1

BRAKES
 2

Brakes:
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion, slowing or stopping
a moving object or preventing its motion.

Main Function of Braking System:

1. To stop the vehicle safely in shortest possible distance in case of
emergency.
2. To Control the vehicle when it is descending along the hills.
3. To keep the vehicle in desire position after bringing it in complete
rest when there is no driver.

Most brakes commonly use friction between two surfaces pressed together
to convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, though other
methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example regenerative
braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be
stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential
energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy
current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into electric
current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other
braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for
example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

TYPES OF BRAKING
The brakes for automotive use may be classified according the following
considerations.

1. PURPOSE
2. LOCATION
3. CONSTRUCTION
4. METHOD OF ACTUATION
5. EXTRA BRAKING EFFORT

Based on the above considerations, brakes are classified with respect to

following factors.
 3

1. With respect to application,

a. Foot brake i.e. Service Brake

b. Hand brake i.e. Parking Brake

2. With respect to the number of wheels,

a. Two wheel brakes
b. Four wheel brakes

3. With respect to the method of braking contact

a. Internal expanding brakes
b. External contracting brakes

4. With respect to the method of applying the braking force.

a. Single acting brake
b. Double acting brakes.

5. With respect to the brake gear,

a. Mechanical brake
b. Power brakes

6. With respect to the nature of power employed

a. Vacuum brake
b. Air brake
c. Hydraulic brake
d. Hydrostatic brake
e. Electric brake

7. With respect to power transmission,

a. Direct acting brakes
b. Geared brakes

8. With respect to power unit,

a. Cylinder brakes
b. Diaphragm brake

Braking system:
 4

Braking system consists of brake pedal attached to master cylinder.

Master cylinder generates high pressures and the pressure generated is
transferred to the calipers through brake lines .The caliper which is
stationary is attached to moving rotors which is attached to the hub
knuckle. When we press pedal the pressure developed by master cylinder
is sent to caliper through brake lines. the pressure moves the pistons
which is attached to the brake pads.the brake pads and the rotor rub each
other and thus friction occurs and the vehicle stops.

Types of braking system:-

There are many types of braking system in automobile industries:

1. Mechanical brakes
2. Electric brakes
3. Hydraulic brakes
4. Vacuum brakes
5. Air brakes

1. Mechanical brakes:
In this type of brakes, the brake force is applied mechanically used where
we need small force to braking. Mechanical brakes are used in the small
vehicle like scooter, bikes,bicycle etc.
Advantages- -cheap and best brakes for light vehicle where braking force
required is very less.
Disadvantages- -Not suitable for heavy vehicle where braking force
required is very high.
2. Hydraulic brakes:
A hydraulic brake is an arrangement to transfer pressure from the
controlling mechanism to the braking mechanism by using brake fluid. It
works on the principle of pascal law. Hydraulic brakes is used in most of
passenger cars. Hydraulic is used of a liquid under pressure the transfer
the force or increase the applied force.
Pascal’s law:
 5

According to Pascal, for an incompressible liquid the pressure exerted at

a point is equal to the pressure at another point in that liquid. So,when
pressure exerted by master cylinder is equally transferred to all the four
calipers.Thus pascal law is applied in our braking system.
Drum brakes:
The brake drum is connected to the axle hub which means when axle
rotates brake drum also rotates.It consists of brake drum, back plate,brake
shoe, friction liner,return spring, expander,adjuster and anchor.Basically
when we apply brake,the force is applied by expander on brake shoe
which is connected with the adjuster.Friction lining is present on the back
plate where the brake shoe gets rubbed and due to this friction(rubbing)
brake is applied.Back plate is protect the drum assembly from mud and
dust.The returning spring helps the brake shoe to get back to its original
position when brake is not applied.In this way brake is applied.
When expander applies force in brake shoe in the same direction in which
the drum rotates,then that shoe is called leading shoe.When expander
applies force in brake shoe in the opposite direction in which the drum
rotates,then that shoe is called trailing shoe. Force applied by leading
shoe is much more than trailing shoe.
Advantages:
--water resistant
--low cost maintenance
--low cost
Disadvantages:
--less effective
--more brake pedal have to be depressed.

1. Disk brake:
A disc brake is a type of brake that uses calipers to squeeze pair of pads
against the rotor to create friction . The energy of motion is converted
into waste heat which must be dispersed Disk brake which is bolted to the
wheel hub and attached with a caliper.The caliper is connected to the
brake line and brake line is made up of stainless steel. Brake lines helps
 6

in transfer the fluid from master cylinder to the caliper, Brake line is
attached with the master cylinder which produced hydraulic pressure
when we press the pedal. Hydraulic disc brake are the most commonly
used from of brake for motor vehicle.
Advantages--
--more braking force
Disadvantages--
--high actuation effort
Overall advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic braking system
Advantages
--equal braking force on all wheels.
--increased braking force.
--increased mechanical advantages.
Disadvantages
--the whole braking system fails due to leakage any where in the braking
system.
--requires high actuation effort.
3. Electric brakes:
This is also called regenerative braking system. This is generally used in
electric and hybrid vehicle .In this the heat energy in converted in
chemical energy. When we press brake pedal electrical motor gets
converted to generator. And we all know that in generator mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy . when we apply the wheels are
still moving and thus the propeller shaft is also moving which is
connected to generator . due to this electrical energy in scored in battery
and vehicle also slows down. This type of braking is not useful in fast
moving vehicle.
Advantage:-
---no energy is wasted during braking.
---Reduces the wear in brakes.
Disadvantages:-
 7

---not suitable for high speed vehicle.

---Parking brake option may not be available.
4. Vacuum brakes:
Vacuum brake is also known as power brakes. The main motive of
vacuum brake is to increase the piston travel of master cylinder by
applying less force on pedal.There is a plate between the vacuum
chamber.There is a hole in the link so that vacuum can be created on both
the chambers.The plate is attached to hinge to move left and right.When
we press brake pedal, the seal gets removed and atmospheric pressure
enters into the 1st chamber and the hole between first and 2nd chamber
gets blocked.since there is no atmospheric pressure in 2nd chamber as air
is always being sucked by intake manifold ,so vacuum is created in 2nd
chamber.As atmospheric pressure comes in in 1st chamber and vacuum in
2nd chamber ,good amount of force is applied on the plate which pushes
the push rod thus the piston of master cylinder.
Advantage
1.vacuum brakes will multiply the amount of force applied to master
cylinder by 2 to 3 times.
2.Braking force increases.
3.Less force to be applied on the pedal.
Disadvantage
1.leaks are difficult to find.
2.Take separate space and increases the weight
5. Air brake:
The fundamental components of air brake are compressor, governor,air
lines, air tanks,safety valve,drain valves,brake pedal and the foundation
brake.Compressor compresses the air,it always run when the vehicle is
ON.So, we need something to control the amount of air entering the
compressor which is done by governor.When the system goes down to
minimum air pressure the compressor turns into load phase and loads the
system.When system goes to maximum pressure ,then the system turns to
cut off phase.We have air tanks to store the air.If the compressor fails
then there is enough air for 10 to 12 brake foot application. Safety valve
is stored in the compressor for safety reasons.When safety valve is
 8

releasing pressure in the surrounding then it sounds like a machine

gun.The reason we have drain valve is when compressor compresses air it
gets hot and when released to air tank then it cools down and water
liquifies into the tank due to cooling process.The air lines transfer the air
pressure into the system.The brake pedal can also be called as foot
valve .The brake pedal pushes the air to the foundation brake.The
foundation brake consists of brake chamber ,push rod, slag adjuster and
the drum brake. The air enters the brake chamber which is connected to
push rod and thus the brake is applied.
Advantage
1.The air supply is unlimited ,so brake system cam never run out of its
operating fluid.
2.Air brake circuits are easily attachable and detachable.
Disadvantages
1.easy to leaks
2.Makes noise
3.Requires tanks for installation.
Types of brakes:-

Primary brakes:
Primary brakes are also termed as service brake. when the vehicle is in
running condition and to slow down the vehicle this type of brake is used.
This is the main braking system. Primary brakes are in both the front
wheels and rear wheels of the vehicle.

Secondary brake:
Secondary brake is also termed as Emergency brake, which is use to keep
the vehicle stationary. It is generally operates by the hand, so it is also
known as hand brake. The main function of this brake is to keep the
vehicle stationary when I is parked. And also keep the vehicle stationary
at uneven surface.
 9

Purpose of the brakes:

1. The main purpose of braking system is to decelerate speed of a vehicle

2. The braking should be inexhaustible that is under regular use braking
should be possible.

Objective of braking system

 Lock all the four wheels of the vehicle at the same time.
 To achieve minimum braking distance
 Simple and easy to operate.
 Optimum braking force to stop the vehicle.
 Minimum time for cooling of rotor

Design consideration
 We use disc brakes in each of the wheels to get excellent braking.
 Reverse swing mechanism is used.
 From the four outlet ports of the master cylinder, two ports are
specially used for brake switches and the other two for brake Circuit.
 The brake circuit of our vehicle is in the form of H-split.
Single Master Cylinder(Bybre)
 Tandem master cylinder is 40/60 biased with 40% in front and 60% in
the rear.
 We need 60% of braking force in front and 40% in the rear, so we use
this master cylinder.
 It is manufactured of cast aluminum and it consists of dual piston.
Brake hose
Steel braided brake lines consist of the following properties:
 Does not easily lead to wear and tear
 It does not expand under pressure
 Improved braking response
 reduced chance of bursting
Rubber brake hoses consist of the properties:
 It is flexible enough and can be bent easily according to our
requirement
 It regains its original position when bent.
 10

Master Cylinder
Master cylinder is basically an arrangement which is used to generate
high pressure which is passed through brake lines to caliper assembly. It
has inlet valve and compensating valve. Through inlet port fluid reach the
master cylinder. When we apply brake the piston closes the compensating
valve and this create pressure in the cylinder. Thus this pressure is passed
to the calipers. In this way the master cylinder works.
Master cylinder are of basically two types:-
1.single piston mater cylinder
2.Double piston master cylinder ( tandem master cylinder)
Single piston master cylinder.
In this master cylinder there is only one piston present. If we use single
piston master cylinder then we have to use 2 master cylinders with two
outlet ports each.also after that we have to do proper biasing.
Brake lines
Brake lines is basically a medium through which we transfer pressure
from master cylinder to calipers.
There are basically two types of brake lines:-
1.steel braided brake lines
2.Rubber brake lines

Steel Braided brake lines

 Steel braided hoses do not expand extra so there is freedom from
bursting with respect to rubber hoses.
 Steel braided brake hoses can withstand heavy pressures as compared
to rubber hoses.
 We get instantaneous response with steel braided hoses as compared
to rubber hoses.
 It has high physical strength in combination with light weight.
 It has excellent resistance towards corrosion.
The main disadvantages of using steel braided pipes is that when we
bend it for our brake line arrangement then kink is made which do not
allow to transfer much pressure.
 11

Rubber brake lines

The main advantages of using rubber brake lines is that it is very flexible.
On bending it bends to its original position and thus there is no pressure
loss. Due to this advantage of it we generally use rubber brake lines as
hose pipe (which is attached to caliper and steel braided pipe).
Reason behind not using rubber brake lines:-
 Rubber hoses are prone to leaks and if leaks occurs then there will be
pressure loss
 Rubber brake hoses easily expand upon heavy pressure
 It gets torn when comes it contact with sharp material

Rotor
ROTOR is basically a disc in which friction take place to slow down the
the vehicle.
CALIPER
Floating calipers
Working –it consists single piston. when we apply the brake ,the caliper
receives high pressure from master cylinder. The fluid pushes the piston
which makes the inner brake pad to squeeze against the disc rotor surface.
As a result the fluid’s backward force pushes the caliper frame along the
slider pin which makes the outer brake pads to squeeze against the other
side of the disc rotor.
Advantages:-
 It is cheaper and lighter
 Lower temperature generation in the brake fluid due to only one
contact surface between piston and brake pad
 Less fitting space required at the wheel side
Disadvantages
 Provides less heat capacity
 Leads to taper pad wear and poor pedal feel

Fixed calipers
Working-it consists of minimum two pistons . The entire caliper is solidly
mounted and there are pistons on both sides of the disc. The pistons push
the two brake pads unto both sides of the disc at a same time.
 12

Advantages
 The fixed caliper applies more squeezing power.
 More better performance .
 Used for stopping heavy vehicles.
Disadvantages
 Very much costly.
 More Complex .
We have used the caliper Bybre in four of our rotors so that we get
excellent braking when once the pedal is applied.
We could have used other calipers but used the Bybre for the following
specific reasons:
 It is smaller in size and provides more space in wheel compartment.
 It helps in reducing unsprung mass of the vehicle.
 It provides improved suspension response.
 It is dual piston caliper with deep cup pistons to minimize heat
transfer from the rotor.
 It exactly fits to the rotor of our vehicle.
 It is easy to install.

Brake pads
The brake pads of Bybre caliper (made up of ceramic)have got high
friction and thus provide excellent braking. And they are best for steel
rotors that we have used in our vehicle. The pads are capable of
maintaining proper amount of friction required for stopping the vehicle.
This makes the caliper suitable for our use.
Brake biasing
Braking bias determines how much braking effort is carried out by the
front wheels, versus the rear wheels. Since maximum weight is
transferred towards forward when decelerating, so it requires more
braking effort on the front wheels in comparison with the rear wheels.
Tandem master cylinder is 60/40 pre biased.
 13

CALCULATIONS
Some parameters have to be assumed:-

1. 400N pushes on the pedal.

2. Pedal ratio= 5:1.
3. Maximum speed= 45 km/hr.
Force on master cylinder=Force on pedal × pedal ratio= 400×5 = 2000N

Pressure generated by master cylinder:

=20000/379.94=5.264 N/mm2

Where:

ABoreMasterCylinder  Bore Area of Master Cylinder

FMasterCylinder  Force on the master cylinder
Clamping force
The frictional force exerted by caliper on the rotor which opposes the
rotation of the rotor assembly is called clamping force.
Clamping force(front)=force generated by caliper × no of piston ×
coefficient of friction between
rotor and pad.
=1800N
Clamping force(front)=force generated by caliper × no of piston ×
coefficient of friction between
rotor and pad.
=720N
Braking force
Braking force is the force exerted between tire and ground through which
the vehicle stops.
Rotational Energy
 14

The rotational energy is the energy needed to slow rotating parts. It

varies for different vehicles and which gear is selected however taking
3% of the kinetic energy is a reasonable assumption.

Dynamic weight transfer

It is the weight transfer from rear to front wheel while applying brake
Dynamic weight transfer front

(decelerat ion of vehicle × vertical distance from CG to ground × weight of vehicle)

=
(g × wheel base)

=54.39kg

Dynamic weight transfer rear

=(acceleration of the vehicle × vertical distance from CG to ground × weight of vehicle)

(g× wheelbase)

=6.53kg
Braking torque: -

Brake torque is the force applied at the brake wheel to stop the motion of
the moving equipment.

Dynamic torque(front)= (Dynamic front weight/2) ×(tire diameter/2)

×coefficient of friction between road and tire
= 38930.35 N-mm
Dynamic torque(rear)= (Dynamic rear weight/2) ×(tire diameter/2)
×coefficient of friction between road and tire.
= 4675.79N-mm
 15

Kinetic Energy
Assuming the stop is from the test speed down to zero then the kinetic
energy is given by: -
KE=.5×M×V2=0.5×250×13.88 = 24081.80 J
Where:
KE=kinetic energy (Joules)
M=total vehicle mass (kg)
V=test speed (m/s)