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Printing History
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3
4 LITDRIFT
CONTENTS
5
1 ABOUT THIS MANUAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Assumed User Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Overview of LITDRIFT Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1 Short Model Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.2 Application Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.3 Computational Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Modelling Procedure, Step-by-Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.2 Defining and Limiting the Subject of Interest . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.3 Collecting Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.4 Setting up the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.5 Calibrating and Verifying the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.6 Running the Production Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.7 Presenting the Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 A Simple Example: Refraction and Shoaling Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.2 Defining the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.3 Setting up the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.4 Checking the Model Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.5 Doing the Actual Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.6 Plotting Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.7 List of Data and Specification Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 More Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.1 Blocking of Longshore Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.2 Sediment Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.3 Storm Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.4 Transfer Wave Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.5 Influence of Wave Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3 LITDRIFT SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 LITDRIFT: A Short Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Basic Equations – Longshore Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.1 Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.2 Wave Energy Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3.3 Wave Set-up and Set-down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3.4 Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.5 Littoral Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.4 Basic Algorithms – Longshore Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6 LITDRIFT
3.4.1 Discretization of the Hydrodynamic Parameters . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.5 Point Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.5.1 Sediment Transport Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5.2 Integration of Transport Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5.3 Algorithms for Annual Littoral Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4 LITDRIFT REFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1 Model Type Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2 Hydrodynamic Conditions in Time Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.3 Selection of the Cross-shore Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.1 Selecting the Grid Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.2 Remarks and Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.4 Wave Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.4.1 Spectral Description of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.4.2 Wave Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4.3 Water Level Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.4 Wave Energy Spectrum (Profile PMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.5 Additional Wave Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.5 Current Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.6 Wind Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.7 Sediment Transport Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.7.1 Sediment Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.7.2 Ripples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.7.3 Sediment Calculation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.8 Output Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.8.1 Output for Longshore Current and Littoral Drift Calculation . . . 91
4.8.2 Output for Annual Sediment Drift Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.8.3 Output for Transfer Wave Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.9 Overview and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.10 Running LITDRIFT in batch mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5 LITCONV REFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1 General Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.2 Input Wave Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.3 Calculation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.4 Output Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.5 Overview and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8 LITDRIFT
Purpose
1.1 Purpose
The main purpose of this manual is to enable you to use LITPACK to
solve your hydraulic and sedimentation problems in coastal areas. As you
will need assistance on different levels, the manuals for the LITPACK
modules have been structured accordingly.
The present manual covers the description of longshore current and littoral
drift along a uniform beach with arbitrary coastal profile, LITDRIFT,
while the whole LITPACK modelling system covers a much wider range
of applications. There is a separate manual for each of the modules within
the area of application for LITPACK.
The present chapter gives you a short introduction to the module LIT-
DRIFT, the type of applications it can be used for and a description of the
assumed background of the user.
In addition more complicated examples are shown. These have been cho-
sen to cover typical application areas of LITDRIFT within longshore cur-
rent and littoral drift calculations and sediment budget analysis. The
emphasis in these examples is on the capabilities and outcome of the
model (how the parameters are selected and how the results should be
interpreted).
9
About this Manual
z a hydrodynamic model
z a sediment transport model, STP
The sediment transport program STP is described separately in the LIT-
STP manual for non-cohesive sediment transport.
It is assumed in the model that the conditions are uniform along the
straight coast.
10 LITDRIFT
Overview of LITDRIFT Applications
This gives the distribution of sediment transport across the profile, which
is integrated to obtain the total longshore sediment transport rate.
Important effects such as the linking of the profile to the wave climate, the
wave climate to the storm surge and the variation in sediment properties
across the profile are included.
The assessment of the wave conditions - wave heights, wave periods and
wave directions - is essential for the estimation of the wave forces at a
shoreline. Another important problem in coastal engineering is the simula-
tion of the sediment transport, which for a large part is determined by the
wave-induced littoral current. The wave-induced current can be generated
by the strong gradient in radiation stresses which occur in the surf zone.
LITDRIFT can be used to calculate the radiation stresses, the wave gener-
ated longshore current and the longshore sediment transport rate.
Another facility enables the user to transfer the wave climate from deeper
water to a point in the profile or to obtain the conditions at a specific sin-
gle point in the profile for the entire time series with the purpose to calcu-
late the sediment transport later by the STP Model Type Multiple STP
Calculations.
11
About this Manual
z Deterministic Approach
z Local hydrodynamics for sediment transport
z Measured time series as input
z Graphics of results while calculating
12 LITDRIFT
Modelling Procedure, Step-by-Step
– Refraction
– Diffraction
– Reflection
– Bottom dissipation
– Wave blocking
– Wave breaking
– Wind generation
– Spectral Wave description
– Wave-current interaction
The LITDRIFT module can handle these phenomena with the excep-
tion of diffraction, reflection and wave blocking.
z what are the physical conditions for the sediment transport? The fol-
lowing should be taken into consideration:
– Sediment size and distribution across profile
– Water temperature
– Sediment spreading
– Sediment density
z what are the bathymetric conditions?
You have to consider the grid spacing of the profile. When bars are
present, the best results will occur when the single bar is described by at
least five grid points.
13
About this Manual
z bathymetric data
z sedimentological data, which should be bed samples, samples of sedi-
ment in suspension, grain curves etc.
z water level data
z wave data
z current data
z wind data
z calibration and validation data; these might be measured wave parame-
ters in selected locations, e.g. significant wave height, mean wave
period, mean wave direction and generated longshore current.
Bathymetry
You have to specify the cross-shore profile as a line series data file con-
taining bathymetry of the cross-shore profile. Describing the bathymetry
in your model is one of the most important tasks in the modelling process.
A few hours less spent in setting up the model bathymetry might later on
mean extra days spent in the calibration process.
Sedimentology
If the longshore sediment transport have to be calculated, the sediment
characteristics must be specified describing the local conditions across the
profile. The data is given in the line series data file containing the bathym-
etry of the cross-shore profile.
14 LITDRIFT
Modelling Procedure, Step-by-Step
If d50 ≥ 1.0 m, the bed is considered to consist of hard rock material, and
no transport takes place.
Depending on the way of calculation the fall velocity for d50 or the geo-
metrical deviation of the sediment at the location must be specified.
Some basic sediment transport parameters must be set in the model. These
have an effect on the size of the transport capacity.
Bottom Friction
The friction is specified as the local bed roughness across the profile.
The data is given in the line series data file containing the bathymetry of
the cross-shore profile.
Water Level
The water level describes the mean water level at deep water relative to
the base level of the coastal profile. This enables the inclusion of storm
surge or tidal data.
Wave Data
The wave data is specified by the spectral description of the wave field
together with the wave height, wave angle and wave period given for a
specific depth.
Current
The additional shore-parallel current, i.e. not the wave-driven longshore
current, may be given by a specific current speed, depth and bed rough-
ness or by current speed at a reference grid point. A third option is to give
a slope of the water surface, describing the impact of a current parallel to
the coast.
Wind
The wind may give a driving force additional to the waves.
The wind can be described by wind speed, wind direction and the friction
factor or by the wind direction and the resulting wind shear stresses.
15
About this Manual
Purpose
Having completed all tasks listed above you are ready to do the first LIT-
DRIFT simulation and to start on the calibration and verification of the
model.
Calibration Factors
Running your calibration run the first time and comparing the simulation
results to your measurements you may see differences between the two.
The purpose of the calibration is then to tune the model so that these dif-
ferences become negligible. The most important factor in the calibration is
the accuracy of the data. Hence, in order to reduce the differences, you
may have to change the basic model specifications listed in Setting up the
Model (p. 14). The bed roughness is the basic calibration parameter in
LITDRIFT.
16 LITDRIFT
Modelling Procedure, Step-by-Step
Much emphasis has therefore been placed on the capabilities for graphical
presentation in MIKE Zero, and it is an area which will be expanded and
focused on even further in future versions.
Essentially, one plot gives more information than scores of tables and, if
you can present it in colours, your message will be even more easily
understood.
A good way of presenting the model results is using line plots of the calcu-
lated water level, wave height, wave angle, longshore current and long-
shore sediment transport.
For annual drift calculations a rose plot showing the transport contribu-
tions as function of different wave directions and wave heights give a
good overview of the sediment budget.
17
About this Manual
18 LITDRIFT
General
2 EXAMPLES
2.1 General
One of the best ways of learning how to use a modelling system like LIT-
PACK is through practice. Therefore we have included some applications
which you can go through yourself and which you can modify, if you like,
in order to see what happens if this or that parameters is changed.
A Simple Example: Refraction and Shoaling Test (p. 20) describes a sim-
ple LITDRIFT application in order to get you started. The “what key to
press” procedure for going through this example is given in great detail
(what to select in the different menus).
In the section More Examples (p. 28) more complicated examples are
shown. These have been chosen to cover typical application areas of LIT-
DRIFT within longshore currents, longshore sediment drift and annual
sediment budget analysis. The emphasis in these examples is on the actual
hydraulics and sediment description (how the parameters are selected and
how the results should be interpreted).
The specification data files for the examples for LITDRIFT are included
with the installation of LITPACK. For each example a directory is pro-
vided.
19
Examples
z The grid spacing, which on the basis of the length of the profile is
selected to be 10 meters.
z The method of wave spectral analysis. In this case the waves are cho-
sen to have a Regular distribution with a reduction factor R(s) of 0.5.
z Whether to include setup in the calculations or not. In this example
setup is included.
Figure 2.1 shows the orientation of the coastal profile and incoming wave.
20 LITDRIFT
A Simple Example: Refraction and Shoaling Test
Select Engines from the header bar and subsequent select LITDRIFT
activate the input dialogues to the module.
When you wish to select an item from any of the subsequent menus, use
the tab keys or arrow keys to move around in the Windows dialogues.
When you are satisfied with the entered values, press Next to save the
input and continue to the next dialog page. To get help for the items on the
dialog pages you are working with, you can press F1 at any time.
The Setup Selection dialog is the first dialog in most modules. This is
shown in Figure 2.2. In this dialog you have the possibility to import a
previously generated model setup.
21
Examples
You are now ready to set up the model (specify the input parameters for
the model setup and check the model input) and to run the actual simula-
tion.
22 LITDRIFT
A Simple Example: Refraction and Shoaling Test
On the Model Type dialog you select Longshore Current. You accept
the input by moving to the next page by Next.
On the following page you have to specify the profile bathymetry, see
Figure 2.4.
23
Examples
Here you select the profile data file ‘simple.dfs1’, which is situated in the
directory containing the example. The profile orientation (Angle of nor-
mal to coast) is set by default as the orientation set in the profile data file,
here as 90 deg.N. Press Next to accept the values and continue.
24 LITDRIFT
A Simple Example: Refraction and Shoaling Test
For this simple test you must enter the following options and values:
The default conditions for the additional current are already set to No cur-
rent, so just press Next to accept the input and continue to the Wind Con-
ditions dialog.
Again the default conditions for the wind are already set to No Wind, so
press Next to accept the input and continue to the Output Specifications
dialog. As only the longshore current is calculated in this example, you
don’t need to specify sediment transport conditions.
25
Examples
For the line series file containing the results you specify the name
‘.\coast.dfs1’. As the title of the output you may type Simulation of long-
shore current. Select Next at the bottom of the dialog to accept the input.
You can now use the vertical scroll-bar to review the input and check it for
logical errors.
You can save the model setup in an input file when you press Execute or
Finish. You will then be prompted for a filename in a pop-up dialog.
When the job has finished (the time required will depend on your compu-
ter) you should check the file coast.log file. In this file the relevant input
parameters are listed and the resulting output data file statistic information
is given.
26 LITDRIFT
A Simple Example: Refraction and Shoaling Test
In the present example you may plot the values of the angle between the
wave and coast normal, the significant wave height and the wave driven
longshore current, respectively, across the profile using a line series plot,
see Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 Wave parameters and longshore current across the profile.
upper) wave direction
middle) significant wave height
lower) longshore current
27
Examples
Please note that in order not to over write the specification file, you should
copy it over to your own data directory.
28 LITDRIFT
More Examples
The sediment transport was calculated by use of Stoke's 1st order theory
with a single grain diameter approach.
29
Examples
The shaded area in Figure 2.10 shows the amount of material which is
blocked by the structure.
Figure 2.11 shows the accumulated sediment transport across the profile,
starting from the shoreline.
From Figure 2.11 it is found that the amount of material blocked by the
groyne in this examples is about 0.08 m³/s of a total longshore transport of
about 0.11 m³/s.
Please note that in order not to over write the specification file, you should
copy it over to your own data directory.
Purpose of Example
The purpose of the present example is to determine the sediment budget
for a plane uniform beach under the influence of a wave climate described
by an event duration.
30 LITDRIFT
More Examples
Table 5.3.1 shows the event duration as function of wave height and wave
angle.
Table 2.1 Event duration table. Duration of wave events are described as per-
centage of a year
The wave events only variate by wave height, wave angle and wave
period. All values for wave angle and wave height yields for the depth of
15 m. The spectral wave description is chosen as Rayleigh. All the wave
events in the event duration table are gathered in the time series data file
climate.
The sediment transport rates are calculated by use of Stoke's 1st order
waves with a single grain diameter approach.
31
Examples
To construct the type t0-file climate containing the wave climate that LIT-
DRIFT requires as input the LITPACK utility program LITCONV is
applied.
As an additional option LITCONV can create a time series data file, which
is formatted specifically for a rose plot of the annual wave climate, see
Figure 2.12.
The net and gross annual transport are about 48.000 m³/year and 105.000
m³/year, respectively.
32 LITDRIFT
More Examples
Please note that in order not to over write the specification file, you should
copy it over to your own data directory.
Purpose of Example
The aim of this example is to illustrate the variation of the longshore sedi-
ment transport rate during a storm event. The coastal profile from Block-
ing of Longshore Transport (p. 28) has been selected for this purpose.
33
Examples
The water level varies with the wave height by 0.1⋅H rms2.
The wave period varies with the wave height by 0.5 + 5⋅√Hrms.
The variation in wave height, wave orientation, wave period and water
level is shown in Figure 2.14.
34 LITDRIFT
More Examples
Figure 2.14 Time series plot of storm event. a) mean wave height, b) mean
wave direction, c) wave period, d) mean water level
35
Examples
As it can be seen, the transport rates increase by high wave heights due to
the relatively small grain particles in the deeper waters. Though, the effect
is diminished due to rise in water level.
Please note that in order not to over write the specification file, you should
copy it over to your own data directory.
Purpose of Example
The aim of this example is to illustrate how to easily obtain information on
the wave and current properties at a given location in the profile.
36 LITDRIFT
More Examples
Figure 2.16 Time series plot of conditions at point 150 in the cross-shore profile.
From top and down: Wave height, wave direction, current velocity
and water depth.
37
Examples
Please note that in order not to over write the specification file, you should
copy it over to your own data directory.
Purpose of Example
The aim of this example is to illustrate how the choice of wave description
influence the resulting wave height distribution and longshore current
velocity.
The longshore current profiles are calculated separately for the four differ-
ent types of wave description.
38 LITDRIFT
More Examples
Figure 2.17 Cross-shore distribution og longshore current and wave height for
different wave descriptions
File: RegWaveDescr.dri
File: RayWaveDescr.dri
File: BJWaveDescr.dri
39
Examples
File: SpecWaveDescr.dri
Please note that in order not to overwrite the specification files, you
should copy them over to your own data directory.
40 LITDRIFT
Introduction
3.1 Introduction
The present documentation for programme LITDRIFT is made as a deri-
vation of the basic equations followed by a description of the solution
methods. Both sections comprise a description of the waves including
refraction, shoaling, breaking, and directional spreading (by reduction fac-
tor), a description of the wave setup caused by wave radiation stress, and a
description of the longshore current, i.e. wave radiation stress, wind, and
residual current.
As for the scientific documentation of STP we refer to the manual for the
LITSTP module.
41
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
42 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
43
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
Refraction
The angle between the wave fronts and the coastline, a is given by Snell's
law:
sin( α*)L
sin α =
L* (3.1)
where:
ω2 D
KL=
g (3.2)
where
g
Lo = ⋅T 2
2π (3.3)
2/3
2πD 0.75
L = Lo ⋅ tanh ( ( ) )
Lo (3.4)
where:
44 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
2πD
L=
K L ⋅ (1 + K L )
K L ⋅ 1+
6 5 (3.5)
Shoaling
In case of unbroken waves the wave height is determined by the conserva-
tion of energy flux along wave orthogonals.
2kD
G=
sinh(2kD) (3.7)
Breaking
As a criterion for breaking a maximum of the ratio between the wave
height and the water depth is introduced:
H
γ = ---- , γ 2 = 0,8 (3.8)
D
For broken waves γ is a function of the distance from the breaker line, XB,
see Andersen et al., /1/, and Deigaard et al., /5/:
γ = 0.5 + 0.3 exp - 0.11 X B
DB (3.9)
45
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
Orbital Motion
The near bed wave orbital motion is of importance for the flow resistance.
The maximum near bed velocity is given by:
πH
Ub=
T sinh(kD) (3.10)
T
a=Ub ⋅
2π (3.11)
The radiation stress in the direction, x1, of the wave propagation is desig-
nated S11, and S22 in the perpendicular direction, x2. Due to symmetry no
shear components are associated with these two main directions of the
radiation stress field.
46 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
S 11 = F p + F m (3.12)
S 22 = F p (3.13)
For Fp and Fm the following expressions are valid, see Svendsen and Jons-
son, /16/:
1
F p= ρ gH 2 G
16 (3.14)
1
Fm= ρ gH 2 (1 + G)
16 (3.15)
1
S 11 = ρ gH 2 (1 + 2G)
16 (3.16)
1
S 22 = ρ gH 2 G
16 (3.17)
For shallow water waves S22 is one third of S11, as G equals one, and for
deep water waves S22 is zero, as G is zero. For intermediate depths S22 lies
between these limits.
For any other direction, x, e.g. the coast normal in the present application,
the normal and shear components of the radiation stress can be found from
the application of Mohr circles. a is the angle between the x1 and the x
direction.
47
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
S 11 + S 22 S 11 - S 22
S xx = + cos(2α )
2 2 (3.18)
S 11 - S 22
S xy = sin (2α )
2 (3.19)
It is this shear radiation stress which drives the longshore current. Outside
the breaker zone the energy dissipation is weak, and it can be shown that
the shear radiation stress is constant when the energy flux is constant.
Inside the breaker zone, the energy dissipation is strong, and the shear
component of the radiation stress decreases towards the shoreline. The
imbalance in the shear radiation stress must be compensated through the
bed shear stresses associated with the longshore current.
Irregular Waves
The model can be run with regular or irregular waves. For irregular waves
two different approaches are included in the present model. A brief
description is given below.
48 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
∂
( C gx E) + E diss = 0
∂x (3.20)
where
Based on a bore analogy, /3/ applies following expression for the rate at
which the energy is dissipated due to wave breaking
1 1
E diss = α ρg Qb H max
2
4 T (3.21)
where
49
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
x is an adjustable constant
Qb is the key variable in the formulation, and controls the rate of dissipa-
tion. The fraction Qb of the waves that are actually broken is given by the
number of waves which, according to the Rayleigh distribution, would
have been larger than the local maximum wave height. The Rayleigh dis-
tribution is truncated so that no wave heights exceed Hmax.
2
1 - Qb
= - H rms
ln Qb H max (3.22)
γ1 γ2
H max = tanh ( kD)
k γ1 (3.23)
where k is the wave number, D the water depth and γ1 and γ2 are two wave
breaking parameters. γ1 controls the wave steepness condition and γ2 con-
trols the limiting water depth condition.
H rms
Deep water -----------
-→0 and kD>>1 (3.24)
H max
H max γ1
Qb → 0 and ------------ = ------ ≈ 0,16
L 2π
H rms
Shallow water ------------ → 1 and kD << 1 (3.25)
H max
H max
Qb → 1 and ------------ = γ 2 = 0,8
D
50 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
The model from /3/ has proven to be a good predictor for conditions with
irregular waves and rather complex bathymetries. A detailed calibration of
the model has been carried out in /4/.
Owing to symmetry the main directions x1 and x2 lie between the direc-
tions of the wave crests of the two wave fields.
Figure 3.5 Directional Variation of Radiation Stress in Case of Two Wave Fields
51
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
The radiation stress tensor for the direction x can be found by application
of the Mohr circle. It is assumed that the radiation stresses associated with
each wave field is one half of the radiation stresses of the uni-directional
wave field.
It can be seen that the radiation stress can be determined from a circle with
the same centre as before, but with a radius reduced by the factor R =
cos2θ, which thus also is the reduction of the shear radiation stress. This
reduction is rather strong even migration of the two wave fields consid-
ered.
Figure 3.6 Spreading Factor vs. θ for Two Crossing Wave Fields
1
H( θ ) = cos ( ( α - θ ) / 2) )
2s
2π F(s) (3.26)
52 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
where θ is the direction relative to the main wave direction α. The func-
tion H(θ) must be normalised so that the total energy is still described by
the non-directional wave spectrum. The normalisation factor is given by:
Γ(2s + 1)
F(s) = 2
2 ( Γ(s + 1) )
2s
(3.27)
In a natural sea state s (and α) is not constant, but can vary with the fre-
quency in the spectrum. The shape of H(θ) depends strongly on the value
of s, and becomes more peaked for increasing s. The shape of H(θ) is indi-
cated in Figure 3.8. According to Sand, /15/, s will typically lie in the
range 2-20. For natural storm waves s is often estimated to be about 8.
This variation can occur for the different frequencies within the same
spectrum. The directional distribution of the long waves is narrow (large
s) and the locally generated high frequency waves have a wide distribution
(small s values). The directional spreading around the peak frequency in
the spectrum will typically correspond to a H(θ) function with s equal to 5.
53
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
S 11 - S 12
dS xy = H( θ ) sin(2( α +θ )) dθ
2 (3.28)
S 11 - S 22
S xy = R(S) sin (2α )
2 (3.29)
S + S 22 S 11 - S 22
d S xx = 11 + cos(2( α +θ )) H( θ ) dθ
2 2 (3.30)
54 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
S 11 + S 22 S -S
S xx = + R(S) 11 22 cos(2α )
2 2 (3.31)
It is seen that the mean radiation stress tensor for directionally distributed
waves can be found by applying a Mohr circle with a radius reduced by R
compared to the Mohr circle for the uni-directional wave field with the
same energy. R is for the directional distribution function H(θ) given by:
F(s + 1) - F(s + 2)
R(s) = 1 - 8
F(s) (3.32)
The reduction of the normal radiation stress, which is important for the
wave setup, is smaller. For α = 0 degrees the reduction lies between 12%
(shallow water waves) and 25% (deep water waves). For α = 45 degrees
the normal radiation stress is unchanged and for larger α values it is
increased.
55
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
There are three different approaches to include the spreading in the model:
The second approach is directly applicable and expected to give fully sat-
isfactory results. The computer costs will of course be increased because
another dimension is added to the wave description.
The third method is the most simple and should give reasonable results.
The only problem arises close to the point of breaking, where the waves
with different directions will be breaking at different positions. As the
total driving force is the same, the effect on the littoral current is estimated
to be marginal.
56 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
z Simple model
z Padé's model
z Minimax model with varying aperture
57
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
Figure 3.10 Cross-shore distribution of longshore current and wave height for
different solution parameters assuming monocromatic waves.
Figure 3.11 shows an example of the influence of the wave energy spec-
trum description on the calculated wave height, wave direction and long-
shore current for a straight profile
58 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
Figure 3.11 Cross-shore distribution of wave height, wave direction and long-
shore current for different spectrum descriptions assuming the solu-
tion method to be Simple.
59
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
As discussed in /12/ (Johnson, H.K. and Poulin, S.) results from MIKE 21
PMS may generate spurious currents (currents flowing in the upwave
direction) when using the radiation stresses to drive wave-generated cur-
rents in a flow model. These currents are due to inherent errors in the par-
abolic approximation method. Usually, the problem can be solved or
minimised by selecting the type of parabolic approximation carefully.
However, it may not always be sufficient in cases with directional waves
with a very large angle sector. Here it may help to reduce the maximum
deviation from MWD when setting up the directional energy spectrum.
Secondly, when using any parabolic equation wave model, one should
also be conscious of the possibility of “apparent” wave dissipation in deep
water, which may look physical as it drives a current in the correct direc-
tion. This effect is larger for the higher order MINIMAX approximations
/12/. The best way of minimising this problem is to select the parabolic
approximation that best suits the wave direction sector in the model.
1 ∂ S xx ∂b (3.33)
- = g(D + b)
ρ ∂x ∂x
where:
60 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
1 ∂S xx 1 ∂b
- + --- τ cos θ = g ( D + b ) -----
– --- --------- (3.34)
ρ ∂x ρ w ∂x
where:
θ is the angle between the wind direction and the coast normal.
The wind shear stress, τw, is calculated by the wind friction factor, fwind,
and the wind velocity, Uwind:
2
τ w = f wind ⋅ U wind ⁄ 1600 (3.35)
61
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
The wave boundary layer is the region close to the bed, where the wave
induced velocities deviate significantly from the free stream velocities.
According to /11/, the boundary layer thickness in the rough turbulent case
can be determined from the ratio between the amplitude in the near bed
orbital motion and the bed roughness, a/k. In the calculations the lower
limit for a/k is 2.0.
Jonsson et. al., /11/, gives the following explicit approximation for calcu-
lating the wave boundary layer thickness, δw
3/4
δ w /k = 0.072 (a/k ) (3.36)
The boundary layer thickness given above is defined for the moment when
the free stream velocity is maximum. In this context the variation of δw
with time is neglected.
2 τ 1 2
U fw = ----w- = --- f w U b (3.37)
ρ 2
where Ufw is the wave friction velocity, τw is the maximum bed shear
stress and Ub is the maximum wave induced velocity outside the wave
boundary layer. fw is a function of a/k. In /11/ is given the following
implicit expression:
1
1
+ log10 = - 0.08 + log a
4 fw 10
k
4 f w (3.38)
-0.194
f w = exp (5.213 (a/k ) - 5.977) (3.39)
62 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
The variation in the bed shear stress is found by assuming that the instan-
taneous bed shear stress can be found by use of the wave friction factor:
τ 1
--- = --- f w U 2 (3.40)
ρ 2
where
By this assumption the phase between the flow velocity and the bed shear
stress is neglected. This is, however, of minor importance because only
the shear stress averaged over a wave period is used for the description of
the mean current velocity profile.
U y 30y
= 8.6 + 2.5 ln ≅ 2.5 ln
U fc k k (3.41)
Ufc is the friction velocity and y is the distance from the bed, k is the bed
roughness.
However, the flow resistance from the bed is increased because of the
presence of the wave boundary layer. The new shear stress must be found
as the average over a wave period of the bed shear stress from the combi-
63
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
nation of waves and current. The increase in flow resistance is taken into
account by introducing an apparent “wave roughness”, kw.
The velocity profile outside the wave boundary layer is now given by:
U 30y
------- = 2 ,5 ln --------- (3.42)
U fc kw
Figure 3.12 The instantaneous velocity at the top of the wave boundary layer
64 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
For this purpose the angle, γ, between the current and the direction of the
wave propagation can be assumed to lie in the range from 0 to 90 degrees.
The shear velocity, Ufc, from Eq. (3.41) or (3.42) is related to τc by defini-
tion:
½
2 1 + cos2 ( γ )
U fc = τ c /ρ = f w U b U δ
π 2 (3.44)
It may be noted that only for γ = 0 degrees and γ = 90 degrees the average
shear stress vector will be in the same direction as the current. This side-
effect is discussed in detail by Grant and Madsen (1979). The maximum
angle between the two directions is approximately 20°. Although this
deviation may be of importance in some cases it is not found to have any
significance for the calculation of flow resistance for the littoral current.
2 1 + cos 2 γ δ
Uδ = f w U bU δ ⋅ 2.5 ln 30 w
π 2 kw (3.45)
65
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
ε = κU fw y (3.46)
In pure current the eddy viscosity also varies as described by Eq. (3.46),
only with the current shear velocity Ufc inserted.
The evaluation of the resulting eddy viscosity in combined waves and cur-
rent is not straightforward. Swart, /17/, applied the plausible assumption
that the eddy viscosity should be added vectorially. This approach yields
correct eddy viscosity in the case of superposing of two currents. The
resulting eddy viscosity in the inner region is thus taken to be:
The bed shear stress due to the current is transferred in accordance with
the expression:
τ dU
----c = U fc 2 = ε cw ------- (3.48)
ρ dy
yielding:
U 1 U fc
= ln y + c
U fc κ U
2
+
fwU +2
2
fc U fc U fw cos γ
(3.49)
The constant, c, in Eq. (3.49) is found by requiring that the velocity distri-
bution close to the bed corresponds to the real sand roughness of the bed,
i.e. the velocity is zero at y = k/30.
66 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
from the velocity profile of the outer region. It appears that this assump-
tion is well justified as several calculations have shown that the transition
between the two regions indeed occurs close to y = δw.
There is a discontinuity in the eddy viscosity between the inner and the
outer region because the eddy viscosity in the outer region is determined
by the current only, whereas the contribution from the wave motion in the
wave boundary layer is significant. A discontinuity in the slope of the
velocity profile therefore also appears. This is, however, only a mathemat-
ical result with no practical importance.
The model for flow resistance is described in detail in Section 3.3.4 and
the applied formulas are presented below.
V V
C = ------- = ---------------- ) (3.50)
U fc τb ⁄ ρ
D 1 + 4V/Y + 1
C = 2.5 ( ln ( ) - 1)
δw 2
(3.51)
2
2 1 + cos2 γ D
Y = --- f w U b ----------------------- 2.5 ln ------ – 1 (3.52)
π 2 δ w
where:
67
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
Y is an intermediate parameter,
γ is the angle between the direction of wave propagation and the cur-
rent direction.
γ = 90° – α (3.53)
a 3⁄4
δ w = k ⋅ 0.072 --- (3.54)
k
where:
For the wave friction factor the following relation is applied, see Swart,
/17/:
-0.194
a
f w = exp {5.213 - 5.977}
k (3.55)
68 LITDRIFT
Basic Equations – Longshore Current
30D
C max = 2.5 ( ln - 1)
k (3.56)
Momentum Transfer
The exchange of momentum is described by use of an “eddy viscosity
type” of exchange coefficient. Several mechanisms are active in the
momentum transfer, such as the turbulent fluctuations in the breaker zone
and circulation currents. The exchange coefficient is less important than
the bed shear stress, as its effects are more to change the distribution of the
velocities across the profile than to change the magnitude of the larger
velocities close to the breaker line. In the present formulation the expres-
sion for E derived in Jonsson et. al., /10/, is applied:
2
4a
E = -------- cos2 α (3.57)
T
in which a is the near bed amplitude of the wave orbital motion and T is
the wave period.
∂S xy ∂ ∂V
– ---------- = τ b – ----- ρED ------ (3.58)
∂x ∂x ∂x
69
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
1 ∂ S xy V 2 ∂ ∂V
- = 2 - ED
ρ ∂x C ∂x ∂x (3.59)
V = 0 for x = 0 (3.60)
V → 0 for x → ∞ (3.61)
1 ∂ S xy 1 V ∂ ∂V
- + τ w sin θ + gDI = 2 - ED
ρ ∂x ρ C ∂x ∂x (3.62)
where:
θ is the angle between the wind direction and the coast normal,
The water level and setup calculations yield a new coastline, which is
located between points NLAST-1 and NLAST. The hydrodynamic param-
eters are set equal to zero inside the coast line. NLAST must be larger than
10.
70 LITDRIFT
Point Selection
It is chosen to select all of the points prior to the calculations as this gives
the simplest algorithm. The main purpose of the selection algorithm is to
make the best estimate of the integrated total sediment transport over the
coastal profile and to a lesser degree, describe the exact distribution of the
transport over the profile.
(ii) the maxima in the longshore current profile are caused by wave
breaking at low water depth, hence the transport is increased by
high bottom shear stresses and strong turbulence under the broken
waves.
71
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
3
V
-⋅H
S = --------- ---- (3.63)
3⁄2 D
d
The selection procedure is outlined below, and the individual steps, (a) to
(f), are shown in Figure 3.14:
72 LITDRIFT
Point Selection
Figure 3.14 Point Selection. The letters refer to the single steps of the selection
procedure and the figures refer to the point types.
Input to STP
At the points selected, the sediment transport rate in the longshore direc-
tion is calculated by the model STP.
The sediment transport model is called at the selected points with the local
values of the hydrodynamic and sedimentological parameters as input:
z Water depth
z Wave height, H
z Wave period, T
z Current velocity
z Angle between current and waves, δcw
z Broken/non-broken waves
z Bed level gradient
Mean grain diameter (and sediment spreading). Mean fall velocity (or
water temperature and number of grain fractions).
73
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
Irregular Waves
At the bed the wave period, T and the root-mean-square of the local wave
height, Hrms are used to determine the bed concentration, the near-bed dif-
fusion coefficient and the associated near-bed concentration profile.
In the surf zone only a fraction of the waves break due to the irregularity.
As in the case of regular waves, the effect of breaking or broken (in the
following denoted broken) waves is modelled by describing the produc-
tion, vertical spreading and decay of turbulence generated by the passage
of the front of a spilling breaker or a broken wave. The extra input param-
eters, wave height, Hdiss, and period, Tdiss, are introduced to reflect the
conditions in the surf zone for irregular waves: the turbulent energy from
the wave-breaking is calculated on the basis of H = Hdiss and T = Tdiss.
ΣT iφi
T diss =
Σ φ bi (3.64)
where subscript 'diss' indicates that only broken waves are considered.
74 LITDRIFT
Point Selection
Σbi φ bi
3
3
H diss =
Σ φ bi (3.65)
This wave height and period are thus used at each location to characterize
the production of turbulence by passing broken waves. The turbulence
from the broken waves is time averaged.
Breaking Waves
To examine whether the waves are behaving as breaking or non-breaking
waves, the three different spectral wave descriptions have separate check-
ing routines. The following conditions must be fulfilled if the wave is
breaking:
dSxy
Regular description: > 0.00001
dx (3.66)
1
Qs volume = ------------------------------------ ⋅ Qs solid (3.69)
( 1 – porosity )
75
LITDRIFT Scientific Background
Thus, the total annual drift Qannual is found as the sum of the contributions
from all wave incidents.
NSETS
The definition of annual drift Qannual is provided that the total duration in
the wave climate file is one year. Otherwise the total drift is found per
design period (= total duration in wave climate file).
76 LITDRIFT
Model Type Selection
4 LITDRIFT REFERENCE
The information provided in the present On-line Manual is related, specif-
ically, to the use of the Littoral Drift Module of LITPACK, LITDRIFT, for
applications involving wave generated longshore currents and littoral
drift.
Longshore Current
This model type will give you an opportunity to calculate the cross-shore
wave conditions and cross-shore distribution of wave-generated longshore
current.
77
LITDRIFT Reference
78 LITDRIFT
Selection of the Cross-shore Profile
For creation of a LITPACK wave climate file, see the LITPACK Tutorial
manual, Appendix A: “Description of File Formats”.
Item 4 in the wave climate file describes a reference number for a given
profile. The maximum value in item 4 describes the number of profiles
used to reflect the annual conditions at the site. From this information the
profile dialog will request the profile file name(s) necessary.
Having selected the profile, the orientation of the profile is given. It is pos-
sible to change the angle for quick sensitivity tests, but not advisable. The
79
LITDRIFT Reference
The depth given to a grid point represents not only the depth right at that
point, but the area surrounding the grid point.
Bed levels are specified as negative values when they are below datum
(covered with water) and positive values when they are above.
Calculations are only performed in grid points for which the total water
depth is larger than 0.02 m.
80 LITDRIFT
Wave Conditions
Regular Waves
(Type 1)
81
LITDRIFT Reference
NOTE: The use of Battjes and Janssen demands longer profiles as the
wave-breaking in theory starts at deeper waters.
The corresponding reference depth is the one at which the value of the
wave angle is defined. The reference depth is positive and measured rela-
tive to the base level for the coastal profile. It is preferable that the refer-
82 LITDRIFT
Wave Conditions
ence depth is larger than or equal to the deepest point in the coastal profile.
The actual water level will be added to the reference depth in refraction
calculations.
The corresponding reference depth at which the value of the wave height
has been specified must be defined. The reference depth is positive and
measured relative to the base level of the coastal profile. It is preferable
that the reference depth is larger than or equal to the deepest position in
the coastal profile. The actual water level will be added to the reference
depth in refraction and shoaling calculations.
Wave Period
The wave period is given by Tz or Tp, dependent on the choice of wave
description.
For Battjes & Janssen waves the peak period Tp is given, for Regular or
Rayleigh Spectral description the zero-crossing period Tz is applied.
The actual water level elevation across the profile will be varying if the
wave setup is included in the calculations, see Additional Wave Parame-
ters (p. 85)
83
LITDRIFT Reference
Solution coefficient
The solution coefficient defines the parabolic approximations that are
implemented in MIKE 21 PMS.
The different types of models are further described in the scientific back-
ground, see section 3.3.2
84 LITDRIFT
Wave Conditions
The .dfs2 data file has to be prepared using the MIKE 21 Tool Generate
Wave Energy Spectrum.
Reduction Factor
The reduction factor R represents the decrease in radiation stresses due to
the directional spreading of the approaching waves. 0.8 represents a uni-
directional sea, 0.35 represents a complex directional sea while 0.5 is a
typical value.
Wave Setup
With wave setup calculations included, the mean water level in a given
point is calculated by a cross-shore momentum balance starting from the
boundary condition water level (given under level, see above). With wave
setup calculations excluded the mean water level in any point corresponds
to the mean water level at deep water.
Number of Waves
For Rayleigh distributed waves this value is the number of irregular wave
trains calculated.
85
LITDRIFT Reference
Dissipation Factor
The dissipation factor α is a scale-parameter for the energy dissipation in
the rollor compared to that in a hydraulic jump (i.e. amount of waves
breaking).
Breaking Parameter 1
This parameter controls the breaking due to wave steepness condition.
Breaking Parameter 2
This parameter controls the breaking due to limiting water depth condi-
tion.
86 LITDRIFT
Wind Conditions
87
LITDRIFT Reference
The additional wind shear stress will influence the computations for the
water surface setup and the longshore current.
88 LITDRIFT
Sediment Transport Conditions
89
LITDRIFT Reference
Porosity
The sediment porosity controls the output as the sediment drift from LIT-
DRIFT are given in volume.
4.7.2 Ripples
The effect of ripples on the bed on the bed shear stresses may be included.
The four constants C1, C2, C3 and C4 are for assessing the dimensions
and the effect of wave ripples, if any. It is normally not recommended to
change the default values.
Wave Theory
It is possible to select what wave theory should be followed when calcu-
lating the orbital wave motion.
Calculation Parameters
The calculation parameters reflects the accuracy of the calculation. The
tolerance and maximum no. of periods are used for the iterative calcula-
90 LITDRIFT
Output Specifications
tion of the sediment transport profile. The number of steps per period
reflects the deterministic intra-period approach.
Convective Terms
The effect of streaming may be included or excluded.
Bed Concentration
The bed concentration may be determined by a deterministic approach or
by an empirical formula, /18/, (Zyserman & Fredsøe 1994).
91
LITDRIFT Reference
Output Data
The output data file is described by the file name. A title to be written in
the output data file can describe the contents.
The values are found from the results in the specified grid point number.
Overview
A summary of the input parameters for the model is listed in the grayed
window. You can use the vertical scroll-bar to review the input and check
it for logical errors.
Execute
This button activates the actual simulation of the model setup. If the input
parameters have been changed, an input file name is asked for beforehand.
z Prepare you specification files (PFS-files) for your runs, ie. files with
extension .litdrift
92 LITDRIFT
Running LITDRIFT in batch mode
93
LITDRIFT Reference
94 LITDRIFT
General Description
5 LITCONV REFERENCE
The information provided in the present On-line Manual is related, specif-
ically, to the use of the utility program in LITPACK, LITCONV, for con-
verting LITPACK wave climates into time series of one or several years.
With the LITCONV Utility program you may process a LITPACK wave
climate data file (time series or 2-dimensional description) and generate a
standard LITPACK wave climate time series data file to meet your spe-
cific requirement.
Optionally a pseudo time series data file may be generated for the purpose
of plotting the result using the Wave Rose plot utility in the MIKEZero
plot composer.
It is assumed that the design period in the input wave climate describe a
period of one year (i.e. the sum of all the durations is 100). If not, the term
“yearly wave climate” will not be valid but stand for the time duration
covered by the wave climate.
For creation of a LITPACK wave climate file, see the LITPACK Tutorial
manual, Appendix A: “Description of File Formats”.
95
LITCONV Reference
Dependent on the file type the file name for the wave climate must be
defined.
96 LITDRIFT
Calculation Parameters
Repetition Factor
The set of wave data in the input climate file is repeated N times in the
output data file. The duration for each event depends on the method of
transformation.
Method of Transformation
The wave data may be transformed in two ways:
In case of an event duration input file, the wave events in the output file
are ordered according to the size of the wave height, beginning with the
smallest waves.
97
LITCONV Reference
This order may exaggerate the effect of the individual wave event if the
time series file is used for coastline evolution. To avoid this, N should be
chosen so that the duration of the storm wave events is in correspondence
with observations at the site of investigation.
All events for which H < Hmin will be omitted from the output time series
data file. To keep the total duration constant, the total duration of calm
events is given as one single wave event in the end of the output data file,
where the wave height is set to 0.009m.
98 LITDRIFT
Overview and Simulation
This file can be used as input wave climate in LITDRIFT and LITLINE.
The wave rose plot can thus be used to generate the common description a
a wave climate by the combinations of wave height, wave angle and dura-
tion.
Execute
This button activates the actual simulation of the model setup. If the input
parameters have been changed, an input file name is asked for beforehand.
99
LITCONV Reference
100 LITDRIFT
APPENDIX A
Additional Reading
101
102 LITDRIFT
A.1 ADDITIONAL READING
/1/ Andersen, O.H., and Fredsøe, J.(1983): Transport of Suspended
Sediment along the Coast. Progress Report No. 59, ISVA, Technical
University of Denmark.
/3/ Battjes, J.A., and J.P.F.M. Janssen (1978) Energy Loss and Set-Up
due to Breaking of Random Waves. Proc. of the 16th Int. Conf. on
Coastal Eng. pp. 569-587, Hamburg.
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104 LITDRIFT
INDEX
105
Index
B
Battjes and Janssen . . . . . . . . . . 49
Breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
F
Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
L
Littoral Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
N
near bed velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
P
Point Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
point selection parameter . . . . . . . 72
R
Radiation Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Rayleigh Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
reduction factor R . . . . . . . . . 55, 85
Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
S
Shoaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
spreading factor . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
V
Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
W
Wave Boundary Layer . . . . . . . . . 61
wave friction factor . . . . . . . . . . . 62
106 LITDRIFT