1. Define AI as” Systems that think like humans”?

The exciting new effort to make computers think . . . machines with minds, in the full and
literal sense.
The automation of activities that we associate with human thinking, activities such as
decision-making, problem solving, learning.

2. Define AI as” Systems that think rationally”?

The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models. The study of the
computations that make it possible to perceive, reason, and act.

3. Define AI as” Systems that act like humans”?

The art of creating machines that perform functions that require intelligence when performed
by people.
The study of how to make computers do things at which, at the moment, people are better.

4. Define AI as” Systems that act rationally”?

Computational intelligence is the study of design of intelligent agents.

Artificial intelligence is concerned with intelligent behavior in artifacts.

5. Explain the turning test approach for ‘acting humanly’?

Turing defined intelligent behavior as the ability to achieve human-level performance in all
cognitive tasks, sufficient to fool an interrogator.
The test he proposed is that the computer should be interrogated by a human via a teletype,
and passes the test if the interrogator cannot tell if there is a computer or a human at the other end.

6. What are the things the computer needs to act as human?

The computer would need to possess the following capabilities:
 Natural language processing to enable it to communicate successfully in English (or
some other human language).
 Knowledge representation to store information provided before or during the
interrogation.
 Automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer questions and to draw new
conclusions.
 Machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate patterns.
7. To pass the total Turing Test, the computer needs what?
To pass the total Turing Test, the computer will need the, (COMPUTER VISION)
computer vision to perceive objects, and ROBOTICS to move them about.

8. Explain the cognitive modelling approach for’ Thinking humanly’?

If we say that a given program thinks like a human, we must have some way of
determining how humans think. We need to get inside the actual workings of human minds. There
are two ways to do this: through introspection—trying to catch our own thoughts as they go by—or
through psychological experiments.

9. Explain the laws of thought approach for’ Thinking rationally’?

The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify "right thinking,"
that is, irrefutable reasoning processes. His famous syllogisms provided patterns for argument
structures that always gave correct conclusions given correct premises. For example, "Socrates is a
man; all men are mortal; therefore Socrates is mortal." These laws of thought were supposed to
govern the operation of the mind, and initiated the field of logic.

10. Explain the rational agent approach for’ acting rationally’?

Acting rationally means acting so as to achieve one's goals, given one's beliefs. An agent
is just something that perceives and acts. (This may be an unusual use of the word, but you will get
used to it.) In this approach, AI is viewed as the study and construction of rational agents.

11. Give the advantages when we study AI as rational agent design?

o It is more general than the "laws of thought" approach, because correct inference is
only a useful mechanism for achieving rationality, and not a
necessary one.
o It is more amenable to scientific development than approaches based on human
behavior or human thought, because the standard of rationality is clearly defined
and completely general.

12. What are all the fields from which AI can be inherited?
AI can be inherited from
 Psychology
 Linguistic
 Philosophy
 Mathematics
  CS
 Economics
 Neuro science
 Control theory and cybernetics

13. What is the first successful knowledge-intensive system? Explain.

The first successful knowledge-intensive system is DENDRAL.
DENDRAL determines the 3D structure of the difficult chemical compound.

14. What is the first successful rule based expert system. Explain?
The first successful knowledge-intensive system is MYCIN.
MYCIN is used to diagnose the blood infectious disease.

15. Give the applications of AI?

The areas where AI can be applied are
 Autonomous planning and scheduling
 Game playing
 Autonomous control
 Diagnosis
 Logistic planning
 Robotics

16. Define an ‘Intelligent agent’? (Apr-May’15)(Apr-May ’16)

An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors
and acting upon that environment through actuators.
E.g.: vacuum cleaner

17. Give the sensors and actuators for human, robotics and software agent?
Robotics agent:
Sensors: infrared rays, cameras
Actuators: motor
Software agent:
Sensors: keys in keyboard
Actuators: output displayed on screen
Human agent:
Sensors: eyes, ears, and other organs
Actuators: other body parts
18. How does an agents interact with environments through sensors and effectors?

PERCEPTS SENSORS

AGE
NT
ENVIRONMENT
ACTION
ACTUATORS

19. Define an ideal rational agent?

For each possible percept sequence, an ideal rational agent should do whatever action is
expected to maximize its performance measure, on the basis of the evidence provided by the
percept sequence and whatever built-in knowledge the agent has.

20. What are the four things rational agent depend on?
The rational agent depends on four things:
• The performance measure that defines degree of success. (P)
• What the agent knows about the environment. (E)
• Everything that the agent has perceived so far. We will call this complete perceptual history the
percept sequence. (A)
• The actions that the agent can perform. (S)

21. What is an agent function?

An agent program tries to implement the agent architecture is called agent function.

Agent function=agent architecture + agent program

22. What are four types of environment?

The four types of environment are

1. Accessible vs. inaccessible
2. Deterministic vs nondeterministic
3. Episodic vs non episodic
4. Static vs dynamic
5. Discrete vs continuous
6. Single agent vs multi agent
23. Explain Accessible vs. inaccessible environment?

If an agent's sensory apparatus gives it access to the complete state of the environment,
then we say that the environment is accessible to that agent. An environment is effectively
accessible if the sensors detect all aspects that are relevant to the choice of action. An accessible
environment is convenient because the agent need not maintain any internal state to keep track of
the world.

24. Explain Deterministic vs. nondeterministic environment?

If the next state of the environment is completely determined by the current state and the
actions selected by the agents, then we say the environment is deterministic. In principle, an agent
need not worry about uncertainty in an accessible, deterministic environment. If the environment is
inaccessible, however, then it may appear to be nondeterministic.

25. Explain Episodic vs. non episodic environment?

In an episodic environment, the agent's experience is divided into "episodes." Each

episode consists of the agent perceiving and then acting. The quality of its action depends just on
the episode itself, because subsequent episodes do not depend on what actions occur in previous
episodes. Episodic environments are much simpler because the agent does not need to think ahead.

26. Explain Static vs. dynamic environment?

If the environment can change while an agent is deliberating, then we say the environment is dynamic
for that agent; otherwise it is static. Static environments are easy to deal with because the agent need not
keep looking at the world while it is deciding on an action, nor need it worry about the passage of time.
If the environment does not change with the passage of time but the agent's performance score does, then
we say the environment is
semi dynamic.

27. Explain Discrete vs. continuous environment?

If there are a limited number of distinct, clearly defined percepts and actions we say
that the environment is discrete. Chess is discrete—there are a fixed number of possible moves on
each turn. Taxi driving is continuous—the speed and location of the taxi and the other vehicles
sweep through a range of continuous values.

28. What are the four types of agent program?

The four types of agent program:
• Simple reflex agents
• Model based agent
• Goal-based agents
• Utility-based agents

29. What is simple reflex agent?

It is the simplest kind of agent. These agent selects action on the basis of the current
percept, ignoring the rest of the percept history.
E.g.: vacuum agent

30. What is model based agent?

The most effective way to handle partial observability is for the agent to keep track of
the part of the world it can’t see now. That is, the agent should maintain some sort of internal states
that depends on the percept history and thereby reflects at least some of the unobserved aspects of
the current state.

31. What is Goal-based agents?

Knowing about the current state of the environment is not always enough to decide what
to do. For example, at a road junction, the taxi can turn left, right, or go straight on. The right
decision depends on where the taxi is trying to get to. In other words, as well as a current state
description, the agent needs some sort of goal information, which describes situations that are
desirable— for example, being at the passenger's destination.
32. What is utility based agent?
Goals alone are not really enough to generate high-quality behavior. For example, there are
many action sequences that will get the taxi to its destination, thereby achieving the goal, but some
are quicker, safer, more reliable, or cheaper than others.
The customary terminology is to say that if one world state is preferred to another, then it
has higher utility for the agent.
Utility is therefore a function that maps a state9 onto a real number, which describes the
associated degree of happiness.

33. What is the advantage of learning agent?

It allows the agent to operate in initially unknown environment and to become more
competent than its initial knowledge alone might a low.

34. What are the four components of learning agent?

 The four components of learning agent are
Learning element
Performance element
Critic
Problem generator

35. Explain the components of learning agent?

Learning element-it is responsible for improvement of the agent.
Performance element-what action it does for particular percept.
Problem generator- one which improves the learning element.it is responsible for giving
suggestions and actions to learning element. Critic-used to get feedback from environment.

36. Write the algorithm for simple problem solving agent?

The algorithm is,
function SIMPLE-PROBLEM -SOLVING- AGENT(percept) returns an action
inputs: percept, a percept
static: seq, an action sequence, initially empty
state, some description of the current world state
goal, a goal, initially null
problem, a problem formulation

state  UPDATE-STATE(state, percept) if

seq is empty then do
goal  FORMULATE-GOAL(state)

problem

FORMULATE-PROBLEM(state, goal)
seq SEARCH(problem)
action  FIRST(seq)
seq  REST(seq)
return action

37. Define search?

In general, an agent with several immediate options of unknown value can decide what
to do by jrst examining different possible sequences of actions that lead to states of known
value, and then choosing the best sequence. This process of looking for such a sequence is
called search.

38. What are the four components in a well defined problem?

The four components are,
 Initial state
 Successor function
  Goal test
 Path cost
39. What is uninformed search?
It means that they have no additional information about states beyond that provided in
the problem definition. All they can do is generate successors and distinguish a goal state from
a non-goal state.

40. Give the types of uninformed search?

Uninformed search types are,
 Breadth first search
 Uniform cost search
 Depth first search
 Depth limited search
 Iterative deepening depth first search
 Bidirectional search

41. Define breadth first search. (Nov ’13)

Breadth-first search is a simple strategy in which the root node is expanded first, then
all the successors of the root node are expanded next, then their successors, and so on. In
general, all the nodes are expanded at a given depth in the search tree before any nodes at the
next level are expanded.

42. What is uniform cost search?

Breadth-first search is optimal when all step costs are equal, because it always expands
the shallowest unexpanded node. By a simple extension, we can find an algorithm that is
optimal with any step cost function. Instead of expanding the shallowest node, uniform-cost
search expands the node n with the lowest path cost. Note that if all step costs are equal, this is
identical to breadth-first search.

43. Define depth first search.

Depth-first search always expands the deepest node in the current fringe of the search
tree. The search proceeds immediately to the deepest level of the search tree, where the nodes
have no successors. As those nodes are expanded, they are dropped from the fringe, so then the
search "backs up" to the next shallowest node that still has unexplored successors.

44. Define depth limited search.

 The problem of unbounded trees can be alleviated by supplying depth-first search with
a predetermined depth limit l. That is, nodes at depth l are treated as if they have no successors.
This approach is called depth-limited search. The depth limit solves the infinite-path problem.

45. Define iterative deepening depth first search.

Iterative deepening search (or iterative deepening depth-first search) is a general strategy, often
used in combination with depth-first search that finds the best depth limit.
It does this by gradually increasing the limit-first 0, then 1, then 2, and so on-until a goal is
found. This will occur when the depth limit reaches d, the depth of the shallowest goal node.

46. What is bidirectional search?

The idea behind bidirectional search is to run two simultaneous searches-one forward
from the initial state and the other backward from the goal, stopping when the two searches
meet in the middle.

47. Compare all uninformed searches.

Criterion Breadth Uniform Depth Depth Iterative Bidirectional
first cost first limited deepening

Completeness Yes Yes No No Yes Yes

Optimality Yes Yes No No Yes Yes

Time O(bd+1) O(b [c*/ ε]) O(bm) O(bl) O(bd) O(bd/2)

Space O(bd+1) O(b [c*/ ε]) O(bm) O(bl) O(bd) O(bd/2)

48. Define informed search.

Informed search strategy--one that uses problem-specific knowledge beyond the definition of the
problem itself-can find solutions more efficiently than an uninformed strategy.

49. What is best first search?

Best-first search is an instance of the general TREE-SEARCH or GRAPH-SEARCH
algorithm in which a node is selected for expansion based on an evaluation function, f (n).

50. What is heuristic function?

A key component of informed searches is heuristic function, denoted by h(n).
h(n) = estimated cost of the cheapest path from node n to a goal node.
51. What is greedy best first search?
Greedy best-first search tries to expand the node that is closest to the goal, on the
grounds that this is likely to lead to a solution quickly. Thus, it evaluates nodes by using just
the heuristic function: f(n) = h(n).

52. What is A* search?

It evaluates nodes by combining g(n), the cost to reach the node, and h(n),the cost to get
from the node to the goal.
f(n)=g(n)+h(n).
Since g(n) gives the path cost from the start node to node n, and h(n) is the estimated cost of
the cheapest path from n to the goal, we have
f (n) = estimated cost of the cheapest solution through n

53. What is recursive best first search?

It is a simple recursive algorithm that attempts to mimic the operation of standard best-
first search.
It keeps track of the f-value of the best alternative path available from any ancestor of
the current node. If the current node exceeds this limit, the recursion unwinds back to the
alternative path. As the recursion unwinds, RBFS replaces the f - value of each node along the
path with the best f -value of its children. In this way, RBFS remembers the f -value of the best
leaf in the forgotten sub tree and can therefore decide whether it's worth reexpanding the sub
tree at some later time.

54. Define Tic Tac Toe Problem (Nov’13)

Tic-tac-toe (also known as Noughts and crosses or Xs and Os) is a paper-and-pencil game for two
players, X and O, who take turns marking the spaces in a 3×3 grid. The player who succeeds in
placing three of their marks in a horizontal, vertical, or diagonal row wins the game.

55. What is Artificial Intelligence?(Apr-May’14)(Nov-Dec’14)

The theory and development of computer systems able to perform tasks normally
requiring human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making,
and translation between languages.

56. List out the advantages of Depth first search (Apr-May’14)

 DFS requires less memory, since only the nodes on the current path are stored.

DFS may find the solution without examining much of the search space at all.
57. What are the components of Production System?(Nov-Dec’14)

Components of production system are,

 Set of Rules
 Control Stratergy
 Knowledge Database
 Rule Applier

58. Define Constraint Satisfaction.(May’16)

Constraint satisfaction problems (CSPs) are mathematical problems defined as a set of

objects whose state must satisfy a number of constraints or limitations. CSPs represent the entities
in a problem as a homogeneous collection of finite constraints over variables, which are solved by
constraint satisfaction methods.

59. Define Heuristic function (Apr- May ’15)

A heuristic function is a function that maps from problem state description to the measures
of desirability. It is usually represented as numbers. Well designed heuristic function can play
important part in efficiently guiding a search process towards a solution

60. When is the idea of AI emerged and how?(Apr-May’17)

In the 1940s and 50s, a handful of scientists from a variety of fields (mathematics,
psychology, engineering, economics and political science) began to discuss the possibility of
creating an artificial brain. The field of artificial intelligence research was founded as an academic
discipline in 1956.
61. Denote the importance of Means Ends Analysis. (Apr-May’17)
The means ends analysis process centresF around finding the difference between current
state and goal state. The problem space of means - ends analysis has an initial state and one or
more goal state, a set of operate with a set of preconditions their application and difference
functions that computes the difference between two state a(i) and s(j)