Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Music and Gesture: An Analysis of Debussy's Préludes Book 1: James O'Malley
Music and Gesture: An Analysis of Debussy's Préludes Book 1: James O'Malley
James O’Malley
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................... v
3.4. Analysis 4- Voiles, Le vent dans la plaine and Ce qu’a vu le vent d’Oeust ............ 43
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 50
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 51
Preface
My impetus for writing this thesis is twofold; I have always had a strong fascination and
love for the music of Claude Debussy. Upon commencing my MA in performance and
musicology there was no doubt in my mind that I was going to perform anything other than
his first book of preludes, such an inspiring, varied and colourful work was too much of a
challenge to avoid.
With regards my research I have always been drawn to the area of musical analysis,
in particular Schenkerian and forms of performative analysis. Thus I decided early on in my
study that a combination of my interest in Debussy and musical analysis was vital.
My research then led me to the concept of gesture and to the work of Robert Hatten. I
was immediately fascinated by this complex and philosophical area of music. Its intricate
grounding in subconscious human perception and emotion is particularly interesting. Thus I
present for you the result of my year’s research. Every effort has gone into making this study
both accessible yet probing. I have endeavoured at all times to use this research and analysis
to both deepen our understanding of Debussy’s glorious music while remembering that its
true beauty often lies in the mystery we can never quite understand. My only hope is that
you find this thesis illuminating and that it piques your interest in some part at least into this
captivating area of research.
Acknowledgments
Firstly to my supervisor Dr. Alison Hood, her unfailing willingness to help and guide is
surpassed only by her passion and knowledge of music. I am ever grateful for her
continued help.
To Dr. Cascelli and all staff of the department who have always done what they can during
my degree and my MA to instil an ambition to ever greater standards and a constant
pursuit of perfection that has become indicative of the music department in NUIM.
To my piano tutor Fionnuala who has constantly deepened my understanding and passion for
performance and the music of Debussy.
To Marie and all in the music department office, unfailingly helpful and always supportive.
Finally, to my friends and family, without whom none of this would have been possible.
They more than anyone have endured numerous rants and spellchecks and I am always
appreciative of their support.
v
List of Illustrations
Chapter Illustration Page
Chapter 1 Table 1.1- Hatten’s definitions 5
Figure 1.1- Hallelujah figure 10
Table 1.2- Anchoring strength values 11
Chapter 2 Table 2.1- Hatten’s classes and functions of gestures 16
Fig. 2.1- Hatten analysis example 18
Fig. 2.2- Larson analysis example 19
Fig. 2.3- Larson voice exchange 20
Table 2.2- Scott truth table 21
Fig 2.4- Scott analytical tableaux 22
Chapter 3 Fig 3.1- Opening gestures of preludes II and VIII 26
Fig 3.2- Different key attacks for different tones 27
Fig 3.3- Opening two gestures of La fille 29
Fig 3.4- Opening two gestures of Voiles 29
Fig 3.5- Opening bars of prelude XI 31
Fig 3.6- Theme from L’isle Joyeuse 31
Fig 3.7- Fanfare gesture 32
Fig 3.8- Iterations of fanfare gesture 33-34
Fig 3.9- Act III scene ii, Pelléas 34
Fig 3.10- Opening bars of Des pas sure la neige 34
Table 3.1- Harmonisations of principle gesture 37
Table 3.2- Melodic modes used 40
Fig 3.11- First and second gestures of Des pas sur la neige 41
Fig 3.12- Return of melodic gesture in bar 20 42
Fig 3.13- Wind gesture in preludes II, III and VII 43
Fig 3.14- Bars 5-6 of Le vent dans la plaine 45
Fig 3.15- Bars 5-6 of Le vent from Durand (2007) edition 45
Fig 3.16- Gestural development in Le vent dans la plaine 46
Fig 3.17- Gestural similarities in preludes III and VII 47
Fig 3.18- Bars 15-16 of Ce qu’a vu 48
vi
Chapter 1- Foundation of Gesture
1.1. Introduction
of musical meaning’1
(Ole Kühl)
In their leading publication, Music and Gesture Elaine King and Anthony Gritten
have remarked that: ‘The study of music and gesture- of music as gesture, of Musical
Gesture – has come of age’2. Gesture is no longer understood as a simple wave of the hand,
nod of the head or flick of the baton. Contemporary research has come to recognise gesture
Robert Hatten readily defines gesture as ‘any energetic shaping through time that
may be interpreted as significant’3. Before we can delve into the world of gesture however
we must first understand the philosophy upon which it is based. Semiotics, the science of
research. When Pavlov’s dog salivated at the sound of the bell he was demonstrating the
same semiotic principles which cause musicians to tingle at the doors of their national
1
Ole Kühl, ‘The Semiotic Gesture’, in New Perspectives on Music and Gesture, ed. by Anthony Gritten and
Elaine King (Great Britain: Ashgate publishing ltd., 2011), pp. 123-131.
2
Anthony Gritten and Elaine King (ed.), Music and Gesture (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), p.xix.
3
Robert Hatten, ‘A Theory of Musical Gesture and its Application to Beethoven and Schubert’, in Music and
Gesture, ed. by Anthony Gritten and Elaine King (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), p.1.
1
concert hall. So too are we demonstrating semiotics when we perceive the soaring lines of
Debussy’s feux d’artifice as fireworks rocketing into the air, or indeed when we perceive any
combinations of numerous senses: gestalts. That is, ‘the perceptual experience depends on
the patterns formed by stimuli and on the organisation of experience’4, for example the
and analyse these patterns in order to deepen our understanding of music in general?
So we are led to the burning question; what is a musical gesture? In many ways this
question will not be answered for you entirely until the end of this thesis. The subject is too
broad and complex to be succinctly described by even a single definition. At the end of the
last paragraph I posed two fundamental questions. Luckily much more research and
discussion has focused on the former, some of which I will summarise in the next section.
Research regarding the latter has only begun to take shape and so will occupy the remainder
As Hatten remarks ‘perhaps no other term has been used in a bewildering array of contexts
as the term gesture’5, therefore we must always remember the most important origin of
gesture, that is; ‘it is a deeply held musical intuition that is held by every musician and
listener’6. We must always remember the golden rule of musical analysis, one must trust
temptation to over think and to run away with one’s suspicions. Thus I must posit here that
4
D. Massaro and G.R. Loftus, ‘Sensory storage: Icons and echoes’, in Handbook of perception and cognition,
10 vols (New York: Academic Press, 1996), p.8.
5
Robert Hatten, ‘A Theory of Musical Gesture and its Application to Beethoven and Schubert’, in Music and
Gesture, p.93.
6
Ibid, p.93.
2
the most fundamental origin of gesture is our own musical instinct and intuition. This is what
Igor Stravinsky once famously stated that ‘music is, by its very nature, powerless to
express anything at all’7. I think it is fairly obvious that I would not be conducting research
into the power of musical expression if I were to agree with this opinion. However I think it
is important to note it here in order to spark our thoughts on what exactly we mean by
express anything? Are all the meanings we gain from music merely an ‘illusion’ 8 created by
our own subjectivity? Whether or not these connections between music and meaning are a
consequence of nature or nurture is surely a topic for debate, however due to the prominence
of gestures throughout tonal music we come to freely associate them with certain feelings
and thoughts. In this way a gesture is separated from its origins and in many ways becomes,
inseparably, both the signifier and the signified9. I am of course in danger here of launching
into the most troublesome of philosophical debates; that regarding human perception.
Nonetheless, this is the foundation of music and gesture and I feel it is important to at least
stir up these questions in order to open our minds to the theories in the following chapters.
language that many of us fail to note as we use it so often and unconsciously. Great public
speakers, voice actors and thespians are just some of the people who capitalise on these
verbal intricacies. From the subtle inflection that separates a statement from a question to the
cadence which marks the end of a point, or even the dynamics and tempo of speech can
7
Igor Stravinsky, Chronicle of My Life, translated from French (V. Gollancz, 1936), pp. 91-92.
8
Ibid, p.91.
9
Judith Williamson, Decoding Advertisments. Ideology and Meaning in Advertising (London and New York:
Marion Boyars, 1978), p.13.
10
Robert Hatten, ‘A Theory of Musical Gesture and its Application to Beethoven and Schubert’, in Music and
Gesture, p.104.
3
drastically alter our experience and perception just as they do in music. Ekman outlines five
expressions11. The scholar Deryck Cooke however discussed these points long before this. In
his publication of 1959, he notes that ‘composers have consciously or unconsciously used
dictionary, because it is incapable of such treatment’12. Cooke uses the example of the two
note slur from a minor sixth to a major fifth of the scale which expresses anguish in such
pieces as Bach’s B minor mass or Mozart’s opera Don Giovanni where Anna expresses her
grief at her father’s death13. Cooke’s point is remarkably similar to Hatten’s discussion of the
two note slur or sigh gesture as he terms it14. Thus we can see the intuitive foundation for
gestural analysis and to accommodate all this study into an analysis of Debussy’s first book
of preludes.
11
Paul Ekman, ‘Emotional and Conversational nonverbal signs’, in Gesture, speech and sign, ed. by Lynn
S.Messing and Ruth Campbell (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp.45-55.
12
Deryck Cooke, The Language of Music (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), pp. 13-14.
13
Ibid, p. 14.
14
Robert Hatten, ‘A Theory of Musical Gesture and its Application to Beethoven and Schubert’, in Music and
Gesture, p.140.
4
1.2. Established theories- Hatten and Larson
shaping through time that may be interpreted as significant’15. Such a succinct definition
raises as many questions as it answers, Hatten does however present a more comprehensive
list of gestural characteristics in his own publication, Interpreting Musical Gesture, Topics
and Tropes: Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert. The complexity of the musical gesture is
highlighted by the fact that Hatten requires twelve definitions in order to adequately
articulate his point. These definitions along with my own interpretive summary are presented
communication- they are not merely simply the physical actions that produce
the physical actions involved in sound but the expressive meaning that an
15
Robert Hatten, ‘A Theory of Musical Gesture and its Application to Beethoven and Schubert’, in Music and
Gesture, p.1.
5
2. Musical gestures have meaning that Musical gestures are first and foremost
human beings.
musical notation, given knowledge be noted however that it does not contradict
of the relevant musical style and the previous definition in that the gestural
established.
4. Gestures may be inferred from a Much like definition one Hatten here
musical performance even when we reiterates the fact that gestures are not the
do not have visual access to the physical actions that produce sound. Their
sufficient aural imagery to can gain all that we need to know of musical
6
5. Gestures may be comprised of any Building on def. four when he introduced
of the elements of music, although the term aural imagery Hatten points out
they are not reducible to them; they that gestures are gestalts, which I mentioned
6. The prototypical musical gesture is a The basic unit of musical gesture is well
unit in the perceptual present defined. The time limit of two seconds is
(typically within two seconds). It has corroborated by what psychologists term our
initiation and closure, such that we sensory store; the first of our three memory
can speak of a series of gestures, or stores that attends to input from our senses.
7. When gestures encompass more than Musical gestures are additive. By nuanced
one musical event, they provide a continuity Hatten suggests that combined
together otherwise separate musical gestures that bind together a musical whole.
16
D. Massaro and G.R. Loftus, ‘Sensory storage: Icons and echoes’, pp. 69-101.
7
8. Gestures may also be hierarchically Connected to the previous definition with
organised, in that larger gestures can some clarification. The term “hierarchically
perceptual present.
9. Certain motive-length gestures may Gestures may serve thematic functions and
or ongoing evolution by means of All motifs are gestures but not all gestures
10. Gestures may encompass, and help Gestures not only comprise the basis of
express, rhetorical action, as in a music but also guide its flow. Here we can
8
11. Besides the correlative gestures a While we have observed higher level
instrument such as the piano, there higher level of gesture which performers
may be higher-level gestures that a may employ to guide our attention towards
performer employs to help direct the larger scale musical effects such as form or
12. Gestures provide a level of musical The most ambiguous but perhaps most
truth that make it difficult (but not important of the twelve definitions. Hatten
impossible) for music to “lie” here suggests that gesture provides us with
musical factors.
17
Robert Hatten, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes : Mozart, Beethoven,
Schubert (Bloomington, Ind. : Indiana University Press, 2004), pp. 93-95.
9
1.2.1- Larson’s definitions of musical force
While Hatten provides a more than comprehensive basis for the definition and identification
of musical gestures he does not go as far in his descriptions of the inner workings of these
gestures. For me, a description of the inner machinations of a gesture is just as important and
interesting than their identification and categorisation. One of the more curious
considerations is exactly what Hatten means by the term ‘energetic shaping’ 18? I believe that
the best answer to these questions can be found in the work of the late Steve Larson.
Music Larson outlines his theories regarding three musical forces; gravity, magnetism and
are all aware of the ‘what goes up must come down’ law in
heard as above a stable position, to descend’22. Larson defines these stable positions as
18
Robert Hatten, ‘A Theory of Musical Gesture and its Application to Beethoven and Schubert’, in Music and
Gesture, p.1.
19
Steve Larson, Musical Forces: Motion, Metaphor and Meaning in Music (Indiana University Press, 2012),
pp. 82-110
20
David Huron, Sweet Anticipation: Music and the Psychology of Expectation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
2006).
21
Roy Howat, The Art of French Piano Music (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2009), p. 16.
10
strong diatonic or triadic points within the context of the musical phrase. One example of
gravity at work is what Larson calls the ‘Hallelujah Figure’. This gesture is identified by its
5^- 6^- 5^ motion in the melody. Famous examples include Handel’s Hallelujah Chorus
(highlighted in fig. 1.1 above) or even Twinkle twinkle little star and Happy birthday. Due to
its physically uplifting nature the gesture has come to signify happiness23.
defined as ‘the tendency of an unstable note to move to the closest stable pitch’24. Much like
physics, magnetic attraction depends on distance, the closer a note is to a stable pitch the
greater the magnetic force. Much research has gone into this theory as it is corroborated by
Aarden (2003), Margulis (2003) and Lerdahl. While each of these scholars’ research differs
in subtle details their overall hypotheses all aim to the same end, thus for the purpose of this
thesis we can regard them as suitably similar to prove Larson’s definition on magnetism.
Based on personal preference I will refer to Lerdahl’s theory of anchoring strength when
discussing any issues of magnetism. Therein Lerdahl classifies each note of the scale with an
anchoring value:
Tonic 4 C
Triadic 3 C,E,G
Diatonic 2 CDEFGAB
Then one can determine the magnetic force based on his attraction equation given by:
22
Steve Larson, Musical Forces: Motion, Metaphor and Meaning in Music, p.83.
23
Ibid, p.83.
24
Ibid, p.88.
11
( ) ( )
Where:
S1- 2
S2- 4
N-1
( ) ( )
The last of Larson’s three musical forces is termed inertia, the tendency of a pattern
of motion to continue in the same fashion, where ‘same’ depends on how the pattern is
represented in musical memory25. This is one of the most intriguing forces when we consider
it in terms of musical gesture. How do these patterns relate to gestures? Inertia seems to have
a strong link with strategically rhetorical gestures which I will discuss later.
25
Steve Larson, Musical Forces: Motion, Metaphor and Meaning in Music, p.96.
12
1.3. Choice of repertoire
problematic’26
Whittall goes on to discuss how scholars such as David Lewin have begun to analyse
These networks treat ‘musical material as a mixture of motivic and harmonic components in
a logically evolving rather than hierarchically stratified context’27. The networks also chart a
process in which ‘continuity and change interact’28, a process which is remarkably similar to
our discussion of inertia or rhetorical gestures in section 1.2.2. Lewin’s research serves to
highlight how traditional models of analysis are not entirely suitable for the complex musical
language which Debussy was developing at the beginning of the twentieth century. Richard
S. Parks also notes how the absence of the Urline in Debussy’s music makes it difficult to
apply Schenkerian techniques29. Two of Schenker’s own students have tried this approach
however, adapting their teacher’s own techniques. Felix Salzer blurs Schenker’s strict
distinction between dissonance and consonance in an attempt to show a large scale tonal
coherence of entire pieces. Adele Katz on the other hand was more reluctant to adjust the
26
Arnold Whittall, ‘Debussy Now’, in The Cambridge Companion to Debussy, ed. by Simon Trezise
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p.280.
27
Ibid, p.280.
28
Ibid, p.280.
29
Richard S. Parks, The Music of Claude Debussy (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989), p.4.
13
original theory and so her analysis is restricted to shorter passages 30. For this very reason,
and due to my fascination with Debussy, I have chosen to investigate the applicability of
gestural analysis to Debussy’s first book of préludes. My choice of the préludes is based on
My choice of repertoire is not based solely on preference however. There are many logical
reasons that would suggest early on that gestural analysis is suitable to Debussy’s music.
the term impressionist as it was used with negative connotations, there can be no doubt that
his music displays impressionist characteristics. Debussy himself was quoted as saying ‘my
dream is to suggest’31. This quote seems to link directly with Hatten’s second definition that
gestures ‘”go beyond” the score to embody the intricate shaping and character of movements
that have direct biological and social significance for human beings.’ 32
Many scholars have also noted that much of Debussy’s music forms itself into two
part cells where the second is the same, or a variant of the first33. This would seem to link
Finally, and perhaps most promising is the assertion which every student of Debussy
music will hear time and again; Debussy is all about colour. I include this term in italics as it
30
Boyd Pomeroy, ‘Debussy’s tonality: a formal perspective’, in The Cambridge Companion to Debussy, ed. by
Simon Trezise (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p.162.
31
The Open University, The Rise of Modernism in Music 1890-1935, Units 5-7, Debussy (Worcester and
London: The Open University Press, 1979), p.37.
32
Robert Hatten, ‘A Theory of Musical Gesture and its Application to Beethoven and Schubert’, in Music and
Gesture, pp.93-95.
33
The Open University, The Rise of Modernism in Music 1890-1935, Units 5-7, Debussy, p.38.
14
Debussyan context directly ties in with Hatten’s fifth definition from table 1.1. Ideas of
Debussy’s colour will also allow us to discuss chromaticism more accurately as in Debussy’s
music chromaticism is not often used as a departure from diatonicism rather it is used for its
34
Richard S. Parks, The Music of Claude Debussy, pp.4-5.
15
Chapter 2- Existing Methodologies
to gestural analysis, therefore it follows that his own analyses should be our first point of
departure when developing our own approach. Our first point of reference is the summary of
classes and functions of gestures which Hatten outlines in his 2004 publication; these are
issues).
and may even be generalised as new sounding forms are often marked and
16
b. Thematic, as subject of discourse for
developing variation.
of an expressive genre.
or textual undercuttings.
discourse.
During Hatten’s own analysis of Schubert’s piano sonatas in A minor D.784 and A
major D.959 he focuses on the issue of developing thematic gestures. Hatten posits that ‘for
Beethoven and Schubert, gestural developing variation can help generate the structure and
35
Robert Hatten, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes: Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert , pp. 136-137.
17
motivate the expressive meaning of major works in sonata form’36. For example Hatten
discusses the opening gesture in Beethoven’s Mit Lebhaftigkeit und durchaus mit
Empfindung und Ausdruck. This gesture (highlighted in fig 2.1 below) is an ‘upbeat-
Fig 2.1
Hatten goes on to discuss how this gesture is used and developed throughout the piece and
furthermore, how it also appears in Schubert’s piano sonata in A major D 959. He discusses
some other thematic elements which Schubert inherits from Beethoven including the
overtone resonance of the instrument and certain articulatory characters, signifying how even
in music’39
36
Ibid, p.186.
37
Ibid, p.178.
38
Ibid, p.184.
39
Steve Larson, Musical Forces: Motion, Metaphor and Meaning in Music, p.180.
18
One could easily argue, as I will that this claim applies just as powerfully to gestural analysis.
In fact, Larson himself proves our point almost immediately during his analysis of the
opening bars of Schubert’s Am Feierabend from Die schöne Müllerin where he states that
‘the passage can be heard […] with a shape that flows like a graceful physical gesture’ 40.
Larson then goes on to analyse the opening piano figure of this piece, fig 2.2 below.
Fig2.2
As expected Larson discusses issues of inertia in this extract. However, his discussion of the
piano part (lower two staves) is not as simple as one might initially assume. It is somewhat
obvious that the piano part gives into inertia for its first three iterations. During its fourth
sounding however the left hand changes to playing a C rather than an A. Larson remarks
how this would traditionally be read as a pattern breaking inertia. Yet if we consider the left
hand as engaging in a voice exchange with the vocal part the pattern can be seen to give in to
inertia as it preserves the quality of the chord41. This voice exchange is highlighted in figure
2.3 below.
40
Ibid, p.181.
41
Steve Larson, Musical Forces: Motion, Metaphor and Meaning in Music, p.182.
19
Fig 2.3
This is just the first and most simple of a wide range of points Larson makes so eloquently.
Unfortunately I do not have the scope to discuss these in full in this thesis but for our
A similar study to my own regarding gestural analysis has been conducted by Douglas Scott
on Mozart’s flute quartet in D, K285. As part of an MA dissertation Scott presented his own
logico-deductive form of analysis based on Hatten’s theories of music and gesture. In the
following section I will present some pros and cons regarding Scott’s analysis and what
Pros-
Scott’s analysis presents a highly structured and logical approach to gestural analysis. His
primary point of departure is an analytical algorithm which divides an entire section up into
its constituent gestures based on Hatten’s two second benchmark for the prototypical
20
backward/retreating ( \ ) or stable/holding ( ^ ). These gestures can then be combined using
The result of this algorithm is what Scott terms an analytical tableaux43, an example is
shown below.
42
Douglas Walter Scott, ‘An Applied logico-deductive analysis of Mozart’s flute Quartet in D, K.285’ (MA of
Musicology dissertation, 2009), p.35.
43
Ibid, p.49.
21
Figure 2.4- extracted from Scott (figure 21)44
The obvious advantage of this approach is that both the procedure and the result are clear
and structured hierarchical models that can be reproduced for any piece of music.
Cons-
While there are many lessons to be learned from Scott, his approach to gestural classification
is too narrow in my view. As Scott points out, his model is based on ‘discrete symbolic
representations of tension flow’45. While this model is indeed highly useful when based upon
Lerdahl’s right and left branch subordination model46 it perhaps loses some of the more
semiotic aspects of gesture. My point here stems from definition two of table 1.1; gestures
have meanings that are complex and that go beyond the score to embody intricate characters
and shapings of music47. I believe that if we were to classify gestures as simply advancing,
retreating or holding, we would lose much of the power which underlies their ‘[grounding]
44
Douglas Walter Scott, ‘An Applied logico-deductive analysis of Mozart’s flute Quartet in D, K.285’, p.49.
45
Ibid, p.49.
46
Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, ‘Toward a Formal Theory of Tonal Music’, Journal of Music Theory, Vol.
21, No. 1 (Spring, 1977), pp.111-117.
47
Robert Hatten, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes : Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert , pp. 93-95.
22
in human affect and its communication’48. Furthermore Lerdahl and Jackendoff’s theory
does not consider metric levels such as triple beat division as ‘well formed’, their theories
Debussy’s music this limitation could become quite problematic. My other and most
fundamental problem with Scott’s approach is his approach to gestural troping. As we can
see in figure 2.1 Scott uses his analytical tableaux to combine each successive gesture into a
meta-gesture based upon the logic of table 2.2. However Hatten firmly states that ‘in order to
interpret a gesture as an amalgam of two separate gestures, the gestures in question must
thematic before they are combined’50, furthermore he asserts that ‘these are stringent criteria
to meet’51. Hence I will be adopting a much more strict approach to troping in my own
analyses.
48
Robert Hatten, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes : Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert , pp. 93-95.
49
Fred Lerdahl, Ray Jackendoff, A Generative Theory of Tonal Music.
50
Robert Hatten, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes : Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert , p.136.
51
Ibid, p.136.
23
2.2. My altered form of these analyses
While I firmly believe in the formidable power of both Hatten and Larson’s techniques
separately, together I find them even more useful. I have shown at this point how Hatten
treats and analyses his gestures and how he shows their expressive meaning which is
‘grounded in human affect and its communication’52. To be able to identify, codify and
discuss these elements which give such power to music and its communication is amazing.
In my opinion one way to improve this new form of analysis is to be able to explain the
forces which govern these gestures. In science we place much emphasis not only on
understanding the movement of the world around us but also on the forces of nature which
govern this movement. If gestures are indeed the true auditory counterparts of physical
motion and share with physical motion the same expressive moments then surely we must
strive to understand the musical forces which govern musical gestures. Furthermore, this two
pronged approach is vital if we are to truly fulfil Whittall’s definition that the analytical
process ‘is two-fold: to identify various materials of a composition, and to define the ways in
which they function’53. Fortunately Hatten and Larson’s research both lend themselves quite
well to consolidation. In the following chapter you will observe how I not only identify and
discuss gestural elements and their functions but also the musical forces that not only
accompany these gestures but in many ways reinforce my claims about their effects and
dialogues.
52
Robert Hatten, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes : Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert , p.93.
53
Arnold Whittall, ‘Analysis’, in The New Oxford Companion to Music, 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1983), i, p.58.
24
2.2.2. Performative considerations.
departure’54
As Hatten has noted in his definitions from table 1.1, ‘gestures can be inferred from musical
performance even when we do not have visual access to the motions of the performer’ 55 and
‘there may be higher level gestures that a performer employs to help direct the listener’s
attention to the main structural outlines of a form or an expressive genre’56. Clearly Hatten
regards performance as a central part of gestural realisation and perception. In fact any
theory that is grounded in human experience and expression will rely in part at least on
human subjectivity. My initial instinct when beginning my research was to shy away from
this aspect as I felt it in some ways limits an abstract analysis down to a specific
interpretation. However, as I will show in the subsequent chapter, this is not always the case.
Due to my own experience playing the first book of preludes and encounters with numerous
recordings, performative considerations are not only enriching and valuable but simply
unavoidable. As José Bowen puts it, the ‘study of the performance tradition of a musical
work is the study of the musical work itself’57. I have been careful however to use these
considerations as evidence to support my own hypotheses rather than a point of departure for
them. This helps us avoid the common logical fallacy of reasoning from the specific to the
abstract rather than the other way around, i.e. the difference between the enriching rather
54
Kofi Agawu, ‘Analyzing Music under the New Musicological Regime’, The Journal of Musicology, vol. 15,
no.3 (Summer, 1997), p.297.
55
Robert Hatten, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes: Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, p.94.
56
Ibid, p.95.
57
José Bowen, ‘Finding the Music in Musicology: Performance History and Music Works’, in Rethinking
Music, ed. by Nicholas Cook and Mark Everist (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), p.430.
25
Chapter 3- Analyses
In order to fully introduce the various gestures and gestural development in Debussy’s
preludes I will present four varied examples. The first two will be in many ways an
introduction to gestural analysis as I examine the similarities and differences between the
opening gestures of preludes II and VIII and then the rhetorical elements of prelude XI. I
then intend to examine the many varied gestures of prelude VI and their development
throughout the piece. Finally I will present my argument for what I regard to be gestural
Much like Hatten’s analysis of Beethoven and Schubert I will discuss the gestural qualitites
of the opening gestures of Voiles and La Fille aux Cheveux de Lin (fig 3.1 below)
II- Voiles
26
Fig 3.1- Opening gestures of preludes II and VIII contained in brackets58,59
Both of these gestures are quite similar in that they present strongbeat-weakbeat, long-short
and release-held stylistic gesture types. They both also tie their opening notes, leaving the
listener in suspense for that bit longer before the gestures skip downward. Despite these
stylistic similarities I would consider these gestures to in fact contrast quite strongly due to
the overriding differences in their articulation and physical gestural analogues. In order to
explain my reasoning more clearly I must turn to Maurice Dumesnil’s guide on how to teach
and play Debussy. This guide published after Debussy’s death but endorsed by (the second)
Madame Debussy is in my view an essential reference for any pianist or musician who
strives to get to the heart of Debussy’s music. Dumesnil lays out a variety of techniques for
achieving different colours in Debussy’s music. Two types of attack are presented below as
Dumesnil remarks that in order to achieve certain pianissimo effects the second caressing
attack is preferable as it entails more progressive contact with the keys which softens the
58
Claude Debussy, Préludes I for Solo Piano, ed. by Hans Swarenski (London: Peters edition Ltd., 1975), p.5.
59
Ibid, p.34.
60
Maurice Dumesnil, How to Play and Teach Debussy (New York: Schroeder and Gunter, 1932)
27
tone61. These two illustrations are remarkable as physical representations of musical gesture.
In many ways they are a kind of musical onomatopoeia where the direct attack produces a
harsher tone whereas the second softens the tone as the finger gently strokes the keys. In my
experience the second caressing attack is favourable in La Fille where a gentle piano
opening requires a gentle relaxed and warm tone. In contrast the exposed nature of the major
thirds at the beginning of Voiles requires the pianist to use a more direct wrist and finger
action to ensure the notes maintain a clear and balanced sound. These contrasting approaches
transform two quite similar gestures into something much different, for evidence of this one
Further evidence which corroborates this approach can be seen in the strategic
dialogical responses to the opening gestures; here I may strengthen my argument with
reference to Larson. We may recall at this point Larson’s definition of inertia from section
1.2.2. as the tendency of a pattern of motion to continue in the same fashion62. While this is
proved by Larson to be true of pitch and metric patterns I believe it is also true of gestures.
Therefore it would follow that were the caressing gesture at the opening of La Fille to create
a strategic dialogue with a second gesture which it directly precedes, the second gesture
would have a tendency to carry on in the same fashion as the first63. Upon inspection of the
score it would seem that this theory holds. As we can see in the figure below the opening
gesture of La Fille is followed by its retrograde (with an overlap on the e’♭), and while the
notes and rhythm are reversed the articulation and attack are not.
61
Maurice Dumesnil, How to Play and Teach Debussy.
62
Steve Larson, Musical Forces: Motion, Metaphor and Meaning in Music, p.96.
63
The exact same argument could be made of the more direct nature of the gesture at the beginning of Voiles.
28
Fig 3.3- Opening two gestures of La Fille aux Cheveux de Lin
The second gesture of Voiles is also ruled by inertia but in a much different way. The direct
action of the opening thirds is followed by a similarly direct action which snaps the melody
upward with no warning. The long-short, strong-weak nature of the gesture is also turned on
its head as the second gesture is characteristically weak-strong and short-long. This gestural
reversal is further accentuated by a crescendo to the climax on the f#’’/ b♭’’ interval.
As we can see here it is possible to compare and contrast gestures from two very different
pieces. While La fille is without doubt a tonal piece in Voiles Debussy uses the whole tone
29
mode as a sort of ‘musical sponge’64 allowing him to move in and out of clear tonality as he
wishes65. While traditional forms of tonal analysis would have found these two differences
hard to cope with, gestural analysis offers us remarkable flexibility. Thus I offer this analysis
64
Roy Howat, The Art of French Piano Music, p. 10.
65
Ibid, p.10.
30
3.2. Analysis 3- Danse de puck
The eleventh prelude in Debussy’s first book is supposedly based on the fairy puck from
Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream. The capricious character of the opening theme
is a characteristically playful figure which harks back to L’isle Joyeuse. Both these melodies
We can also observe from fig 3.6 a perfect example of the two note cell technique I referred
to earlier. However Debussy plays with the phrasing in order to personify the character of
31
the Puck. As we can see in system one above the first cell encompasses bars one and two of
the piece while the second cell develops this in bars three and four. Proceeding to bars five
and six however Debussy plays with our expectations by displacing the opening gesture by a
single beat and introducing it on its second measure. This effect cheekily plays with our
In fact this whole prelude is rich in rhetorical gestures, the most important of which
appears for the first time in bar six, i.e. the triplet figure below.
I have termed this the fanfare gesture because of its function throughout the piece. It appears
four times and serves a strategically rhetorical function each time, introducing a change in
the musical discourse. The other three iterations are presented in figure 3.8 below.
Bar 41
32
Bar 69
Bars 91-93
These various occurrences serve to show how an initial spontaneous strategic gesture can
become thematised and developed in the course of a piece. I have presented it here as an
33
3.3. Analysis 2- Des pas sur la neige.
Edward Lockspeiser has noted a remarkable unity of gesture based on Debussy’s fascination
with the ‘stagnation of water’66. One could note that this preoccupation with stagnation is
reflected in a stagnation of both rhythm and pitch class. Lockspeiser directs us to act III
scene ii of Pelléas to observe this effect; Gouland’s line ‘Eh bien, voice l’eau stagnante dont
je vous parlais’ is set to a markedly stagnant melody and a pedal rhythm, fig 3.5 below.
Pedals are also prominent in the first book of preludes and serve interesting roles as gestures.
Similar to the pedal above is the hypnotic rhythm from Des pas sur la neige, fig 3.10 below.
66
Edward Lockspeiser, Debussy: His Life and Mind, 2 vols. (London: Cassell, 1962), ii. p.234.
34
Here Debussy seems to have translated the stagnation of running water into the ‘bleak’
landscape of frozen water using the same pedal function, Debussy himself points this out
with the performance direction underneath bar one above. Roy Howat remarks that this
rhythm, ‘deftly evokes a sense of snow crunching underfoot’67. While the rhythm of this
pedal is repeated every half bar the overall gesture can be thought of in two parts, the first
moving from d’-e’ and the second from e’-f’. Hence the gesture is constantly oscillating
from points of stability to instability and back again, that is, stable in the sense of Larson’s
‘points of stability’ for magnetism or gravity. While this gesture does evoke symbolic
readings such as the effect of the hypnotist’s coin or the weary explorer battling through the
snow it is also interesting to investigate the musical forces that create its static nature.
On the surface we can clearly see that this gesture is in a constant battle with musical
magnetism. Throughout the piece a tonal centre of D is firmly established, the first half of
this gesture departs from this centre to a point of instability on e’. This sense of tension then
immediately succumbs to the chromatic attraction of the minor second between e’ and f’. In
( ) ( )
An extremely strong value when we consider the strongest diatonic index value to be 2. In
this respect we seem to have a contradiction between the magnetic energy of the gestural
movement and our initial hypothesis regarding Debussy’s ‘preoccupation […] with
67
Roy Howat, ‘The Art of French Piano Music’, p.14.
35
stagnation’68. Any recording will also reveal a sense of the pieces eerie static nature. Upon
closer inspection however we can see how any forces of tension that are built up in the first
half of the gesture are released in the second half, this tension-release effect has an inverse
relationship with magnetic force. In fact, this tensile energy can be thought of as potential
energy relating to magnetism, and as such the magnetism of this gesture is also negated by
the end of the second half. We can also observe from figure 3.10 how the dynamics rise and
fall, negating each other also. As a pianist the two diminuendos in this gesture always
puzzled me. Why would Debussy place a diminuendo over a held note? A somewhat
redundant dynamic seeing as a pianist has no choice but to let a held note die away once it
has been sounded, it would have sufficed to place another pianissimo marking half way
through the bar. I believe that Debussy has made a point of placing this diminuendo here so
that he can emphasise the static movement of the gesture. We can also see the gestures clear
analogue with physical movement, the symmetrical implication of the notation creates for
the listener a sense of movement, departure and return, or in terms of Scott’s notation from
section 2.1.2 the stylistic gesture would be / for the first half and \ for the second half.
Applying the logic from table 2.2 thus yields ^: a holding gesture.
While magnetism sets up a static feel along with the holding nature of the gestures
stylistic elements the musical force inertia really reinforces the stagnant nature during
performance and subsequent hearings. Apart from certain linking sections, e.g. bars 12-13,
the rhythm of this gesture is heard throughout the entire piece, creating a hypnotising
foundation which at once stagnates the piece while at the same time never lets it rest.
While we now have a working understanding of the principal gesture one must ask
the question, how does Debussy maintain our interest in such a piece? To answer this
question we must investigate Debussy’s use of colour. As I have mentioned before, the
68
Edward Lockspeiser, Debussy: His Life and Mind, ii. p.234.
36
principal gesture is reiterated almost throughout the entire piece, and while we get a sense of
the gestures static nature it is balanced by an ever changing number of harmonisations and
orchestration69; its masterful use here reflects a migration of Debussy’s orchestral colouring
techniques over to his piano music, indicative of his style in the early 20th century. Below I
have included a table of all the harmonisations Debussy utilises in this piece.
Bar 1 Bar 1
Bar 5 Bar 5
Over G major Over F major 7th
Bar 6 Bar 6
69
Christopher Gunning, review of Debussy, Pélleas et Mélisande, dir. Louis Langrée, Seen and Heard
International, 21 April 2011, http://www.seenandheard-international.com/2011/04/21/debussys-pelleas-et-
melisande-at-londons-barbican/ [accessed 14th August 2013].
37
Over E minor 7th Over D minor
Bar 8 Bar 8
Bar 10
Bar 16
Bar 11
38
Bar 22
Bar 16
D♭7
Bar 26 Bar 23
Bar 27
Bar 24
E♭11
70
José Rodríguez Alvira, Des pas sur la neige- Prelude by Claude Debussy,
<http://www.teoria.com/articles/des_pas_sur_la_neige/index.html> [accessed 14th August 2013]
39
Based on this table it would be tempting to delve into a lengthy discussion regarding the
harmonic progressions of this piece, I believe however that this piece represents a case
where ‘Debussy’s surface chord successions typically serve ends of colouristic effect rather
than tonal-syntactical coherence’71. In terms of the melody a number of different modes and
scales are used, I have included these below in table 3.2. However due to the constantly
changing nature of the piece some of these modes are merely alluded to, i.e. certain pitch
classes are missing which are necessary to complete the scale, I have included these in
Bar 3 B♭ Lydian
B. 4 A Phrygian
B. 12 G♭ Lydian
B. 17-18 G Dorian ♭2
B. 21 A♭ Dorian (Gb) or
B.30 C♭ Lydian
71
Boyd Pomeroy, ‘Debussy’s tonality: a formal perspective’, in The Cambridge Companion to Debussy, p.158.
72
José Rodríguez Alvira, Des pas sur la neige- Prelude by Claude Debussy, [accessed 14th August 2013].
40
Interestingly, none of these mode changes correspond with a change in gesture
harmonisation, adding further effect to the pieces kaleidoscopic nature. Thus we can clearly
see that while the gesture itself creates a static and stagnant foundation, Debussy’s subtle and
delicate use of harmonisation and colour maintains our interest and attention.
The principal gesture of this piece, while extremely interesting, is not the only force
at work here. As I noted in section 2.1 there are also strategic gestures which may be
interpreted as significant. For example the stylistic gesture of bars 2-3 is thematised and used
throughout the piece. For example it is developed in bars 5-7, shortly after its first iteration.
Fig 3.11- First gesture in bars 2-3. Second gesture can be seen in bars 5-7. Both
41
When the second developed gesture from bars 5-7 returns in bar 20 it contains a vitally
As we can see from fig 3.12 the melodic gesture returns in seemingly the same form,
supported by the same harmonisation of the principal gesture from bar 5. However, the c’’♭
in bar 21 here acts as a rhetorical gesture in that it marks a change in the ‘unmarked musical
flow’73, i.e. one expects to hear the same c’’♮ from bar 5, coupling this with the ever
changing colouring of the principal gesture we are well alerted to an important change in the
musical discourse.
73
Robert Hatten, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes: Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, pp. 136-137.
42
3.4. Analysis 4- Voiles, Le vent dans la plaine and Ce qu’a vu le vent d’Oeust
We can now extend our theories to Debussy’s seventh prelude: Ce qu’a vu le vent d’Oeust.
Ce qu’a vu in many ways represents the climax of Debussy’s first book, in terms of technical
violent climax, supported by the opening arpeggios which build the impending sense of
Fig 3.13
Bar 2 of prelude II- Voiles Bar 3 of prelude III- Le vent dans la plaine
43
While Ce qu’a vu represents the most obvious and dramatic case of this gesture we
can trace its preparation back as far as prelude II. The title of this prelude, Violes, is
somewhat ambiguous in that it can be translated as meaning either ‘veils’ or ‘sails’. Edgard
Varèse, an acquaintance of Debussy, claimed that it portrays the long silk veils of Loïe
Fuller74, a dancer for whom the piece was possibly intended as music for a stage act though
never completed75. More than likely the title was left deliberately ambiguous by Debussy,
either way the suggestion and provocation of movement through material would be central to
the piece. In this respect I believe that the short-long, weak-strong and release-hold nature of
the gesture relates directly to the flick of a sail or dress in the wind or dance. This effect is
further emphasised by what I referred to in section 3.1 as this gesture’s contrasting response
to the opening gesture. Thus the wind gesture serves a strategically rhetorical function at the
beginning of Voiles as our attention is immediately drawn to its opposing nature. I have
referred already to the exposed nature of this preludes opening, the lack of accompaniment
focuses our entire attention on the melody, and its whole tone descent prevents the performer
from any significant use of the pedal, coupling this with the direct attack I referred to in
section 3.1 and we are presented with a crystal clear view of each and every note. But even
amid this unblemished opening Debussy still directs our focus with a crescendo to our
gesture (see fig 3.13), further emphasising its importance and conditioning our perception.
If one considers the gesture’s connotations in Voiles to be merely allusion then its use
as the main motif in Le vent dans la plaine leaves the listener in no doubt as to its function.
The gesture appears as early as bar 3 and in this prelude, provides a perfect example of
definition nine from table 1.1: ‘Certain motive-length gestures may be marked as thematic
74
Claude Debussy, Préludes 1er et 2e livres, ed. by Roy Howat and Claude Helffer (Italy: Durand, 2007), p.iv.
75
Roy Howat, ‘The Art of French Piano Music’, p.334.
44
evolution by means of developing variation’76. One such variation occurs as early as bars 5
and 6 where the demisemiquaver is replaced with an embellishment to the d’♭, shown in
In contrast, Durand’s 2007 edition has made the addition of an alternative reading based
upon the Welte piano rolls which Debussy himself recorded in 1913, fig 3.15 below. Note
that it is the stave below the upper two which is the alternate reading.
Fig 3.15- Exceprt from bars 5-6 of Le vent dans la plaine from Durand 2007 edition.
76
Robert Hatten, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes : Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert , pp. 93-95.
45
Interestingly we can see here how Debussy himself often played the embellishment as a
single acciaccatura which would have been melodically similar to the effect and duration of
As the prelude travels through different keys and colours the gesture follows and
Much like the gesture’s function in Voiles its utilisation here also creates a sense of changing
movement in the wind. The rapid sextuplets in Le vent create an unnerving and rapidly
moving foundation, much like a brisk wind and not unlike the rising arpeggios at the climax
of Voiles. Our wind gesture then serves to portray a strategically rhetorical function that is a
foreground stage, giving the piece dramatic character and marking a change in the musical
flow77.
The opening bars of Ce qu’a vu le vent d’Oeust are curiously similar to that of Le
vent, as I mentioned earlier the rumbling arpeggios develop an ominous tone, not unlike the
effect of the sextuplets in Le vent. Similarly, the first melodic gesture we observe in Ce qu’a
vu is remarkably similar to the developed form of the opening gesture we discussed in the
previous paragraphs. Both these gestures are highlighted below in fig 3.17.
77
Robert Hatten, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes : Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert , p. 136.
46
1- Developed gesture in Le vent
As we can observe, these gestures are almost identical save the metrical displacement of one
beat in Ce qu’a vu. This is just the first evidence that preludes III and VII are gesturally
linked.
Further evidence can be seen in the gestures I illustrated in fig 3.13. In each case
preludes II, III and VII, and their respective gestures, portray some degree of wind, from its
quiet and calm beginnings playing with the sails in Voiles to more excitable and strong gusts
in Le Vent, to full on gale force conditions in Ce qu’a vu. This gesture and rhythm (fig 3.13)
is central to these effects and becomes progressively more prominent and aggressive in line
with the increasing tension and force of the wind across these three pieces. In the case of Ce
qu’a vu Debussy uses this rhythm along with the forces of musical gravity and magnetism to
47
build tension as the piece moves to its climax. If we examine bars 15 and 16 we can observe
These two bars consist of a pedal f# note which is pulled up, as if by wind, by the chromatic
movement of the other two voices; only to be snapped back to earth rather abruptly by our
gesture. We can observe here both gravity and magnetism at work, however, with each
successive utterance of the gesture the interval between the two notes of this rhythm
increases. From a minor 2nd to a major 3rd and finally a perfect 5th, hence we can think of
the magnetic pull of our gesture, exerted by these intervals, gradually losing its grip each
time. This gives the passage a feeling of being swept away by the wind and the waves which
only gains momentum in the next few bars leading to the piece’s climax.
On a brief side note, bars 15 and 16 shown in fig 3.18 present a perfect example of
definitions seven and eight from table 1.1. On a micro level, that of the perceptual present
48
we can actually observe three gestures at work here: the wind gesture that we have been
discussing, the upper level chromatic voice of the left hand and the chromatically rising
triplet figure in the right hand. We can analyse each of these gestures individually for their
semiotic meanings etc. but together they also ‘generalise gesture to temporal dimensions
greater than the perceptual present’78 by binding together and creating the overall phrase, i.e.
the melodic contour, whose effect is worth more than simply the sum of its parts.
Thus I have shown how the gestures shown in fig 3.13 are all semantically similar
and through their stylistic use and development throughout preludes II, III and VII they
provide a linking force between these preludes that I believe is often overlooked, especially
considering the prevailing opinion that the first book of preludes is an eclectic mix of largely
unrelated pieces.
78
Robert Hatten, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes : Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert , p. 94.
49
Conclusion
In conclusion I have given an introduction to the ever growing field of music and gesture. I
have given some background to its beginnings in philosophy and language and have traced
its evolution up to the work of Robert Hatten and its definitions and applications today. I
have shown also the work on musical forces by Steve Larson and how these theories are
I then gave example of how these men apply their theories before laying out
justification for a combination of these two approaches with regard analysis. I have shown
how these theories of musical gesture and force can be used to deepen our understanding of
the work of Claude Debussy. While previous forms of analysis have found it difficult to
identify small and large scale forms for his works I believe I have shown promising evidence
that gestural analysis can be used to understand the inner workings of singular pieces and
I have also shown that Debussy’s first book of preludes is perhaps not the disparate
collection of individual pieces that some believe. While I am not claiming that the book is a
deeply connected collection I have shown that there are gestural connections and
developments between preludes that suggest a more cohesive structure than previously
thought.
50
Bibliography
Agawu, Kofi, ‘Analyzing Music under the New Musicological Regime’, The Journal of
Alvira, José Rodríguez, Des pas sur la neige- Prelude by Claude Debussy,
August 2013].
Cooke, Deryck, The Language of Music (London: Oxford University Press, 1959).
Debussy, Claude, Préludes 1er et 2e livres, ed. by Roy Howat and Claude Helffer (Italy:
Durand, 2007).
Debussy, Claude, Préludes I for Solo Piano, ed. by Hans Swarenski (London: Peters edition
Ltd., 1975).
Dumesnil, Maurice, How to Play and Teach Debussy (New York: Schroeder and Gunter,
1932).
Ekman, Paul, ‘Emotional and Conversational nonverbal signs’, in Gesture, speech and sign,
ed. by Lynn S.Messing and Ruth Campbell (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1999).
Gritten, Anthony and King. Elaine (ed.), Music and Gesture (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006).
51
Gunning, Christopher, review of Debussy, Pélleas et Mélisande, dir. Louis Langrée, Seen
international.com/2011/04/21/debussys-pelleas-et-melisande-at-londons-barbican/
Hatten, Robert, ‘A Theory of Musical Gesture and its Application to Beethoven and
Schubert’, in Music and Gesture, ed. by Anthony Gritten and Elaine King
Hatten, Robert, Interpreting musical gestures, topics, and tropes: Mozart, Beethoven,
Howat, Roy, The Art of French Piano Music (New Haven and London: Yale University
Press, 2009).
Huron, David, Sweet Anticipation: Music and the Psychology of Expectation (Cambridge,
José Bowen, ‘Finding the Music in Musicology: Performance History and Music Works’, in
Rethinking Music, ed. by Nicholas Cook and Mark Everist (New York, Oxford
Kühl, Ole, ‘The Semiotic Gesture’, in New Perspectives on Music and Gesture, ed. by
Anthony Gritten and Elaine King (Great Britain: Ashgate publishing ltd., 2011).
52
Larson, Steve, Musical Forces: Motion, Metaphor and Meaning in Music (Indiana
Lerdahl, Fred and Jackendoff, Ray, ‘Toward a Formal Theory of Tonal Music’, Journal of
Lockspeiser, Edward, Debussy: His Life and Mind, 2 vols. (London: Cassell, 1962).
Massaro, D. and Loftus, G.R., ‘Sensory storage: Icons and echoes’, in Handbook of
Parks, Richard S., The Music of Claude Debussy (New Haven and London: Yale University
Press, 1989).
Scott, Douglas Walter, ‘An Applied logico-deductive analysis of Mozart’s flute Quartet in
Stravinsky, Igor, Chronicle of My Life, translated from French (V. Gollancz, 1936).
The Open University, The Rise of Modernism in Music 1890-1935, Units 5-7, Debussy
53
Whittall Arnold, ‘Analysis’, in The New Oxford Companion to Music, 2 vols. (Oxford:
Whittall, Arnold, ‘Debussy Now’, in The Cambridge Companion to Debussy, ed. by Simon
54