OFDM Notes PDF

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PART-A
1. What is the basic principle of OFDM?

The basic principle of OFDM is to split a high-rate datastream into a number of lower rate
streams that are transmitted simultaneously over a number of subcarriers. Because the symbol
duration increases for the lower rate parallel subcarriers, the relative amount of dispersion in
time caused by multipath delay spread is decreased.
2. Draw the OFDM modulator?
3. What is guard time?

To eliminate ISI almost completely, a guard time is introduced for each OFDM symbol. The
guard time is chosen larger than the expected delay spread, such that multipath components
from one symbol cannot interfere with next symbol. The guard time could consist of no
signal at all.
4. What is windowing?
Windowing an OFDM symbol makes the amplitude go smoothly to zero at the symbol
boundaries. A commonly used window type is raised cosine window, which is defines as,
5. What happen while applying the filtering technique?

When filtering is applied, a convolution is done in the time domain and the OFDM spectrum
is multiplied by the frequency response of the filter.
6. Define peak power?

The peak power is defined as the power of a sine wave with an amplitude equal to the
maximum envelope value. Hence, an unmodulated carrier has a PAP ratio of 0 dB. An
alternative measure of the envelope variation of a signal is the Crest factor, which is defined
as the maximum signal value divided by the RMS signal value. For an unmodulated carrier,
the Crest factor is 3 dB.
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7. Define crest factor?

It is defined as the maximum signal value divided by the RMS signal value.
8. What are the disadvantage of PAP ratio?

A large PAP ratio brings disadvantages like an increased complexity of the analog-to-digital
(A/D) and digital-to-analog (D/A) converters and a reduced efficiency of the RF power
amplifier.
9. What are the PAP reduction scheme?

i. Signal distortion techniques, ( reduce the peak amplitudes simply by nonlinearly
distorting the OFDM signal at or around the peaks)
- clipping,
-peak windowing,
-peak cancellation
ii. Coding techniques, (that use a special FEC code set that excludes OFDM symbols with
a large PAP ratio)
iii. Scrambling technique (scrambles each OFDM symbol with different scrambling
sequences and selecting the sequence that gives the smallest PAP ratio)
10. Define clipping?

The simplest way to reduce the PAP ratio is to clip the signal, such that the peak
amplitude becomes limited to some desired maximum level. Although c l i p p i n g is
definitely the simplest solution, there are a few problems associated with it. First, by
distorting the OFDM signal amplitude, a kind of self interference is introduced that
degrades the BER. Second, the nonlinear distortion of the OFDM signal significantly
increases the level of the out-of-band radiation.
11. Write the operation of clipping?

By viewing the clipping operation as a multiplication of the OFDM signal by a
rectangular window function that equals one if the OFDM amplitude is below a
threshold and less than one if the amplitude needs to be clipped. The spectrum of the
clipped OFDM signal is found as the input OFDM spectrum convolved with the
spectrum of the window function.
12. What is peak windowing?

To remedy the out-of-band problem of clipping peal windowing is used. it is one of the
technique to reduce peak amplitude, the window should not be too long in the time domain
because that implies that many signal samples are affected, which increases the BER.
13. Define Back-off?

The backoff is defined here as the ratio of the output power and the maximum output
power (saturation power) with a sinusoidal input signal.
14. What is the disadvantage of distortion techniques & how it will be reduced?
A disadvantage of distortion techniques is that symbols with a large PAP ratio suffer
more degradation, so they are more vulnerable to errors.
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15. What is coding technique?

The method can solve large PAP ratio symbol of large probability error is called coding
technique. By FEC coding can reduce distortion technique to the probability error of the PAP
ratio.
16. What is the disadvantage of Coding technique?

It can’t reduce the probability error for packet data.
17. Define scrambling?

Scrambling is the technique used to reduce the problem in coding technique, it scrambles
each OFDM symbol with different scrambling sequences and selecting the sequence that
gives the smallest PAP ratio.it support packet of data.
18. What is meant by PAP reduction codes?

The PAP ratio can be reduced by using a code that only produces OFDM symbols with
PAP ratios below some desirable level. Of course, the smaller the desired PAP level, the
smaller the achievable code rate.
19. What is meant by Golay complementary sequences?

Golay complementary sequences are sequence pairs for which the sum of
autocorrelation functions is zero for all delay shifts not equal to zero.
20. What is generating complementary codes?

In several coding rules are given for generating a set of complementary sequences, based
on some starting complementary pair, the kernel. For complementary sequences of
length 2, for instance, a possible kernel includes the pair 1,1 and 1,–1.
21. What are the basic coding rules for generating complementary codes?
1. Interchanging both codes;
2. Reversing and conjugating second code;
3. Phase-rotating second code;
4. Phase-rotating elements of even order in both codes;
5. Phase-rotating first code;
6. Reversing and conjugating first code.
22. What is Kronecker product?

Kronecker product can also be used to generate different sequences with the same length
by multiplying an original sequence elementwise with columns of the DFT matrix. It is
easy to show that such multiplications do not change the correlation properties.
23. What is minimum Euclidean distance?

The minimum Euclidean distance, which determines the performance in flat fad- ing with
additive noise, can be found by observing that a minimum distance between two code
words is obtained if N/2 symbols have a minimum phase rotation of 2/M, where M is
the number of phases. Thus, the minimum Euclidean distance dmin is
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24. What are the advantages & disadvantages of Suboptimal Decoding of

Complementary Codes?
Advantages:
It provides automatic weighting of the subchannels; erroneous channels with low amplitudes
will only make a minor contribution to the phase estimates.
Disadvantages:
A certain noise enhancement due to the double and triple products of noisy phasors.
25. What is the basic idea of symbol scrambling?

The basic idea of symbol scrambling is that for each OFDM symbol, the input sequence is
scrambled by a certain number of scrambling sequences. The output signal with the smallest
PAP ratio is transmitted.
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PART-B
1. How Can Generate Sub-Carrier Signals Using IFFT?
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2. Explain The Guard Time And Cyclic Extension?
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3. Explain The Windowing Technique?
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4. Explain The OFDM Signal Processing?
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FORWARD ERROR CORRECTING CODING
BLOCK CODES
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CONVOLUTIONAL CODES:
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CONCATENATED CODES
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INTERLEAVING
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QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
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5. Explain clipping and peak windowing?

The simplest way to reduce the PAP ratio is to clip the signal, such that the peak
amplitude becomes limited to some desired maximum level. Although clipping is definitely
the simplest solution, there are a few problems associated with it. First, by distorting the
OFDM signal amplitude, a kind of self-interference is introduced that degrades the BER.
Second, the nonlinear distortion of the OFDM signal significantly increases the level of the
out-of-band radiation. The latter effect can be understood easily by viewing the clipping
operation as a multiplication of the OFDM signal by a rectangular window function that
equals one if the OFDM amplitude is below a threshold and less than one if the amplitude
needs to be clipped. The spectrum of the clipped OFDM signal is found as the input OFDM
spectrum convolved with the spectrum of the window function. The out-of-band spectral
properties are mainly determined by the wider spectrum of the two, which is the spectrum of
the rectangular window function. This spectrum has a very slow roll off that is inversely
proportional to the frequency.
To remedy the out-of-band problem of clipping, a different approach is to multiply
large signal peaks with a certain nonrectangular window. In a Gaussian shaped window is
proposed for this, but in fact any window can be used, provided it has good spectral
properties. To minimize the out-of-band interference, ideally the window should be as
narrowband as possible. On the other hand, the window should not be too long in the TD
because that implies that many signal samples are affected, which increases the BER.
Examples of suitable window functions are the cosine, Kaiser, and Hamming windows.
Figure 2 gives an example of reducing the large peaks in OFDM with the use of windowing.
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Figure 1. CDF of the PAP ratio (PAPR) for a number of SCs of (a) 32, (b) 64, (c) 128, (d)
256, and (e) 1,024. Solid lines are calculated; dotted lines are simulated
Figure 2.Windowing an OFDM time signal
In Figure 3, the difference between clipping the signal and windowing the signal can be seen.
Figure 4 shows how increasing the window width can decrease the spectral distortion.
Figure 3.Frequency spectrum of an OFDM signal with 32 SCs with clipping and peak
windowing at a threshold level of 3 dB above the RMS amplitude.
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Figure 4.Frequency spectrum of an OFDM signal with 32 SCs with peak windowing at a
threshold level of 3 dB above the RMS amplitude. Symbol length is 128 samples (4 times
oversampled) and window length is (a) 3, (b) 5, (c) 7, (d) 9, (e) 11, (f) 13, and (g) 15 samples.
Curve (h) represents the ideal OFDM spectrum.
Figure 5 shows packet-error ratio (PER) curves with and without clipping, using a rate
1/2 convolution code with constraint length 7. The simulated OFDM signal uses 48 SCs with
16-QAM. The plots demonstrate that nonlinear distortion has only a minor effect on the PER;
the loss in SNR is about 0.25 dB when the PAP ratio is decreased to 6 dB. When peak
windowing is applied, the results are slightly worse (see Figure 6) because peak windowing
distorts a larger part of the signal than clipping for the same PAP ratio.
Required Back off with a Nonideal Power Amplifier

The previous section demonstrated that peak windowing is very effective in reducing
the PAP ratio. This does not immediately tell us, however, what back off is required for a
practical power amplifier to attain an acceptable level of out-of-band radiation. The back off
is defined here as the ratio of the output power and the maximum output power (saturation
power) with a sinusoidal input signal. Another definition frequently used in the literature uses
the power at the 1 dB compression point instead of the saturation power. Because the 1dB
compression point is typically 1 to 3 dB lower than the maximum power level, depending on
the amplifier TF, the back off values according to the latter definition are 1 to 3 dB smaller
than the values mentioned in this section.
Figure 5.PER versus Eb/N0 for 64-byte packets in AWGN. OFDM signal is clipped to a PAP
ratio of (a) 16 (no distortion), (b) 6, (c) 5, and (d) 4 dB.
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Figure 6.PER versus Eb/N0 for 64-byte packets in AWGN. Peak windowing is applied with a
window width of 1/16 of the FFT duration. The PAP ratio is reduced to (a) 16 (no distortion),
(b) 6, (c) 5, and (d) 4 dB
To simulate a power amplifier, the following model is used for the AM/PM conversion:
The AM/PM conversion of a solid-state power amplifier is small enough to be

neglected. Figure 7 gives some examples of the TF for various values of p. A good
approximation of existing amplifiers is obtained by choosing p in the range of 2 to 3. For
large values of p, the model converges to a clipping amplifier that is
perfectly linear until it reaches its maximum output level.
Figure 7.Rapp’s model of AM/AM conversion.
Figure 8 shows the output spectra of an undistorted OFDM signal and the spectra of
two distorted signals, assuming a highly linear amplifier model [p = 10 in (6.5)]. The backoff
relative to the maximum output power was determined such that any significant distortion of
the spectrum is at least 50 dB below the in-band spectral density. In this case, peak
windowing gives a gain of almost 3 dB in the required backoff relative to clipping. This
difference in backoff is much smaller than the difference in the PAP ratio at the input of the
power amplifier. Without peak windowing, the PAP ratio is about 18 dB for the OFDM
signal with 64 SCs. With peak windowing, it is reduced to approximately 5 dB. Hence, for
the latter case, it is clear that the backoff of a highly linear amplifier must be slightly above
this 5 dB to achieve a minimal spectral distortion. It is not true, however, that without peak
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windowing the backoff must be in the order of 18 dB for the same amount of distortion as
with peak windowing. Because there is little energy in the signal parts that have a relatively
large PAP ratio, distortion in those parts does not affect the spectrum that much. After peak
windowing or any other PAP reduction technique, however, a significant part of the signal
samples are close to the maximum PAP ratio (e.g., 5 dB).
In this case, any distortion that is a decibel or so below this maximum produces more
spectral distortion than clipping the original OFDM signal at 10 dB below its maximum PAP
level, simply because for the latter, a much smaller fraction of the signal is affected. Thus, the
more the PAP ratio is reduced by PAP-reduction techniques, the less tolerant the signal
becomes to nonlinearities in the area of its maximum PAP ratio.
Figure 8. (a) Ideal OFDM spectrum for 64 SCs, (b) spectrum after highly linear amplifier
(Rapp’s parameter p = 10) with 8.7-dB backoff, and (c) spectrum using peak windowing with
5.9-dB backoff.
Figure 9 shows OFDM spectra for a more realistic amplifier model with p = 3. The
target for undesired spectrum distortion has now been set to a less stringent level of 30 dB
below the in-band density. The difference in backoff with and without peak windowing is
now reduced to 1 dB. This demonstrates that the more spectral pollution can be tolerated, the
less gain is achieved with PAP reduction techniques.
Figure 9. (a) Ideal OFDM spectrum for 64 SCs, (b) plain OFDM with 6.3-dB backoff and
Rapp’s parameter p = 3, and (c) peak windowing with 5.3-dB backoff.
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Figure 10 shows similar plots as Figure 9, but now for 256 SCs. This demonstrates
that the required backoff with or without peak windowing is almost independent of the
number of SCs, as long as this number is large compared with 1. In fact, the difference in
backoff with and without peak windowing reduces slightly to 0.8 dB by going from 64 to 256
SCs.
Figure 10. (a) Ideal OFDM spectrum for 256 SCs, (b) plain OFDM with 6.3-dB backoff and
Rapp’s parameter p = 3, and (c) peak windowing with 5.5-dB backoff.
6. Explain about Coding and Scrambling?

A disadvantage of distortion techniques is that symbols with a large PAP ratio suffer
more degradation, so they are more vulnerable to errors. To reduce this effect, FEC coding
can be applied across several OFDM symbols. By doing so, errors caused by symbols with a
large degradation can be corrected by the surrounding symbols. In a COFDM system, the
error probability is no longer dependent on the power of individual symbols, but rather on the
power of a number of consecutive symbols. For example, assume that the FEC code produces
an error if more than 4 out of every 10 symbols have a PAP ratio exceeding 10 dB. Further,
assume that the probability of having a PAP ratio larger than 10 dB is 10 –3. Then, the error
probability of the peak cancellation technique is which is much less than the 10-3 in the case
where no FEC coding is used. Although such a low symbol-error probability may be good
enough for real time circuit-switched traffic, such as voice, it may still cause problems for
packet data. A packet with too many large PAP ratio symbols will have a large probability of
error. Such packets occur only very infrequently, as shown above, but when they occur, they
may never come through because every retransmission of the packet has the same large error
probability. To solve this problem, standard scrambling techniques can ensure that the
transmitted data between initial transmission and retransmissions are uncorrelated. To
achieve this, the scrambler has to use a different seed for every transmission, which can be
realized for instance by simply adding one to the seed after every transmission. Furthermore,
the length of the scrambling sequence has to be in the order of the number of bits per OFDM
symbol to guarantee uncorrelated PAP ratios for different seeds. Different scrambling in
every transmission will then guarantee independent PAP ratios for the OFDM symbols in
retransmissions and, hence, independent error probabilities. For example, if the probability of
a worst-case packet is 10–6, the probability that it will not come through within two
transmissions is 10-12.
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SYMBOL SCRAMBLING
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7. Explain The Distribution Of Peak To Average Power Ratio?
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www.Vidyarthiplus.

1. What is the basic principle of OFDM?

2. Draw the OFDM modulator?

3. What is guard time?

5. What happen while applying the filtering technique?

6. Define peak power?

7. Define crest factor?

8. What are the disadvantage of PAP ratio?

9. What are the PAP reduction scheme?

10. Define clipping?

11. Write the operation of clipping?

12. What is peak windowing?

13. Define Back-off?

15. What is coding technique?

16. What is the disadvantage of Coding technique?

17. Define scrambling?

18. What is meant by PAP reduction codes?

19. What is meant by Golay complementary sequences?

20. What is generating complementary codes?

22. What is Kronecker product?

23. What is minimum Euclidean distance?

24. What are the advantages & disadvantages of Suboptimal Decoding of

25. What is the basic idea of symbol scrambling?

1. How Can Generate Sub-Carrier Signals Using IFFT?

2. Explain The Guard Time And Cyclic Extension?

3. Explain The Windowing Technique?

4. Explain The OFDM Signal Processing?

FORWARD ERROR CORRECTING CODING

QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION:

5. Explain clipping and peak windowing?

Figure 2.Windowing an OFDM time signal

Required Back off with a Nonideal Power Amplifier

The AM/PM conversion of a solid-state power amplifier is small enough to be

Figure 7.Rapp’s model of AM/AM conversion.

6. Explain about Coding and Scrambling?

7. Explain The Distribution Of Peak To Average Power Ratio?

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