range switch A switch on a radiation survey
make pictures of the inside of meter that changes the scale of the
objects. If the pictures are of meter, for example, from 0 to 10
industrial goods, it is called mR/hr to 0 to 1000 mR/hr.
industrial radiography. If the
pictures are of medical patients, it rate, dose A measure of the speed at which
is called medical radiography, dose accumulates, that is, 1 mrem
medical radiology, or radiology. per hour. Similar to the speed of an
automobile in miles per hour,
radiography camera See camera, radiography. which is a mileage rate.
radiography cell See cell, radiography. reciprocity The recognition by the NRC or by
an Agreement State of a license
radiography, gamma Industrial radiography using issued by the other. Reciprocity
radioactive materials that emit allows a radiography company
gamma rays. licensed in one jurisdiction (usually
a state) to work in a different
radiography, industrial The use of penetrating radiation, jurisdiction where it is not
such as x-rays, gamma rays, or specifically licensed.
neutrons, to make pictures of the
insides of objects, for example, to rem A unit of radiation dose. A rem is
inspect metal castings or welds for equal to 1000 millirem.
internal flaws. Industrial radiog-
raphy does not include medical restricted area An area to which access is
uses of radiation such as chest controlled for the purpose of
x-rays or dental x-rays. radiation protection. If the dose to a
person in an area from radioactive
radiography, neutron Industrial radiography using material could exceed 2 mrem in
neutrons as the penetrating any 1 hour or 100 mrem in any
radiation. 1 week, access to the area must
be restricted.
radiography source See source, radiography.
roentgen A unit of radiation dose.
radiography, x-ray Industrial radiography using x-ray Abbreviated "R." A roentgen is
machines as the source of equal to 1000 milliroentgens (mR).
radiation.
radioisotope Roentgen, Wilhelm The German scientist who
A form (isotope) of an element that discovered x-rays in 1895.
(or radioactive isotope) is radioactive. For example, cobalt-
60 is a radioisotope. rotor shaft A shaft or axle in a beam-type
camera that is rotated to expose
radium (or radium-226) A naturally occurring radioactive the source.
material used in the first gamma
radiography sources, but seldom RSO Radiation safety officer. See
used any more. radiation safety officer.
145
E Glossary
S-tube A curved tube inside the shield of a shot Exposing a radiography source to
crank-out radiography camera. The make a radiograph. Also called an
radioactive source enters and exits exposure.
the camera through the S-tube. The
S-tube is shaped like the letter "S" source This term can refer either to any
so that a beam of radiation cannot source of radiation or to a
escape through the tube when the radiography source in particular.
source is in its shield.
source assembly The radiography source, including
safety plug A plug put in the S-tube entrance of the source capsule, the pigtail
a crank-out camera to keep dirt out cable, and the connector for
and prevent the source from connecting it to the drive cable.
-moving out if the lock is not source capsule The steel capsule that the
working. radioactive materials are welded
_
- scintillation counter An instrument that detects- -- within to make-the radiog raphy
radiation by counting the small source.
flashes of light (scintillations) the source changer A shielded container with two holes
radiation produces when it hits for sources. The old source is
certain crystals. cranked into the changer and the
sealed source Radioactive material sealed in a new source is cranked out.
capsule designed to prevent source conduit A source guide tube.
leakage or escape of the material.
source port protector cap A safety plug or cap that fits over
semilogarithmic graph paper Graph paper with one logarithmic the S-tube through which the
(or semilog paper) scale and one normal scale. source exits (in a crank-out
shield A structure made of shielding camera).
material to reduce radiation levels. source, radiation Any source of radiation.
shield, shadow A shield that partially shields source, radioactive Any source of radiation where the
radiation from a source. The shield radiation is produced by the decay
creates a shadow where there is of radioactive materials rather than
little radiation. electrically as in x-ray machines.
shielding (or shielding material) Material that can be placed around source, radiography The radiation source containing
a radiation source for the purpose radioactive material used in
of reducing radiation levels. gamma radiography. Radiography
shim A piece of metal placed under a source may refer to the entire
penetrameter to make the metal source assembly, to the source
section under the penetrameter as capsule, or to the gamma radiation
-thick as the section of weld being being emitted for making
radiographs.
146 radiographed.
Glossary E
special form Radioactive material in a form that tenth-value thickness The thickness of a material that will
limits leakage or dispersal of the (tenth-value layer) reduce the amount of radiation
material. Radiography sources are passing through the material to
special form materials because the one-tenth of its original intensity.
radioactive material is contained in The thickness of the tenth-value
a steel capsule that is welded thickness will depend on the
closed. material and the energy of the
gamma rays.
specific activity The activity per unit weight of
material, for example, curies per thermoluminescent dosimeter See dosimeter,
gram. Uranium has a very low thermoluminescent.
specific activity because there are
very few disintegrations for a given thorium A naturally occurring radioactive
weight. Iridium pellets in a material like uranium.
radiography source have a much
higher specific activity. thulium-170 A radioactive form of the element
thulium that emits gamma rays
specific license A license issued to a company or with an energy of 91 KeV. It has a
person to possess and use half-life of about 129 days. A source
radioactive material after specific used in industrial radiography.
Symbols: Tm-170, 170Tm, Tm .
17 0
written application has been made.
See general license.
TLD Thermoluminescent dosimeter.
survey meter, radiation A portable instrument that
measures radiation dose rate transport index (TI) Dose rate in mrem per hour at
(radiation intensity). 3 feet away from the surface of a
package containing radioactive
survey, radiation As used in this manual, a radiation materials.
survey is a measurement of the
levels of radiation taken by using a tritium A radioactive form (isotope) of the
radiation survey meter. In NRC element hydrogen.
regulations, a survey may also Type A or Type B packaging A special type of packaging that
include an evaluation of the meets specific regulations for
radiation hazard (for example, by transporting radioactive materials.
calculation) and may not Most radiography sources require
necessarily include measurements Type B packaging. Exact require-
using a survey meter. ments are given in 10 CFR § 71.4(g).
syndrome, acute radiation The medical term for radiation ultraviolet light or radiation A form of radiation that is similar to
sickness. visible light but is a little more
energetic. It is much less energetic
than x-rays or gamma rays and
does not ionize molecules.
Therefore, it is non-ionizing
radiation. 147
E Glossary
unrestricted area An area in which the radiation dose wavelike radiation See radiation, wavelike.
to a person would be less than
2 mrem in any 1 hour or 100 mrem White I Label, Radioactive See Radioactive White I Label.
in 1 week.
wipe test Same as a leak test (see definition).
UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific
Committee on Effects of Atomic Yellow II Label, Radioactive See Radioactive Yellow IILabel.
Radiation. A committee of
internationally known scientists Yellow III Label, Radioactive See Radioactive Yellow III Label.
that reports to the U.N. on the x-ray Radiation similar to light, but more
effects of radiation. energetic and therefore more
uranium A naturally occurring radioactive penetrating. X-rays can cause
material used as a shielding damage to living things. They are
material in radiography cameras. It usually produced by bombarding a
. ...
. ...---is-also -used -to fuel nuclear power metallic target with electrons (that
plants. See also depleted uranium. is, by an electric spark).
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory See NRC. ytterbium-169 A radioactive form of the element
Commission ytterbium that emits gamma rays
of energy 19 and 76 KeV. It has a
utilization log A written record to keep track of the half-life of 32 days and is
use of a radiography source. occasionally used in industrial
radiography.
169
Symbols: Yb-169,
warning labels In radiography, the labels attached Yb, Yb 69 .
to a shipment of radioactive
material indicating the radioactive
contents and dose rates. See
Radioactive White I, Radioactive
Yellow II, and Radioactive Yellow III
Labels.
Overexposure Accidents 1971-1980 F
TABLE 1
People Overexposed to External Radiation
Reported by NRC Licensees, 1971-1980
Overexposures
greater than
25 rem whole
Total Overexposures Overexposures greater than body or 375
(1.25 or 3 rem whole body or 5 rem whole body or 75 rem rem
Year 18.75 rem extremity) extremity extremity
*1971 24
1972" 2M
1973 2
247
1974 29
1975
1976 E 1 ~201 "
1977
1978
1979
1980
*The values in this table for the years 1971-1978 are from published NRC occupational Radiation
Exposure Annual Reports, such as NUREG-0493 for the year 1978. All Licensees
*'1979 data provided by Barbara Brooks of NRC's Office of Management and Program analysis,
May 13, 1981. Gamma Radiography
-1980 data were supplied by Gene Trager of NRC's Office for Analysis and Evaluation of Operational
Data, November 1981. They are preliminary data and are subject to change. 149
Table 2 Gamma Radiography Overexposure Accidents, 1971-1980 711
A list of all radiation overexposures reported by NRC licensed radiography companies,
exceeding 5 reins to the whole body or 75 reins to a part of the body*
No. I Date Company Source Dose Symptoms Why Was Source Exposed? Was a Survey Made? Other Factors
1/4/71 Black Sivalls 9 Ci Co-60 8 rems WB None Radiographer apparently No
and Bryson forgot to retract source.
1/12/71 Conam 27 Ci 13 rems WB None Source stuck at camera Yes, but only from Occurred at change
Ir-192 entrance because of dirt rear of camera. of shift.
and grit in crank Survey did not detect
mechanism. source.
1/27/71 Jones Testing 26 Ci 6 rems WB None Two sources were in use in Apparently not Radiographer had no
Ir-192 a permanent inplant training.
facility. Radiographer
cranked out the second
source instead of cranking
in the first source.
1971 & Newport News 0.01 Ci 2000 to Uncertain, Radiography supervisor Not applicable
previous Shipyard Co-60 3000 rems but chronic handed out source in his
year (fish pole to hand radiation hands over a 29-month
typeF dermatitis is period.
possible
from these
doses
7/9/71 Newport News 220 Ci 7 reins WB None A rough or kinked guide No, because meter The radiographer
Shipyard Ir-192 tube caused the source to was not operating. disconnected the
jam. gamma alarm after
the source jammed
because he thought
the alarm was
malfunctioning.
6. 1 9/8/71 Pittsburgh 96 Ci 600 reins or None Not fully retracted for Yes, but did not carry The radiographer
Testing Ir-192 less based unknown reason. meter to camera. disconnected the
on lack of guide tube before
symptoms locking the camera.
He instinctively
reached out and
touched the source
when he saw it. He
thought it was the
safety plug.
11/71 Conam
Inspection
68 Ci
Ir-192
6 rems WB None Source jammed. Yes The jammed source
was discovered, but
CD
the radiographer was
overexposed during Cl
the recovery
operation.
3/24/72 Peabody/ 70 Ci 21 rems WB None Source disconnected and No The radiographer was
Magnaflux Ir-192 stayed at end of guide tube using locking as a CL
because it had not been subtitute for a survey.
connected properly (GI
connector).
In this case the
camera locked CD
without the source
being in. (A
7/72 Froehling and 108 Ci 400 to 1000 Reddening Source jammed at entrance No. No survey meter The radiographer
Robertson Ir-192 rems to of hand. to camera, then became was available at the called the company
hand disconnected. site. to report the source
disconnect. They told
=a
him to shake it loose,
pick it up by hand,
and put it back in the
camera. The
radiographer thought
the procedure would
be dangerous and
refused. By.phone the
company told an
untrained person to
do the job. He did
and was
overexposed.
12/22/72 X-Ray 38 Ci 22,000 to Severe The radiographer confused No The job was at night.
Engineering Ir-192 30,000 rems burn, "in" and "out." He cranked The radiographer was
to fingers amputation the source "out" when he tired and was
of fingers wanted it "in." hurrying to finish the
job.
6/8/73 General 101 Ci 10 reins WB None Source was not quite fully No. Survey meter There may have been
Dynamics Ir-192 plus 550 retracted, A blinking was broken by a very a communication
Electric Boat rems to hip warning light was ignored. severe blow during failure between the
the work. The radiographer and his
radiographer said he assistant, but it is
did not damage the also possible that she
survey meter. was intentionally
exposed by someone.
8/30/73 Universal Technical 36 Ci 7 rems WB None Source crept out of the Yes
Testing Ir-192 & 5 rems camera when it was moved
Laboratories, WB without the source being
Inc. (PAl locked in.
9/15/73 American Ship- 60 Ci 87 reins to None An untrained person Yes The untrained person
building Co. Ir-192 hand attempted to connect the realized the source
source to the control cable, was out, but still
but did not make a disconnected the
connection (AI connector). guide tube.
20. 11/7/73 Consolidated 45 Ci 5 rems WB None Camera fell over into mud Yes Difficult
X-Ray Service Ir-192 pinching the guide tube, environmental
Co. and making retraction conditions
impossible until the guide contributed to the
tube was straightened. The accident.
radiographer was
overexposed as he
straightened the guide
tube.
23. 1974 Dravo Corp., 175 reins to None A radiographer forgot to No, not by the Hurrying to quit work
Ohio hand and 6 retract the source at the radiographer quitting was a factor.
reins WB end of his work shift, The
radiographer on the next
work or the
radiographer on the
(D
shift was exposed. next shift.
24. 4/29/74 Conam 13 Ci 7 reins WB None Source jammed in the No The radiographer did
Inspection Co-60 guide tube near the camera not understand the
because the radiographer limitations of the
bent it too sharply. guide tube.
No. [
Date Company Source Dose Symptoms I Why Was Source Exposed? Was a Survey Made? Other Factors
'"
11/11/75 Value 28 reins WB None It is possible that the Unknown
Engineering Co. radiographer forgot to
retract the source, but it is
also possible that he
intentionally exposed his
badge:
30. 2/7/76 Exam Co. 97 Ci 5 rems WB None The source was not quite Yes, but only the back The radiographer's
Ir-192 fully retracted for unknown of the camera was assistant who
reasons. surveyed. surveyed did not
know how to survey
properly.
31. 1 4/27/76 Exam Co. 93 Ci 6 rems WB None Unknown. No. Assistant did not
Ir-192 survey.
32. 1 7/8/76 NES/Conam 44 Ci 24 rems WB, None A radiographer forgot to Surveys were erratic, Two sets of cranks
Inspection Co-60 7 rems WB, None retract the cobalt-60 not made, or not caused confusion.
and 92 Ci 7 rems WB None source. Upon discovering understood.
Ir-192 his error he cranked out the
iridium-192 source thinking
he was cranking in the
cobalt-60 source.
35. 10/9/76 Yuba Industries 103 Ci 6 rems WB None The camera was moved Yes
Ir-192 without being locked.
Apparently the motion
caused the source to creep
out.
11/3/76 Arnold Green 30 Ci 10 rems WB None Radiographer was not No While working the
Testing Lab Ir-192 careful to fully retract radiographer became
source. very ill. This led to
incomplete retraction
of the source and
omission of the
survey.
0
37. 1 11/4/76 NES/Conam 47 Ci The actual Apparently A bend in the guide tube Yes, but the back of Poor training in how
CD
Inspection, Co-60 doses to the none. caused the source to jam the camera was to make a survey was
Rosemonlt, two hands near the camera. surveyed and the a factor. CD
Illinois. of two exposed source was
radiograph- not detected.
ers were
probably 0
less than
600 rems
since no UD
physical
symptoms
were
present.
CL
11/12/76 Pittsburgh
Des Moines
94 Ci
Ir-192
About 1000
rems to
A dry blister
formed and
Source was not fully
retracted (left 1 ft outside
No CD
Steel Company fingers of fell off. No camera). No reason was
right hand infection. identified.
based on Wound
physical healed. M.
symptoms
and 5 rem
WB.
CD
39. 12/12/76 Atlantic 166 Ci 1100 to Reddening Forgot to retract source. No. In addition, a The radiographer had
Research Co-60 1400 rems of the skin gamma alarm in the come in on Sunday
to hand on fingers, exposure room had morning at the
but no been disconnected so company's request.
fingers were that the door could His wife Was in the
lost. be propped open to hospital having a
obtain ventilation. baby, but he did not
tell the company
managers. There was
poor communication
between the
radiographer and the
managers.
40. 1 6/16/77 J. G. Sylvester 35 Ci 400 rems to None At the end of an Ir-192 Not really. A survey
Associates, Inc. Co-60 head exposure, the Co-60 source meter was carried
and 94 Ci was cranked out by mistake but not looked at.
Ir-192 instead of cranking in the
Ir-192 source.
41. 1 9/7/77 General 80 Ci 15 rems WB None Source was not fully No. The radiographer
Dynamics Ir-192 retracted. was relying on a
Electric Boat "chirper," but the
background noise
was so loud he could
not hear it.
42. 1 11/12/77 Pittsburgh 75 Ci 300-600 None Source did not retract to Yes, but the survey Poor survey
Des Moines Ir-192 rems to the fully shielded position. did not include the technique.
Steel fingers front of the camera.
43. 6/3/78 Union Boiler 85 Ci 120 rems to None The radiographer retracted Yes. The meter
Company Ir-192 thumb the source and tried to lock needle read off scale,
the camera, but the camera but an audible
would not lock. He speaker was silent.
retracted the source again The radiographer
and tried locking, again concluded that
without success. He moisture and fly ash
concluded that fly ash had had shorted the
jammed the locking meter causing the
mechanism. needle to go off
scale.
44. 11/15/78 Twin City Ir-192 22 rems to None The source was not fully Yes, but the survey
Testing trunk (lower retracted for unknown was not complete
Engineering back of reasons. enough to show that
Lab body) the source was not
fully retracted.
65 Ci
45. 3/7/79 Townsend and 9 rems to None The source was retracted Yes, but not carefully. Work being done late
Bottum, Inc. Ir-192 left calf but not fully, perhaps at night. Heavy work
because of a tight bend in load. Radiographer
the guide tube. One more distracted and
turn of the crank was worried by phone call
needed. from supervisor.
46. 1 10/10/79 Consolidated Ir-192 9 reins WB None The source was retracted Yes, but the source
X-Ray and the locking mechanism crept out after the
Service Co. did not catch the locking survey had been
ball. This allowed the made.
source to move out of the
fully shielded position
when the control cable was
coiled.
47, 1 12/13/79 Tulsa Gamma 80 Ci 17 rems on Probably Intentional exposure. Not applicable. The individual had
Ray, Inc. Ir-192 film badge none, but been fired the day
individual before the exposure
could not be for being dirunk on
located the job after working
afterwards. for the licensee for
7 days. He returned
drunk the next
0
morning, cranked out
the source, and
handed his film
badge to the
supervisor. It is not
known whether he
was exposed or
whether just the film
badge was exposed.
48. 1 6/12/80 Consumers 55 Ci Arams WB I Nnne The crank assembly Yes, but the assistant
Power Ir-192 apparently jammed so that radiographer did not
the source was not fully
retracted, unknown to the
survey the front of
the camera.
0.
radiographer. CL
CAI
%4
Source: Compiled by the author from letters and reports contained in the files of the NRC's Office of
nspection and Enforcement.
NOTE: No overexposures greater than 5 rems to the whole body (WB) or 75 rems to the extremities
were reported to the NRC by its radiography licensees for the period January 1, 1981, through August
31, 1981. However, two people involved in manufacturing radiography sources suffered serious
damage to their hands during this period. "n
References and Notes G
Chapter 1 This reference gives the dose from The dose to the gonads is often cal- The value for fallout from nuclear
natural radioactivity in building ma- culated because it is the genetically weapons tests is also from the
1. CharlesW. Briggs, "Develop- terials. This dose could be classi- significant dose. The gonad dose above EPA report.
ments in Gamma Ray Radiography, fied as either natural or manmade. from diagnostic x-rays is 20 mrem/
1928-1941," IndustrialRadiography, It seemed more appropriate to con- year according to the Bureau of Ra- 6. Interagency Task Force on the
Vol. 1, Summer 1942, p. 7. (Re- sider it to be natural background ra- diological Health. This is lower than Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation,
printed in Materials Evaluation, Vol. diation to us. the active bone marrow dose be- Report of the Work Group on Ex-
39, pp. 356-359, March 1981.) cause the gonads are not often in posure Reduction, U.S. Department
3. Merril Eisenbud, Environmental the direct x-ray beam and because of Health, Education, and Welfare,
2. Clyde B. Clayson, "Gamma Ray Radioactivity, Academic Press, New the genetically significant gonadal 1979.
Testing of Welds," IndustrialRa- York, 1973, pp. 199-204. dose is reduced to account for the
diography, January 1943, p. 17. proportion of a person's reproduc- The value of 0.3 mrem per person
4. B. Schleien, T T Tudser, and tion that has passed. Older people, per year from nuclear power is
Chapter 2 D. W. Johnson, "The Mean Active who receive most x-rays, will have taken from this reference. About
1. National Council on Radiation Bone Marrow Dose to the Adult few additional children, so their ge- two-thirds of the dose comes from
Protection and Measurements, Nat- Population of the United States netically significant gonadal dose is radioactive radon-222 gas that es-
ural Background Radiation in the from Diagnostic Radiology," Health small. capes from piles of uranium ore
Physics, Vol. 34, p. 587, June 1978. either before or after the uranium
United States, NCRP Report No. 45, Thus, in comparing these estimates has been extracted. About 80% of
Washington, D.C., 1975. We believe this is the most authori- with other estimates, it is necessary the remainder comes from reproc-
This is considered the most author- tative study of radiation exposure to consider (1) does the estimate essing of spent nuclear fuel. The
itative source of information on in the United States from medical apply to the whole body or to some operation of nuclear power plants
natural background radiation in the and dental diagnostic x-rays. The specific organ such as the lungs? contributes very little to the dose.
United States. The doses given in study estimates a dose of 77 mrem (2) does the estimate apply to the
Chapter 2 are appropriate for most per year to active bone marrow to total population or to adults only? 7. National Council on Radiation
body organs, including bone mar- the U.S. population in 1970. Active and (3) is the dose estimate Protection and Measurements, Ra-
row, gastrointestinal tract, and go- bone marrow is used because this weighted for cancer significance or diation Exposure from Consumer
nads. Doses to the bone surface are is considered to be the dose most genetic significance? Products and Miscellaneous
120 mrem/year and to the lung are relevant to cancer induction. The Sources, NCRP Report No. 56,
dose received is averaged over the 5. U.S. Environmental Protection Washington, D.C. 1977.
180 mrem/year.
active bone marrowin the entire Agency, Radiological Quality of the
2. National Council-on Radiation body. Thus, dental x-rays, which Environment, EPA Report EPA- The value of 1 mrem/year for con-
Protection and Measurements, Ra- give a high dose to a small part of 520/1-77-009, Washington, D.C., sumerproducts, exclusive of build-
diation Exposure From Consumer the body, contribute only 3 mrem 1977. ing materials (which we listed as
Products and Miscellaneous per year when averaged over the natural background radiation), is
entire body's active bone marrow. To determine total medical dose, from this reference.
Sources, NCRP Report No. 56, the dose from radioactive materials
Washington, D.C., 1977. injected into thebody for diagnos-
If only adults are considered, the 8. B.-Brooks, S. McDonald, and E.
U.S. average dose from diagnostic tic purposes must be added to the Richardson, OccupationalRadiation
x-rays is 103 mrem per year be- dose from diagnostic x-rays. The Exposure - Eleventh Annual Re-
cause adults receive more x-rays U.S. Environmental Protection port- 1978, NRC Report NUREG-
than children. Agency has estimated that this 0593, 1981.
source of radiation adds roughly
20% to the medical x-ray dose. 155
G References and Notes
The average dose of 1.3 rem for ra- like this greatly lower the average 12. Centaur Associates, Inc., "An Based on NRC reports of doses re-
diographers is on page 60. dose received by radiographers. Economic Study of the Radio- ceived by workers who terminated
nuclides Industry," unpublished re- employment,.these estimates were
9. The standard practice with per- The average annual dose reported port submitted to the NRC, obtained:
sonnel dosimeters is to subtract by the NRC for radiographers is February 15, 1980.
natural background radiation by well below the dose that can be Length of
subtracting the reading on a control expected by a field radiographer This report estimated 4500 gamma Employment
radiographers directly involved in (years) 5-10 10-15 15-20
dosimeter. This subtracts radiation working regularly for a year.
dose from natural background making radiographs in the U.S. Estimated
sources,-from radiation received 11. Reports from NRC licensees (both NRC and Agreement State li- Lifetime Dose
censed) in 1978, based on a survey (rems) 19 14 14
while in transit, and from thermal (such as in Reference 8) show that
fogging of film. This procedure is almost 1000 radiographers receive of licensed companies. (A sum-
followed by R. S. Landauer (per doses exceeding 1 rem each year. mary of this information is on page We have rounded these numbers
Robert Wheeler), Eberline (per Eric The NRC had about 360 gamma ra- 60 of Reference 8.) Our own feeling off to 20 rems lifetime dose.
Geiger), and Seamans (per Robert diography licenses outstanding in is that the estimated number of
Pollock). 1978. Agreement States issued 4500 radiographers is an underesti- Chapter 3
about 681 (as of December 1979, mate and does not include people
10. Reports to the NRC of radiog- NRC Office of State Programs un- who occasionally work as radiogra- 1. C. Michael Lederer and Virginia
raphers using personnel monitor- published report, "Licensing Statis- phers. We have rather arbitrarily in- S. Shirley, Eds., Table of Isotopes,
ing tend to exaggerate the number tics and Other Data"). creased their estimate to 10,000 Seventh Edition, John Wiley and
people to account for these. The Sons, Inc., New York, p. 1231, 1978.
of people working as radiographers
and tend to greatly underestimate States where extensive field radiog- value seems a reasonable compro-
the dose received by an actively raphy is performed tend to be mise between the 4500 in Refer- There are about 2.23 gamma rays
working radiographer. For example, Agreement States. This is because ence 11 and the 13,000 monitored per disintegration of iridium-1 92,
in 1978 an NRC radiography licen- the major oil producing states are by NRC licensees plus an estimated according to this reference.
see (Bethlehem Steel, Steelton, Agreement States and field radiog- 26,000 monitored by state licensees
Pennsylvania) reported 27 people raphy is performed extensively in of which 6700 had measurable ra- 2. From January 1979 through
monitored of whom 25 had no connection with the oil industry. diation doses (Reference 8). Inde- July 1981, NRC licensees reported
NRC licensees are more likely to do pendently, John Munro of three leaking sources to NRC, ac-
measurable exposure. The other 2 cording to Samuel Pettijohn, NRC,
had exposures under 100 mrem. in-plant radiography in factories in Tech/Ops, Inc., also concluded that
Anthony Lamastra of Bethlehem the Midwest and Northeast. Higher there were about 10,000 radiogra- Office for Analysis and Evaluation
dosesare associated with field ra- phers in the U.S. of Operational Data, and Earl
Steel said that of the 27 monitored
only about 5 or 6 were authorized diography because shielding walls Wright, NRC, Office of Nuclear Ma-
to work with the licensee's one ra- are not available. From these facts, 13. United Nations Scientific Com- terial Safety and Safeguards.
dioactive source. The others were we estimate that roughly 3000 to mittee on the Effects of Atomic Ra-
monitored because they worked in 4000 radiographers received doses diation (UNSCEAR), Sources and 3. NRC Office of Inspection and
a department with a cabinet x-ray exceeding 1 rem per year. Effects of Ionizing Radiation, Enforcement, "Preliminary Notifica-
machine. The licensee estimated United Nations, New York, 1977, tion of Event or Unusual Occur-
that in 1978 only about 10 shots p. 263. (This is often called the rence," PNO-I-80-106, July 22, 1980,
had been made and that less than "1977 UNSCEAR Report".) and information supplied by John
10 staff-hours of work was spent E. Glenn, NRC, Region I Office,
using the radioactive gamma 1981.
source during the year. Situations
156
References and Notes G
Chapter 4 4. Joseph F Ross, Francis E. Holly, sumes the source was touching the 11. Ye Gen-yao, Liu Yong, Tien
Harvey A. Zarem, Cappy M. Roth- skin. However, we considered Nue, Chaing Ben-yun, Chien Feng-
1. Percy Brown, American Mar- man, and Alan L. Shabo, "The 1979 20,000 rems a more reasonable es- wei, and Yiae Chien-ling, "The Peo-
tyrs to Science through the Roent- Los Angeles Accident: Exposure to timate for estimating actual dam- ple's Republic of China Accident in
gen Rays, Charles C. Thomas, Iridium-192 Industrial Radiographic age to a piece of skin of significant 1963," The Medical Basis for Radia-
Springfield, Illinois, 1936. Source," The Medical Basis for Ra- size. Radiation doses above 3000 tion Accident Preparedness(Karl F
diation Accident Preparedness(Karl rems cause complete destruction of Hubner and Shirley A. Fry, editors),
2. Daniel S. Grosch and Larry E. F Hubner and ShirleyA. Fry, eds.), tissue. Elsevier/North-Holland, New York,
Hopwood, Biological Effects of Ra- Elsevier/North-Holland, New York, pp. 82-89, 1980.
diation, Second Edition, Academic pp. 205-221, 1980. 7. M. Annamalai, R S. lyer, and T
Press, New York, pp. 3 and 4, 1979. M. R. Panicker, "Radiation Injury 12. R. J. P. Le Go, M. T Deloy, J. L.
5. F Eugene Holly and William L. from Acute Exposure to an Iridium- Malarbet, M. Veyrat, "Clinical and
But contrary to the description in Beck, "Dosimetry Studies for an In- 192 Source: Case History," Health Biological Observations of Seven
the book, Becquerel was burned by dustrial Radiography Accident," Physics, Vol. 35 (Aug.), pp. 387-389, Accidentally Irradiated Algerian
radium, not uranium, according to The Medical Basis for Radiation 1978. Persons," Report of the French
Frederick G. Spear, Radiation and Accident Preparedness(Karl E. Comissariat a I'Energie Atomique,
Living Cells, Chapman and Hall, Hubner and Shirley A. Fry, editors) 8. D. Beninson, A. Placer, and E. CEA-CON F-4659, 1979.
1953. Elsevier/North-Holland, New York, Vander, "Estudio de un caso de irra-
pp. 265-277, 1980. diacion humana accidental," Pro- 13. Reference 9, p. 54.
3. Eugene L. Saenger, James G. ceedings of the Symposium on the
Kereiakes, Neil Wald, and George E. 6. This incident is the same as dis- Handling of RadiationAccidents, 14. Information on how the
Thomas, "Clinical Course and Do- cussed in NUREG/BR-0001, Volume IAEA, Vienna, pp. 415-429, 1969. source was left with the watchman
simetry of Acute Hand Injuries to 1, Case History 4. That report was was obtained from Dr. Julian San-
Industrial Radiographers from Mul- based on preliminary information. 9. K. Z. Morgan and J. E. Turner, chez-Gutierrez, Director, Safety of
ticurie Sealed Gamma Sources," The later studies above estimated Principlesof Radiation Protection, Nuclear Facilities, Commission Na-
The Medical Basis for Radiation the source strength to be 28 curies John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New cional de Seguridad Nuclear y Sal-
Accident Preparedness(Karl F Hub- (rather than 40 curies), and the time York, Chapters 12 and 13, 1967. vaguardias, Mexico City, Mexico.
ner and Shirley A. Fry, editors), El- in the worker's back pocket to be
sevier/North-Holland, New York, 45 minutes (rather than 2 hours). 10. International Commission on 15. Vital Statistics of the United
pp. 169-178, 1980. The dose to the surface of the skin Radiological Protection, The Princi- States - 1977, Volume Il-Mortality,
cannot be precisely determined be- ples and General Proceduresfor U.S. Department of Health and Hu-
The description of the symptoms of cause the dose depends very Handling Emergency and Acciden- man Services, Public Health Ser-
radiation burns was taken from this strongly on the precise distance be- tal Exposures of Workers, ICRP vice, Table 7-5, 1980.
reference. Information on chronic tween the source and the worker's Publication 28, Pergamon Press,
radiodermatitis is from: skin. Oxford, p. 16, 1977. The respiratory diseases include in-
fluenza, pneumonia, bronchitis,
Wright H. Langham, editor, Radio- Based on Figure 3 in Reference 5 emphysema, and asthma.
logical Factorsin Manned Space and an assumed 1 centimeter dis-
Flight, National Academy of Sci- tance, the skin surface dose would
ences - National Research Coun- be very roughly 20,000 rem (rather
cil, pp. 147-157, 1967. than 1.5 million rem). Dose esti-
mates of up to 1 million rems can
be calculated for a single point on
the surface of the skin if one as- 157
. References and Notes
16. The following three reports Dr. Gotchy states, "One would ex- 22. UNSCEAR Report (Reference Chapter 5
written by committees of eminent pect the life shortening of occupa- 16), 1977, p. 429.
scientists are basically in agree- tionally exposed workers in the 1. American National Standard
ment on the upper limit of risk of nuclear industry to lie between 0.63 23. International Commission on N432, "Radiological Safety for the
cancer death: and 1.2 days per rem. However, it Radiological Protection, Problems Design and Construction of Appara-
should be noted that such upper Involved in Developing an Index of tus for Gamma Radiography," Na-
"The BEIR III Report": The Effects bound estimates may be high by Harm, ICRP Publication 27, Perga- tional Bureau of Standards
on Populations of Exposure to Low up to a factor of 5 for low dose mon Press, New York, paragraphs Handbook 136, U.S. Government
Levels of Ionizing Radiation, Report rates (less than 4 rem/day)..." 33 and 49, 1977. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
of the Committee on the Biological paragraph 8.1.2, 1981.
Effects of Ionizing Radiation, Na- 19. The EPA estimated 12 to 18 24. Data from Mr. Edwin Silver-
tional Academy of Sciences, Wash- years in their "Background Report berg, American Cancer Society, 2. Gamma rays are assumed to
ington, 1980. - Proposed Federal Radiation Pro- New York, 1980. have been "hardened" by already
tection Guidance for Occupational passing through a tenth-value
"The UNSCEAR Report": Sources Exposure," Office of Radiation Pro- 25. T F Mancuso, A. Stewart, and thickness.
and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, grams, U.S. Environmental Protec- G. Kneale, "Radiation Exposures of
United Nations Scientific Commit- tion Agency Report EPA 520/4-81- Hanford Workers Dying from Can- 3. John J. Munro, III, and Frances
tee on the Effects of Atomic Radia- 003, p. 67, January 16, 1981. cer and other Causes," Health E. Roy, Jr., Gamma Radiography:
tion, UN Publication E.77.IX.I, New Physics, Vol. 33, pp. 369-385, 1977. Radiation Safety Handbook,
York, 1977. We have rounded their range off to Tech/Ops, Inc., Radiation Products
15 years loss of life caused by ra- T Najarian and T Colton, "Mortality Division, 40 North Avenue, Burling-
"ICRP 26": Radiation Protection, diation-induced cancer. Calcula- from Leukemia and Cancer in Ship- ton, Massachusetts 01803, 1981.
Recommendations of the Interna- tions by Charles Willis of the NRC yard Nuclear Workers," Lancet,
tional Commission on Radiological yield the same result. Vol. 1, pp. 1018-1020, 1978. The density of tungsten is 17.8
Protection, ICRP Publication 26, grams/cm3 , the density of concrete
Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977. 20. Bernard L. Cohen and I-Sing Several scientists, such as those is 2.35 grams/cm3 , the density of
Lee, "A Catalog of Risks," Health listed above, have claimed that the steel or iron is 7.8 grams/cm3 , the
17. Accident Facts, National Physics, Vol. 36, pp. 707-722, June generally accepted estimates of density of lead is 11.34 grams/cm3,
Safety Council, 1979. 1979. cancer risk underestimate that risk. and the density of uranium is 18.7
If their estimates are right, our esti- grams/cm 3.
Career lifetime accidental deaths 21. Toxic Substances Strategy mates of cancer risk would be too
are calculated by using annual Committee, Toxic Chemicals and low. But radiation risks would still Chapter 6
death rates multiplied by an as- Public Protection, Council on Envi- not exceed the risks in many other
sumed working lifetime of 40 years. ronmental Quality, Washington, occupations. 1. Applied Ergonomics Handbook,
D.C., p. xiii, 1980. ICP Sciences and Technology Press
18. R. L. Gotchy, "Estimation of Limited, Surrey, England, p. 19,
Life Shortening from Radiogenic CEQ estimates that roughly 20% of 1974.
Cancer per Rem of Absorbed all cancer deaths are associated
Dose," Health Physics, Vol. 35, with carcinogens in the workplace. 2. Ernest J. McCormick, Human
pp. 563-565, October 1978. Twenty percent of 2,000 cancers per Factors in Engineeringand Design,
10,000 people equals 400 cancers 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York,
per 10,000 workers: This is a very p. 69, 1976.
rough estimate.
158
References and Notes G
159
Credits and Acknowledgments H
Chapter 5: Figures 2-3 and Gulf Nuclear, Webster, -Texas. Figures 17, 18, Bethlehem Steel Corp., Sparrows
2-4 and 19 Point Shipyard, Baltimore,
Maryland.
Figures 2-2, Industrial Nuclear Corp., Foster
9-1, 9-2, and City, California. Figures in Eberline Instrument Corporation,
9-4 problems Santa Fe, New Mexico, and
Dosimeter Corporation of America,
Figure 9-3 Ray Fujimoto, Radiation Protection Cincinnati, Ohio.
Bureau, Department of National
Health and Welfare, Ottawa, Chapter 7: Figures 1 and 2 Industrial Nuclear Corp., Foster
Canada. City, California.
Figures 10 and Gamma Industries, Baton Rouge, Figures 3, 5, and Gamma Industries, Baton Rouge,
15 Louisiana. 6 Louisiana.
Figures 11 and Tech/Ops, Inc., Burlington, Figures 7 and 8 Tech/Ops, Inc., Burlington,
12 Massachusetts. Massachusetts.
Figures 9 and
Figure 13 Bethlehem Steel-Corp., Sparrows Bethlehem Steel Corp., Sparrows
Point Shipyard, Baltimore, 10 Point Shipyard, Baltimore,
Maryland. Maryland.
Chapter 6: Figure 2 Dosimeter Corporation of America, Chapter 8: Figure 3 Source Production and Equipment
Cincinnati, Ohio. Corporation, Kenner, Louisiana.
Figures 6 and 7 Source Production and Equipment Figures 5, 6, 7, Bethlehem Steel Corp., Sparrows
Corporation, Kenner, Louisiana. 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, Point Shipyard, -Baltimore,
and 15. Maryland.
Figure 8 Tech/Ops, Inc., Burlington,
Massachusetts. Figure 12 Dosimeter Corporation of America,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Figures 9 and Dosimeter Corporation of America,
10 Cincinnati, Ohio. Figure 13 Gulf Nuclear, Webster, Texas.
Figures 11 and Siemens Health Physics Services, Figure 16 Tech/Ops, Inc., Burlington,
12 Des Plaines, Illinois. Massachusetts.
Figure'13 Roger Broseus, National Institutes Chapter 9: Figures 1 and 7 Tech/Ops, Inc., Burlington,
of Health, Bethesda, Maryland. Massachusetts.
Figures .14 and Robert Fox, Battelle-Pacific Figures 2, 9, 10, Roger Broseus, National Institutes
15 Northwest Laboratories, Richland, and 11 of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.
Washington.
Figures 3, 4, 5, Gamma Industries, Baton Rouge,
Figure 16 Gamma Industries, Baton Rouge, and 6 Louisana.
Louisiana.
162
Credits and Acknowledgments H
Figures 8, 12, Automation Industries, Chapter 11: Figures 1 and2 Bethlehem Steel -Corp., Sparrows
and 15 Phoenixville, Pennsylvania. Point Shipyard, Baltimore,
Maryland.
Figure 13 Gulf Nuclear, Webster, Texas.
Figure 3 Tech/Ops, Inc., Burlington,
Figure 14 Bethlehem Steel Corp., Sparrows Massachusetts.
Point Shipyard, Baltimore,
Maryland. Figure 4 Gamma Industries, Baton Rouge,
Louisiana.
Chapter 10: Figure 1 Bethlehem Steel Corp., Sparrows
Point Shipyard, Baltimore, Figure 5 Don Honey, California Department
Maryland. of Health Services, Sacramento,
California.
Figure 4 Tech/Ops, Inc., Burlington,
Massachusetts.
163
H Credits and Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments Mike Santoro of Automation Indus- F Bruce Kovacs of Foster Wheeler Ann Beranek of NRC for editorial
tries, Phoenixville, Pennsylvania, Energy Corporation for helpful dis- and proofreading help throughout
We would like to thank the follow- for taking photographs that we cussions and demonstrations of
ing people for helping us prepare the draft and final production
requested. radiography. stages of this project.
this manual:
Richard DiCharry of SPEC, Kenner, The staff of the NRC who reviewed Marshel D. Baggett of NRC forguid-
Dr. James Phelps and Dr. Jose Louisiana, for providing us with a and commented on drafts of the
Martin of the Nuclear Engineering ance and help in the final produc-
number of photographs that we manual, especially Robert Alex- tion stages of this manual.
Department of the University of requested. ander, Nathan Bassin, Jack Bell,
Lowell, Lowell, Massachusetts, for Dan Dehn, NRC photographer, for
providing much useful information Steve Bernstein, Allen Brodsky,
Thomas Gaines of Industrial Nu- Thomas Dorian, Karl Goller, Al taking photographs and making
in the early drafts of many of the clear Corp., Foster City, California, Grella, James Jones, Ralph Jones, prints.
chapters. for taking photographs that we Joel Lubenau, Ralph Meyer, Jack
requested. Nehemias, Al Roecklein, Bernard The NRC Typing Unit for typing and
The students and staff of the Lowell Singer, Don Smith, Mike Wangler, retyping the many drafts of this
Vocational Technical High School, Al Zirkes of Dosimeter Corporation Lorenzo Wilborn, and Charles manual: Jeannette Kiminas, Chief,
Lowell, Massachusetts, for review- of America, Cincinnati, Ohio, for Carol Finan, Charline Simon, and
ing the draft manual and evaluating Willis.
taking photographs that we Rita Prather.
its understandability. requested. The staff of the NRC library, who
did an excellent job of tracking
Anthony Lamastra, Gary Rusino- Eric Geiger of Eberline Instrument down numerous references, many
vitch, and Clarence Snyder of Beth- Corporation, Santa Fe, New Mex- particularly obscure: Margaret Con-
lehem Steel Corporation for taking ico, for supplying photographs we yngham, Mary Ann Neel, Eileen
a series of illustrative photographs requested. Chan, and Ursula McKinney.
at our request.
Roger Broseus, National Institutes Dr. Janet Turnage, industrial psy-
John Munro of Tech/Ops, Inc., Bur- of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, for
lington, Massachusetts, for provid- chologist, Orlando, Florida, who
ing many photographs, the data for helping us obtain several was an NRC consultant and who
photographs. provided many helpful sug-
the shielding attenuation curves,
gestions.
and many useful comments. Ron Wascum of the Louisiana Nu-
clear Energy Division for useful Barbara Brooks of NRC for helping
Dr. Harry Richardson of Gamma In- comments. to collect data on overexposure
dustries, Baton Rouge, Louisiana,
for providing many photographs accidents.
and many useful comments. Don Honey of the California State
Department of Health Services for Janet Thot-Thompson of NRC for
Walter Peeples of Gulf Nuclear, his help in making available for our the design, art direction, and pro-
Webster, Texas, for taking photo- use photographs of the injury from duction guidance for this manual.
graphs that we requested and for the 1979 California radiography Lionel Watkins and John Orban of
comments on the manual. accident. NRC for artwork, illustrations, page
layout, and camera-ready art. Alvin
Ed Bailey of the Texas Department Blunt and Alicia Ong of NRC for
of Health for useful comments. help in final production.
164