Andragogy of

Distance Education
Maritime Academy of Asia and the Pacific

Arun Ukamanal
Subject Matter Expert
 Table of Contents
Learning is a change
Learning theories and their implications
Pedagogy Defined
Andragogy Defined
Characteristics of adult learners
Pedagogy Vs Andragogy
What we learn?
How we learn?
The Learning cycle
Learning styles
The Learning process
New paradigm in learning
e Learning defined
Blended Learning
Learning delivery model
How they are achieved
Challenges
Inference
Acknowledgements
 Learning is a change

Acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, instruction,

practice or experience

A relatively permanent change in behavior or cognitive process

In training: change in knowledge, skill or attitude

“If you are planning for a year, sow rice

If you are planning for a decade, plant trees
If you are planning for a lifetime, educate people”

-- Chinese proverb
 Learning Theories

Behavioral theory: Observable changes in behavior

Cognitive theory: Thought process behind the behavior

Constructivist theory: We all construct our own perspective of

the world, through individual experiences and schema

Humanistic theory: Intrinsically motivated to self actualize or

learn. Learning is dependent upon meeting a hierarchy of needs
(physiological, psychological and intellectual)

Social learning theory: Learning from models

Pedagogy: Art of educating child

Andragogy: Art of educating adult

 Behaviorism

Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov : S-R Theory

Connectionism – Edward L.Thorndike : The Law of Effect
Operant Conditioning - B. F. Skinner : R-S Theory

Ivan Pavlov Edward L. Thorndike B. F. Skinner

 Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936)

1904 Nobel Prize in Medicine

20 years studying digestive system
30 years studying learning
Stimulus – Response Theory (S – R)

Ivan Pavlov
Dogs would drool in anticipation of food: S - R
What were dogs thinking or feeling?
How did they know he was going to feed them?
Did they see, smell or associate him with food?
 Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning

Experiment: Meat, Bell and Dog

Examined the phenomenon objectively by an experiment
Measured exact amount of saliva secreted by dog when
a piece of meat is presented
 Definition: Classical Conditioning

When an unconditioned and a neutral stimulus are paired,

the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that
elicits conditioned response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that brings about a response without having been
learned
e.g. smell of food causes salivation
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A response that is natural and needs no training
e.g. salivation at the smell of food
 Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

– A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with a UCS
to bring about a response formerly caused only by the
UCS
– Bell rings, dog salivates because he has paired the bell
with food due to conditioning

Conditioned Response (CR)

– A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously
neutral stimulus
– Salivation caused by bell ringing
Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
 Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning

‘Learning a conditioned response by associating a conditioned stimulus with

unconditioned one’
 Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning

Thunder = Rain = Lightning = get umbrella

“Sit” = biscuit

Neutral stimulus: prior to conditioning, has no effect

on the desired response

Until you experience thunder with rain & lightning,

you don’t think about getting your umbrella

Until you pair “Sit” with the behavior of sitting and

the reward of biscuit. “Sit” had no meaning
 Critiques: Classical Conditioning

Associative learning: Stimulus – Response (S – R)

Explanation only for reflexive or respondent behaviors

Very small fraction of human learning abilities

Involuntary responses caused by different stimuli

Complex human behaviors cannot be explored

 Behaviorism: Connectionism
Edward L.Thorndike (1874-1949)

Psychologist

Research : Animal behavior, human psychology

Learning involved forming bond between S - R

The Law of Effect Edward L.Thorndike

Connection between S – R = Positively rewarded : Strengthened

Connection between S – R = Negatively rewarded : Weakened

Responses that are satisfying are more likely to be repeated, and

those that are not satisfying are less likely to be repeated
 Behaviorism: Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning or Reinforcement theory

B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990)

Response – Stimulus Theory (R-S)

Experiment

– Voluntary or Learned behavior

Response is made first, then reinforcement follows: R-S

Behavior: influenced by its consequences

Operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in

operating on the environment)
 Behaviorism: Operant Conditioning
Skinner box – box with lever, if lever is pulled, drops food
into cup
Rat operated the lever more frequently over the time
 Operant Conditioning Mechanisms

Positive Reinforcement or reward

Responses that are rewarded are likely to be repeated. (Good grades

reinforce careful study)

Negative Reinforcement

Responses that allow escape from painful or undesirable situations

are likely to be repeated. (Being excused from writing a final because
of good term work)

Extinction or Non-Reinforcement : Responses that are not

reinforced are not likely to be repeated. (Ignoring student
misbehavior should extinguish that behavior)

Punishment: Responses that bring painful or undesirable

consequences will be suppressed (Penalizing late students by
withdrawing privileges should stop their lateness)
Classical Vs Operant Conditioning
 Cognitive Theory
Edward Tolman – Pioneering theorist in the field of cognitive
psychology
Process of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning,
intuition, or perception
Relationship between: cognitive environmental cues and
expectation (S-S Learning)
Experiment: Rats were allowed to run through a complicated
maze in search of food
Food was placed in certain points in a maze
When the rat came across the food they began to associate the
presence of food with certain cognitive cues
Rats and other animals develop ‘cognitive maps’ of their
environment
Learning involves associations established through closeness
and repetition
 Cognitive Theory Concepts
Schema
- An internal knowledge structure
- New information is compared to existing cognitive structures called
"schema“
- Schema may be combined, extended or altered to accommodate
new information

Three-Stage Information Processing Model

- Input first enters a sensory register
- Then is processed in short-term memory
- Then is transferred to long-term memory for storage and retrieval
 Constructivism

Bartlett (1932)
Good & Brophy (1990), Merrill (1991), Smorgansbord (1997)
Knowledge is constructed from experience
Learning is a personal interpretation of the world
Learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the
basis of experience
Conceptual growth comes from the negotiation of meaning, the
sharing of multiple perspectives and the changing of our internal
representations through collaborative learning
Learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be
integrated with the task and not a separate activity
 Humanistic:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self
Actualization
Motivators
Esteem

Love, Belongingness

Safety
Demotivators

Basic (Physiological)
 Humanistic:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self Growth, attaining one’s potential

Actualization & self fulfillment

Internal - Self respect

Esteem
External - Recognition

Love, Affection, acceptance

Belongingness & friendship

Physical, emotional Safety

protection

Basic (Physiological) Food, Water, Shelter,

Sleep, Education
 Social Learning

Grew out of Cognitivism

Bandura (1973)
People learn by observing other people (models) they think
are knowledgeable and credible
The model’s behavior is adopted
Self-efficacy: The individual believes he or she is capable of
learning
Four processes in learning:
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
- Motivation
 Summary and Implication of Theories
Aspect Behaviorist Cognitivist Humanist Social and
situational
Learning Thorndike, Pavlov, Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Maslow, Rogers Bandura, Lave and
theorists Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, Wenger, Salomon
Tolman, Skinner Gagne

View of the Change in behavior Internal mental process A personal act to Interaction /observation in
learning (including insight, fulfill potential social contexts. Movement
process information processing, from the periphery to the
memory, perception centre of a community of
practice

Locus of Stimuli in external Internal cognitive Affective and Learning is in relationship

learning environment structuring cognitive needs between people and
environment.

Purpose in Produce behavioral Develop capacity and skills Become self- Full participation in
education change in desired to learn better actualized, communities of practice
direction autonomous and utilization of resources

Educator's Arranges environment to Structures content of Facilitates Works to establish

role elicit desired response learning activity development of communities of practice in
the whole person which conversation and
participation can occur.

Manifestatio •Behavioral objectives •Cognitive development •Andragogy •Socialization

ns in adult •Competency -based •Intelligence, learning and •Self-directed •Social participation
learning education memory as function of age learning •Associationalism
•Skill development and •Learning how to learn •Conversation
training
Learning Approach, Process And
Teaching Methods
 Pedagogy Defined

Pedagogy is a Greek word, derived from two words: ‘paid’ and ‘agogus’

Paid – ‘child’ and ‘agogus’ – ‘leader of’

Pedagogy : Art and science of teaching children

 Pedagogy Roots and Assumptions

Pedagogy model roots: seventh century in Europe

Introduction of organized education at monastic schools (cathedral schools)

The objective: Induction of young men into the priesthood

Assumptions about learners:

Dependent personality of the learner: learner does not know his own learning
needs

Learning is subject centered : instructional curricula are organized around

subjects

External motivation: Prizes and punishment

Prior experience of learner is irrelevant: Teacher need not consider the

student’s prior experience
 Andragogy Defined
‘Andragogy’ : Greek word, meaning andr – ‘man’, ‘agogus’ – ‘leader of’

Malcolm Knowles (1970 ) coined the word

Andragogy : ‘The art and science of helping adults learn’

By definition of an adult is someone who has achieved the self concept of

being responsible for their own life
 Assumptions of Andragogy

The Need to Know : Adults need to know the utility and value of the
material before embarking on learning

Self-Concept : Self-directing and autonomous

The Role of Experience : Relate prior work experience in learning

Readiness to Learn : Orient towards tasks associated with real life, social
roles

Orientation to Learning : Shift from subject-centered to problem-centered

Motivation: learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators

 Characteristics of Adult Learners
Control over learning

High motivation to learn

Pragmatic in learning

Learning may be a secondary role

Resistant to change

Adult learners are more diverse

Draw on past experiences in learning

Learning is often self-initiated

Learning is aimed at an immediate goal

 Process Elements of Andragogy
Elements
Preparing learners
Climate
Planning
Diagnosis of needs
Setting of objectives
Designing learning plans
Learning activities
Evaluation
Andragogical approach
Provide information
Prepare for participation
Help develop realistic expectations
Begin thinking about content
Relaxed, trusting
Mutually respectful
Informal, warm
Collaborative, supportive
Mutually by learners and felicitators
My mutual assessment
My mutual negotiation
Learning contracts, projects, Sequence by
readiness
Inquiry projects, independent study, experiential
techniques
Learner collected evidence, validated by peers,
facilitators and experts, criterion
 Pedagogy Vs Andragogy

Learner Pedagogy Andragogy

Concepts of learner Dependent personality Self-directed
Orientation to learning Subject-centered Problem-centered
Readiness to learn Uniform by age level and Develops from life tasks and
curriculum problems
Motivation External: Rewards and Internal: Satisfaction, curiosity
punishment
Experience Limited Broad and varied
Planning Primarily by teacher Mutually by learners and
facilitator
Education Future oriented Result oriented
Adaptation to change Likely to accept new Skeptical, try it out before
information accepting
Application of learning Deferred Immediate
Physiological factors Less likely to influence learning May influence learning
(visual, audio, health)
Vocabulary Limited and increases through Extensive, influences learning
education
 What we learn
Verbal information - Names, labels, facts
Intellectual skills - Understanding of concepts
Motor skills - Coordination and dexterousness
Attitudes - Beliefs and feelings
Cognitive strategy - Regulate the process of learning
 How we learn
Learning Styles Characteristics Teaching Strategies

Visual visually illustrated • Graphics, illustrations

or demonstrated • Images
• Demonstrations

Auditory when it is spoken • Lectures

• Discussions

Kinesthetic Touched or • Written assignments,

manipulated taking notes
• Examination of objects
• Participation in activities
 How we learn
Learning Styles Characteristics Teaching Strategies

Social Groups Seminars

Networks Webinar
Peer group

Environmental Ambiance - learner online learners have

preferences edge over on-campus
(room temperature, students
lighting, seating, etc.)
 The Learning Cycle
The learning cycle is a dynamic process that involves four specific
stages:

– Concrete experience
– Reflective observation
– Abstract conceptualization
– Active experimentation

The key to effective learning is to be competent in each of the

four stages
 Learning Styles
Diverger Generates ideas and understands multiple
perspectives
Based on concrete experience and reflective
observation.

Assimilator Good at inductive reasoning, can create theoretical

models and explanations
Based on abstract conceptualization and reflective
observation

Converger Good deductive reasoning, decision making and

application of ideas
Based on abstract conceptualization and active
experimentation

Accommodator Involved in new experiences, implements decisions

and carries out plans
Based on concrete experience and active
experimentation
 Thinking styles of learner
Thinking Styles Characteristics

Reflective View new information subjectively

learners Relate new information to past
experiences
Often ask "why?"
Examine their feelings about what
they are learning

Creative Like to play with new information

learners Always ask "why?"
Make excellent troubleshooters
Create their own solutions and
shortcuts
 Thinking styles of learner
Thinking Styles Characteristics

Practical Want factual information without any "nice-

to-know" additions
Seek the simplest, most efficient way to do
their work
Not satisfied until they know how to apply
their new skills to their job or other interest
Conceptual Accept new information only after seeing
the big picture
Want to know how things work, not just the
final outcome
Learn the concepts that are presented but
also want to know the related concepts that
may not have been included
 The Learning Process
Learning occurs through both mental and physical processes

Expectancy
Perception
Working storage
Semantic encoding
Rehearsal
Organization
Elaboration
Retrieval
Generalizing
Gratifying
Old Vs New Paradigm
 e learning

The letter `e’ in e-learning stands for - `electronic’

E-learning pioneer BERNARD LUSKIN(2001)

E-learning

Internet-enabled learning.

Store house of education, information, communication, training, knowledge

and performance management

"E-learning is the use of technology to enable people to learn anytime and

anywhere.“
 e learning

LEARNING
 Delivery Modes e Learning
Synchronous learning

learning and teaching takes place in real time (same time) while the trainer and learners
are physically separated from each other (place shift).

Examples: listening to a live radio broadcast, watching live a television broadcast,

audio/video conferencing, Internet telephony online lectures two-way live satellite
broadcast

Asynchronous learning

Trainer prepares the courseware material before the course takes place
The learner is free to decide when he wants to study the courseware

Examples:
Distance education
Internet
CD-Rom
videotaped classes stored audio/video Web presentations or seminars recorded audio
tapes, Q & A mentoring
Reading e-mail, messages
 Other forms of e Learning

A lot more than just a self-study online course.

Any form of learning which uses technology to help people learn

Virtual classrooms, where an online tutor can interact in real time with
learners, give presentations, ask questions

Audio conferencing
Chat rooms
Discussion forums
Instant messaging
Podcasts
Vodcasts
Online games
e Learning Tree
 Many Faces of e Learning

Just-in-case or just-in-time
Hard-wired or modular
Expository or discovery
Dumb or intelligent
Tell-and-test or try-and-see
Desktop or mobile
Content or context
Interactive or passive
Self-paced or live
Self-study or collaborative
Formal or informal
Award-winning or good enough
Stand-alone or blended
Marginalized or pervasive
Pull or push
 Blended learning

Effort

Time to solution
Blended learning

Source: IBM Learning

Solutions : blended
learning for today’s
evolving workforce
 L & D Survey

Corporate Learning and Training Survey

What do you intend to achieve through your learning programs?

61%

47%
45%
37%
34%

21%
20%

7%
4%

Alignment Increasing Increasing Measuring Reducing Infrastructure - Faster Revenue Outsourcing

with Business Usage Effectiveness Support Costs Technology Deployment
Strategy
Source: Bersin & Associates

"For an organization, the biggest priority for training is to align with

business strategy. " Birskin
 L & D Investments
Training is a large investment

Changing Perception of Corporate Learning from a Cost to an Investment

 E learning Development Process
e-learning design can take any form, including interactive tools, case
studies, and quizzes with ample opportunity for online skills practice,
testing, and feedback

Our development process follows the best practices in e-learning industry

Our team of e-learning Architects, Instructional Designers, Subject Matter

Experts, Web Developers, and Programmers work as a team to create e-
learning courseware

Training
Need
Analysis

Evaluation
Design

Implementation Development
 Learning Management System

Learner Portal

Planning Administration
and
Scheduling

Assessment Content
Engine Management

Competency
Management
 Expert Help Ships and Shipping Cos e-coach

Assignment:
Regulatory
Agency (Govt)
Teledata

Professional Bodies

MET Campus

Student at home
 Highlights of LMS

Unified relational database

Modular architecture
Web-based for anytime, anywhere access
Real time access to information
Single portal for all stakeholders
Real-time reporting
High level security
Role based access
SCORM compliant
 Learning centered learning

The course registration process is simple

The tools are available as the learner needs them
The course offers a variety of learning opportunities for discussion
collaboration, interaction, and multi-media capability
The course offers flexibility to accommodate the changing schedules of
all learners
The course / program can be continually renewed through feedback
from learners
Learners are active partners in the learning process as opposed to
passive recipients
 Benefits of e Learning

“e-learning is changing the way people learn”

 Cost saving
 Just-in-time access to knowledge and information
 Peer-to-peer learning
 Worksite learning
 Manage complexity, volume and pace of training

 e-learners learn more and retain 25% to 50% more than they would in an
instructor-led training environment.

 e-learning results in a 60% faster learning curve compared to

instructor-led training. Provides significant cost savings.
 Benefits of e Learning

Anytime and anywhere access to course material (web-based)

Ability to monitor/ track student progress Comprehensive & effective

learning environment

Programs that can be adapted for specific learning styles & abilities

Course material that is constantly updated and current

Programs approved by professional bodies

 Benefits of LMS

24 Hours a Day / 7 Days a Week –

Learner can access courses 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, along with
their work, family and personal schedule

Cost/Man power Saving –

40 - 60% cost savings in training when compared to instructor-led

courses

Just-in-time learning –

Delivers learning “just-in-time,” the moment an employee needs that

Information.
 Benefits to Learners

Any-time, anywhere access to course materials

Collaborative learning environment

E-coaches

Tailor-made programs based on individual objectives via learning

Paths / Competencies
 Benefits to Staff

Tracks programs and courses

Adapts to different instructional styles

Monitors student performance effectively

Creates online assessments with minimal effort

 Challenges in e-learning
[Source: UNESCO publication, The Virtual University published Dec 2006]

 Institutional Inertia: This is the main obstacle to change...[Henri Ott and

Pascal Geeraert, UVPL, France]

 Copyright Management: Copyright is difficult to regulate…[Henri Ott

and Pascal Geeraert, UVPL, France]

 Lack of Leadership, technology know-how and support [ virtual

universities must develop policies and planning and management procedures that are
appropriate….Susan D’Antoni, IIEP, Canada]

 Challenge of providing demanding operational support that

increases the variable cost for on-line education [Dominique Abrioux,
Alabasca University, Canada]

 Lack of funding and expertise in producing quality e-learning

content [ most universities find that ICT adds to their cots ….Robin Mason, Open University]
 Inference
Does eLearning work?

2010 by the U.S. Department of Education (US DOE): 1000 case studies to 45

“Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning”

“A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies”

Online learning outperforms face-to-face learning

Blended learning is best

“Instruction combining online and face-to-face elements had a larger advantage

relative to purely face-to-face instruction than did purely online instruction.“

Interaction with peers and/or instructors improves learning outcomes

Blending and connecting are the most important considerations

Win - Win - Win Situation

 Acknowledgements
Many faces of e Learning: Clive Shepherd, Chair eLearning Network

Four orientations to learning (after Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 138)

www.brookes.ac.uk

http://www.coe.missouri.edu:80tiger.coe.missouri.edu/

http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/skinner.html

http://www.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de/genetics/behavior/learning/behaviorism.html

Reigeluth, C. M. (1989). Educational technology at the crossroads: New mindsets and

new directions. Educational Technology Research and Development.

What is the new paradigm of instructional theory.

http://itech1.coe.uga.edu/itforum/paper17/paper17.html

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework