An Empirical Assessment of Organizational Commitment and Organizational

Effectiveness

Harold L. Angle; James L. Perry

Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 1. (Mar., 1981), pp. 1-14.

Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-8392%28198103%2926%3A1%3C1%3AAEAOOC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A

Administrative Science Quarterly is currently published by Johnson Graduate School of Management, Cornell University.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/about/terms.html. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained
prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in
the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at
http://www.jstor.org/journals/cjohn.html.

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.

The JSTOR Archive is a trusted digital repository providing for long-term preservation and access to leading academic
journals and scholarly literature from around the world. The Archive is supported by libraries, scholarly societies, publishers,
and foundations. It is an initiative of JSTOR, a not-for-profit organization with a mission to help the scholarly community take
advantage of advances in technology. For more information regarding JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

http://www.jstor.org
Wed Oct 3 14:43:23 2007
An Empirical Assess- Thestudy attempts to relate the organizational commitment
merit of Organizational of lower-level employees to organizational effectiveness in
organizations offering bus services. Organizational com-
Commitment and Or- mitment was found to be associated with organizational
ganizationalEffective- adaptability, turnover, and tardiness rate, but not with
ness operating costs or absenteeism. Two subscales were con-
structed to measure value commitment and commitment to
Harold L. Angle and stay in the organization. Few significant differences were
found between the subscales, as they relate to various
James L. Perry indicators of organizational effectiveness, and the overall
pattern suggested the need to avoid simplisticassumptions
about the impact of commitment on organizationally rele-
vant behavior:

In a widely accepted paradigm in organization theory, organiza-

@ 1981 by Cornell University.
0001-8392/81/2601-0001$00.75
Support for this research was provlded by
t h e U.S. Department ofTransportation. Of-
fice o f University Research, the Graduate
School o f Management, and t h e Institute
o f Transportatlon Studies. University o f
Californla. I ~ l n eThe
. authors are indebted
t o a number o f their colleagues, particularly
Robert Dubin and Lyman Porter, for t h e ~ r
helpful comments on an earlier verslon of
this paper.
March 1981, volume 26
tions and their members are seen in an exchange relationship.
Each party makes certain demands on the other while providing
something in return. March and Simon (1958) characterized
such an exchange in terms of organizational inducements and
individual contributions. They pointed out that employees'
contributions to the organization take two general forms -
production and participation -and they described some impor-
tant differences in the antecedents of an employee's decision
to produce in contrast to the decision to participate.
Students of organizational behavior have attempted to estab-
lish reliable linkages between employee attitudes and organiza-
tionally relevant behaviors, though with mixed results (Vroom,
1964). Substantial attention has been directed recently toward
organizational commitment as the attitudinal component of this
relationship (Hrebiniakand Alutto, 1972; Buchanan, 1974;
Porter et al., 1974; Porter, Crampon and Smith, 1976; Steers,
1977a; Stevens, Beyer and Trice, 1978).Some have proposed
that the concept of commitment may disclose reliable linkages
between attitudes and behavior, because commitment is pre-
sumed to be a relatively stable employeeattribute (Porter et al.,
1974; Koch and Steers, 1978).
Commitment has been studied from so many different theoret-
ical perspectives, however, that Hall (1977) remarked that w e
might better abanaon the term altogether and deal instead with
a set of concepts, each focused on one or another aspect of
commitment. The term "commitment" has been used, for
example, to describe such diverse phenomena as the willing-
ness of social actors to give their energy and loyalty to social
systems (Kanter, 1968), an awareness of the impossibility of
choosing a different social identity or of rejecting a particular
expectation, under force of penalty (Stebbins, 1970a), the
binding of an individual to behavioral acts (Kiesler, 1971;
Salancik, 1977), or an affective attachment to an organization
apart from the purely instrumental worth of the relationship
(Buchanan, 1974). Some commitmentlike concepts, such as
organizational identification or organizational involvement, have
also appeared in the literature (Patchen, 1970; Hall and
Schneider, 1972).
The commitment framework adopted in the present research
has been called the "organizational behavior approach" (Staw,
1977).This treatment of commitment has perhaps its most
frequently cited origins in the work of Porter and his associates
1 /Administrative Science Quarterly
(Porter and Smith, 1970; Porter et al., 1974; Porter, Crampon
and Smith, 1976; Steers, 1977a; Mowday, Steers and Porter,
1979) and a similar concept is found in other research by Hall,
Schneider and Nygren (1970), Hall and Schneider (1972) and
Buchanan (I 974).
Organizational commitment as defined by Porter et al. (1974)
has three major components: (1) a strong belief in and accep-
tance of the organization's goals, (2) a willingness to exert
considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and (3)a
definite desire to maintain organizational membership. Re-
search conducted within this framework has indicated that
commitment is not only a predictor of employee retention
(Porter et al., 1974; Koch and Steers, 1978), but may also be a
predictor of employee effort and performance (Mowday, Por-
ter, and Dubin, 1974; Mowday, Steers, and Porter, 1979).
Organizational Commitment and Organizational
Effectiveness
Organizational theorists seem to agree that organizational ef-
fectiveness is multidimensional (Campbell et al., 1974; Steers,
1977b), and there is also reason to believe that the determi-
nants of organizational effectiveness vary (Steers, 1977a; Ste-
vens, Beyer, and Trice, 1978).Although general organizational
theory holds that the structural features of an organization
should fit the demands of environment and technology (Burns
and Stalker, 1961 ; Woodward, 1965; Lawrence and Lorsch,
1967), organizational design, alone, will not ensure organiza-
tional effectiveness. Even where the structural prerequisites
have been met, there remains a crucial requirement-that the
members of the organization behave in a manner supportive of
organizational goals.
Katz (1964) suggested three types of member behaviors,
reminiscent of March and Simon's (1958) participation and
production framework, essential for a functioning organization.
Not only must the organization induce members to join and
remain (i.e., participate), but it must also motivate two kinds of
production: dependable role behavior, as prescribed by the
organization, and spontaneous and innovative behaviors which
go beyond explicit behavioral prescriptions.
Some parallels can be drawn between the elements of organi-
zational commitment according to the organizational behavior
school (Porter et al., 1974) and the motivational taxonomies of
March and Simon (1958) and Katz (1964). A committed
member's definite desire to maintain organizational member-
ship would have a clear relationship to the motivation to
participate. Willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of
the organization and the belief in and acceptance of the
organization's goals, in combination, have implications for the
member's motivation to produce for the organization - in
accordance with explicit organizational mandates, as well as in
terms of Katz's (1964) spontaneous and innovative behaviors.
Expected Relationships
In the present research, it had been anticipated that several
measures of organizational effectiveness would be sensitive to
differences in the levels of commitment of the members of the
organizations studied. Thus, it was hypothesized that organiza-
tions whose members were strongly committed would have
Organizational Commitment and Effectiveness

both high participation and high production. Such organizations

were therefore expected to show relatively low levels of
absenteeism, tardiness, and voluntary turnover, and high levels
of operating efficiency. In addition, in keeping with the view
that committed employees will engage in spontaneous, innova-
tive behaviors on behalf of the organization, it was anticipated
that, within limits, organizational commitment among the
members would facilitate the ability of an organization to adapt
to contingencies. The adaptability-commitment relationship
would not actually be expected to be monotonic over all
possible levels of commitment. Extreme commitment would
probably lead to fanatical behavior, suspension of individual
judgment and the like, i.e., the syndrome that Schein (1968)
termed "failures of socialization." However, the relationship
was presumed to be positive and monotonic over the range of
values actually encountered. While these outcomes are not
exhaustive, they are typical of the measures of effectiveness
that have appeared in the literature based on the goal model of
organizations (Campbell et al., 1974; Steers, 197713).
It was anticipated that the relative strength of the relationship
between organizational commitment and organizational effec-
tiveness mig htvary depending upon the behaviors to which the
employees were committed. Harris and Eoyang (1977), building
upon Steers' (1977a) notion of "active" and "passive" com-
mitment, offered a fourfold typology of commitment as a
construct having t w o bipolar dimensions: (1) commitment, or
lack of commitment, to remain with the organization, and (2)
commitment, or lack thereof, to work in support of organiza-
tional objectives. Within such a framework, turnover measures
should be most sensitive to the extent to which employees
were committed to remaining in the organization. Conversely,
those measures that more nearly reflected a decision by
organizational members to produce (March and Simon, 1958)
should be more clearly related to their commitment to exert
effort on behalf of the organization. The latter category of
indicators includes not only such performance dimensions as
service efficiency and adaptability, but absenteeism and tardi-
ness, as well. Although the term "participation" in common
usage includes employee behaviors opposite to absenteeism,
as well as to turnover, March and Simon (1958) defined the
term solely with respect to turnover.

METHOD
Sample and Research Sites
A total of 24 organizations, which operated fixed-route bus
services in western United States, participated in the study.
Archival and transit manager questionnaire and interview data
were collected at all participating organizations, and employee
questionnaires were administered to members of the bus
drivers' bargaining unit. Consequently, a majority (91 percent) of
the respondents were bus drivers; however, at a few of the
participating organizations, mechanics andlor clerical personnel
were included in the drivers' bargaining unit and so were
sampled along with the drivers. The total employee sample was
1244, while the transit manager sample was 96.
The nature of the bus driver's job was expected to provide a
particularly sensitive test of the relationship between the
commitment of rank-and-file employees and several indicators
of the effectiveness of their employing organizations. Driving a
bus is one of the more controlled yet one of the more
autonomous blue-collar occupations. On the one hand, drivers
must adhere rigorously to minute-by-minute schedules keyed
to a fixed route that must be followed exactly, and deviance
from these schedules has a high probability of discovery. On
the other hand, within the constraints of time and route, the
bus driver is like a ruler of a minor kingdom. Whether intended
by the organization or not, a great deal of the driver's behavior,
with respect to passenger relations, is discretionary.
For the passengers, the driver is the organization. The network
of drivers that the organization puts out on the road constitutes
the organization's public face. Ultimately, public attitudes
toward the organization, and public utilization and support of the
transit operation, may come to depend in large part on how well
the drivers represent the organization to the public. Thus, as a
true boundary-role person (Adams, 1976), the bus driver may be
in a unique position to influence organizational outcomes, by her
or his job-relevant behaviors. If these behaviors are, in any way,
a function of organizational commitment, then organizational
commitment and organizational performance might be related.

Measures
Organizational commitment. Employee commitment was
measured by the 15-item Organizational Commitment Ques-
tionnaire (OCQ) (Porter et al., 1974), which has demonstrated
good psychometric properties and has been used with a wide
range of job categories (Mowday, Steers, and Porter, 1979). In
the present study, Cronbach's alpha was .90. Two subscales
were also created, based on the results of a factor analysis:
value commitment (alpha=.89) and commitment to stay (al-
pha=.72), which appear to differentiate between the respon-
dents' commitment to support thegoals of the organization and
their commitment to retain their organizational membership.
Table 1 indicates the factor loadings and shows which items
were included in each of the subscales. As Table 1 indicates,
there was also a third factor extracted under the conventional
rule that eigenvalues equal or exceed a value of one (Nunnally,
1978); however, only one item had its highest loading on that
factor. Because single-item scales are notoriously unreliable,
only the t w o subscales mentioned were used.
In order to assess the stability of the factor structure obtained,
cross validation was achieved by randomly dividing the sample
and conducting a new pair of factor analyses. The factor-loading
patterns for these analyses were virtually identical with those
for the overall sample; thus, the factor structure appears quite
stable.
The observation that the items loading on factor 2 were all
reverse-scored, while none of the reverse-scored items were
loaded on factor 1, gave rise, initially, to the concern that the
structure obtained might have resulted from an artifact of
measurement. Although it is likely that such an artifact might
have contributed to the separation of factors, the t w o clusters
of questionnaire items appear to be conceptually distinct.
The value commitment scale includes items connoting pride in
association with the organization (i.e., identification), willing-
 Organizational Commitment and Effectiveness

Table 1

Rotated Factor Loadings from Factor Analysis for the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire*

I am willing t o put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally

expected in order t o help thls organization be successful.

I talk up this organization to m y frlends as a great organlzation

to work for.

I feel very little loyalty t o this organlzation (reversed).

I would accept almost any type of job assignment in order to keep

working for thls organization.

I find that my values and the organization's values are very simllar

I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organization.

I could just as well be working for a different organization as

long as the type of work were similar (reversed).

This organization really inspires the best in m e in the way of

job performance.

It would take very little change in m y present circumstances to

cause m e t o leave this organization (reversed).

I am extremely glad I chose this organization t o work for over

others I was considering at the time I joined.

There's not much to be gained by sticklng with this organization

~ndefin~tely
(reversed).

Often, I find it difficult t o agree with this organization's

policies on important matters relating t o its employees (reversed).

I really care about the fate of this organization.

For me, this is the best of all organizations for which to work.

Deciding t o work for this organization was a definite mistake

on m y part (reversed).

Eigenvalues
* Only factor loadings above .30 are shown.
** Factor 1 -value commitment; Factor 2 -commitment to stay.
t Items included in value commitment subscale.
* Items included in commitment t o stay subscale.

ness to perform for the organization, concern for the fate of the
organization, and congruence of personal values with those of
the organization. Although three of the nine items relate to
attitudes toward organizational membership, their wording
tends to imply that attachment is based on the member's
positive regard for the organization. In the aggregate, these
items indicate a form of organizational involvement, which
Etzioni (1975) termed "moral" and which is clearlyanalogous to
Stebbins' (1970b) notion of value commitment.
The commitment to stay scale includes a cluster of question-
naire items that pertain to membership in itself. Unlike the
membership-related items that load on factor 1, these items do
not connote an affective bond to the organization. On the
contrary, the wording of this set of items conveys a general
impression of Etzioni's (1975) "calculative involvement."
Organizational effectiveness. Several aspects of overall or-
ganizational effectiveness were tapped by the use of selected
performance indicators. The rationale for the selection of the
specific indicators is discussed in an earlier paper (Perry and
Angle, 1980b).
Employee turnover (separation rate) was measured by compila-
tion of statistics on voluntary termination during the preceding
fiscal year. A second turnover measure was obtained by self-
report of employees' intent to quit (Appendix),a measure which
has received substantial research support, as documented in a
recent review by Muchinsky and Tuttle (1979).
Employee tardiness was computed as the ratio of recorded
tardiness incidents to the mean number of employees during
the preceding fiscal year. Unfortunately, adequate tardiness
records had been maintained by only 14 of the 24 organizations
for which other performance data were available.
Absenteeism was obtained by self-report (Appendix).Like
tardiness, reliable absence statistics had not been maintained
by several of the participating organizations, but the alternative
measure was available through the employee questionnaire.
Operating expense was another measure of effectiveness. A
general notion of efficiency seems to be common in most
taxonomies of the dimensions of organizational effectiveness.
The broad concept of efficiency involves the computation of
ratios of inputs to outputs, or of costs to benefits. In public mass
transit, efficiency may be defined in terms of the extent to
which the organization is able to minimize operating costs,
relative both to the amount of transit service provided and to the
overall scope of the operation. Two performance indicators
were, therefore, selected for this purpose: operating expense
per revenue vehicle-hour, computed by dividing total operating
expenses for the preceding fiscal year by the total number of
operating hours for the revenue vehicles, and operating ex-
pense per employee, using the total number of employees as
the measure of input.
Organizational adaptability was measured by self-report, using a
modified version of Mott's (1972) questionnaire. A four-item
scale was constructed and incorporated in both the employee
questionnaire and the transit manager questionnaire (Appen-
dix). The adaptability of each organization was thus measured
t w o ways, i.e., by averaging the responses to the adaptability
scale separately for transit managers and for other employees.
Procedures for Data Collection
Archival data and questionnaires. Archival data were col-
lected and questionnaires administered during two-day site
visits. Employees had been made aware of the survey in
advance of each visit throug h the internal communication
systems of the organizations. All questionnaires were pre-
sented directly to participating employees by a member of the
research team. In most cases, completed questionnaires,
which were filled out anonymously, were returned directly to
one of the researchers before the conclusion of the sitevisit. In
a few cases, respondents were unable to complete question-
naires in time, and so were furnished with preaddressed,
postpaid envelopes for direct mail return to the university. In no
case did persons in the chain of authority in the organization
become involved in administering questionnaires. The re-
sponse rate for the primary method of administration (i.e.,
on-site return) was 71 percent; however, the overall response
rate dropped to 64 percent when persons w h o were provided
mail-return envelopes were included in the computation. The
response rate from mail returns alone was 32 percent.
Sampling goals were established separately for each site, in
inverse proportion to organization size. At the smallest organiza-
tions, less than 30 eligible employees, for instance, the target
Organizational Commitment and Effectiveness

was 100 percent. At organizations having more than 1,000

eligible employees, the target was only 10 percent. In most
cases, the targeted sampling objectives were achieved, the
exceptions tending to be in those organizations for which the
target was 100 percent sampling.
Since participation was voluntary, true random sampling was
not possible. Researchers attempted judgmentally, however,
to distribute questionnaires across categories of race and sex,
and across the apparent range of age and tenure. Analysis of
questionnaire returns, however, disclosed some discrepancies
in proportional representation of certain groups. Blacks were
underrepresented (14 percent in sample, 31 percent in popula-
tion); as were employees having more than five years' tenure in
the organization (30 percent in sample, 38 percent in popula-
tion); women were overrepresented (18 percent in sample, 6
percent in population). Other groups matched sampling targets
reasonably well. Retrospectively, it appeared that the devia-
tions from ideal proportional representation may have resulted,
at least in part, from population differences during the work
shifts in which most of the sampling effort had been concen-
trated.

RESULTS
Organizational Commitment: Subgroup Differences
Personal factors accounted for several subgroup differences.
Commitment was positively correlated with age (r=.17,
p <.001), but negatively related to educational level (p<.0001).
The results for educational level were striking, showing a
steady decline in commitment across eight ascending educa-
tional level categories. No significant differences were found,
however, across racial-ethnic subgroups or between em-
ployees whose income was or was not the primary source of
family support.
The relationships of age and of educational level with commit-
ment were generally consistent with findings from related
research (Sheldon, 1971 ; Hrebiniak and Alutto, 1972; Steers.
1977a; Stevens, Beyer, and Trice, 1978).The argument often
used to explain these relationships is that increasing age and
decreasing levels of education tend to reduce the feasibility of
obtaining desirable alternative education and therefore tend to
restrict the individual to the present organization.
Females were more strongly committed to their organizations
than males (p<.001). While this finding was consistent with
research that has treated commitment as an instrumental
attachment to organizational membership (Hrebiniak and
Alutto, 1972), it had not been expected in the present study,
since the OCQ appears to tap a form of commitment that is
conceptually very close to work involvement (Dubin, Cham-
poux, and Porter, 1975) and, historically, women have been less
involved than men in their work (Department of Health, Educa-
tion, and Welfare, 1973; Taveggia and Ziemba, 1978).The
rationale usually presented for such findings is that females
enjoy less interorganizational mobility than males and, there-
fore, tend to become restricted to their present organizations. In
the present research, demographic differences alone would
have predicted higher commitment for males. Male employees
 were older and had longer organizational tenure than females.
There were no significant sex differences in educational levels.
Measures of Organizational Effectiveness
Correlational analysis was the principal method used to assess
organizational-level relationships. Pearson correlation coeffi-
cients were computed where marginal distributions were
symmetrical and unimodal; however, forvariables with skewed
distributions, nonparametric correlations were substituted for
Pearson correlations. lntercorrelations among the effective-
ness indicators are provided in Table 2 . All variables in Table 2
were measured at the organizational level; thus, the self-report
measures consisted of the arithmetic mean of responses to
questionnaires within each participating organization.
Table 2

lntercorrelations among Indicators of Organizational Effectiveness

Indicators*

1 Manager-perceived adaptability
2 . Employee-perceived adaptability
3. Absenteeism
4. Intent to quit
5. Separation rate
6. Tardiness
7. Operating expenselrevenue
vehicle hour
8. Operating expenselemployee
-~-

*Pearson correlation coefficients are underlined; all others are Spearman rho.
*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001.

Two aspects of the intercorrelations shown in Table 2 seem

noteworthy. First, the correlation between managers' and
employees' organizational adaptability ratings was rather low
( r = . 2 3 ) ; thus, these t w o member groups appeared to percelve
the same organization somewhat differently. Second, the two
measures of turnover (separation rate, intent to quit) were
negatively correlated with absenteeism, although neither coef-
ficient was statistically significant. This is in keeping with March
and Simon's (1958) view of participation, that is, that there is no
consistent relationship between absenteeism and voluntary
turnover.
Employee Commitment and Organizational Effectiveness
Employees' organizational commitment scores, both for overall
commitment and the t w o commitment subscales, were aggre-
gated in the same way as the performance indicators. Table 3
shows the correlations between the effectiveness indicators
and overall commitment, value commitment, and commitment
to stay. Table 3 also shows the absolute differences between
the correlations with value commitment and commitment to
stay, for each performance indicator. The statistical signifi-
cance of the difference between correlations was computed
using a technique recommended by Steiger (1980) for testing
the equality of t w o correlations having one index in common.
This procedure, which utilizes the Fisherr-to-z transformation,
is superior to Hotelling's t test, where sample sizes are small.
Three of the effectiveness indicators (employee-perceived
 Organizational Commitment and Effectiveness

Table 3

Correlations between Commitment Variables and Indicators of Organizational Effectiveness*

Total difference between

correlations for value
Organizational Value Commitment commitment and commitment
Indicator N commitment commitment to stay to stay?

Manager-perceived 24 .I 6
- -
.I5 -
.I7 02
adaptability

Absenteeism 24 .27 .26 .I5 .I 1

Intent to quit 24 -.36*
-
-.28
- -.60e**
-
,320
Separation rate 24 -.48* -.44* -. 64** .20
Tardiness rate 14 -.48*
-
-.46*
-
-.35
- .I 1
Operating expense1 22 -.28 -.34 -.06 ,280
revenue vehlcle
hour
Operating expense1 20 -.21 -.35 .05 .40°
employee

* Pearson correlation coefflclents are underlined; others are Spearman rho.

t Statistical significance is indicated for the difference between correlations between value commitment and
commitment to stay. All significance tests are one-tailed.
* ~ < . 0 5 *; * ~ < . 0 1***~<.001.
;

adaptability, absenteeism, and intent to quit) were derived from

the same employee questionnaires as the commitment mea-
sures. In order to avoid the inherent single-source bias, an
alternative technique was used for the correlations between
these three indicators and the commitment measures. The
sample of respondents was randomly divided so that, for each
organization, the measures of employee-perceived adaptability,
absenteeism, and intent to quit were obtained from half of the
employees, while organizational levels of overall commitment,
value commitment, and commitment to stay were obtained by
taking the arithmetic means for t.he remaining half of the
employees. Since the other performance measures were free
of single-source bias, they were all correlated with commit-
ment scores that were based on the entire employee sample.
Organizational commitment was significantly related to organi-
zational adaptability, based on employee questionnaire data, but
was not significantly related based on manager questionnaires.
This disparity was consistent with the low correlation between
the two adaptability measures (Table 2).
Turnover, that is, separation rate and intent to quit, was
significantly related to organizational commitment, as was the
archival measure of tardiness rate. However, neither absen-
teeism nor the two operating-expense ratios showed a statisti-
cally significant association with commitment.
When the two commitment subscales, value commitment and
commitment to stay, were substituted for the 15-item measure
of organizational commitment, turnover appeared to be more
strongly associated with commitment to stay than with value
commitment. This difference was statistically significant for
the intent-to-quit measure (p <.05). The archival separation rate
indicator showed a similar directional pattern; however, the
difference fell short of the traditional level of statistical signifi-

1 organization does not automatically imply that there is also an
It is acknowledged that the significance of
the difference between two correlation
coefficients, neither of which is statistically
significant, is difficult to interpret. How-
ever, the fact that a correlation could have
occurred by chance does not mean that the
correlation equals zero. In this instance, the
larger of each pair of correlations related to
operating expense is nearly significant
(p<.081. Furthermore, the test forthe
equallty of two dependent correlations
takes intoaccount, simultaneously, the size
of each correlation and the degrees of
freedom. Accordingly, there appears to be
some justtfication for reporting statistical
significance, when found. On the other
hand, the issue is controversial, and the
data are offered with due caution.
cance (p<.07). Tardiness rate was negatively correlated with
value commitment, as had been the case with organizational
commitment, but was not significantly correlated with com-
mitment to stay; however, the difference between the two
correlation coefficients was not statistically significant (p >.20).
Other indicators tended to show stronger associations with
value commitment than with commitment to stay, among them
the two operating expense ratios. However, even though the
difference between the correlations for both ratios was statisti-
cally significant, the correlations fell short of traditional levels of
significance (p<.08, for both correlation^).^ Neither organiza-
tional adaptability nor absenteeism showed a differential
strength of association with the two commitment subscales. In
summary, although the overall pattern in Table 3 tends to
suggest that the two subscales relate differentially to turnover
and to such other types of measuresas operating expense, the
absence in some instances of statistically significant findings
dictates caution in drawing conclusions.
DISCUSSION
This research was designed to find systematic relationships
between members' commitment to their work organizations
and several indices of organizational effectiveness. The results
were rather mixed. The pattern of relations hips s hown in Table
3 for the two commitment subscales perhaps provides one clue
as to why the overall commitment-effectiveness relationships
were not as strong as had been anticipated. Although none of
the relationships was statistically significant, the two operating
expense ratios showed a tendency toward a stronger associa-
tion with value commitment than with commitment to stay,
whereas the turnover measures were more clearly related to
commitment to stay. This pattern suggests that any impact of
employee commitment on the organization may indeed depend
on the specific kinds of behaviors to which the employees are
committed and, of course, the effects of such behaviors on
organizational outcomes.
In keeping with earlier research (Porter et al., 1974; Steers,
1977a; Koch and Steers, 1978), the clearest evidence provided
by the present study is that there is an inverse relationship
between organizational commitment and employee turnover.
As Steers (1977a) pointed out, such a finding is not surprising,
considering Porter's definition of commitment (Porter et al.,
1974). However, a strong desire to remain a member of one's
intention to be a dependable and hardworking employee. In
terms of Harris and Eoyang's (1977) typology, organizational
outcomes would probably vary, depending on which quadrant
includes the preponderance of employees whoare in a position
to influence the performance of the organization. For instance,
if most such employees had a strong intention to remain but
low motivation to contribute their best efforts toward the
mission (i.e., passive commitment), there would be no reason
to expect a simple, linear relationship between organizational
commitment and overall organizational effectiveness-particu-
larly in cases where turnover appears to have little direct impact
on other aspects of organizational performance. As Table 2
indicates, the turnover measures appeared virtually unrelated to
Organizational Commitment and Effectiveness

operating costs, and the probable reasons for this have been
discussed in an earlier paper (Perry and Angle, 1980a).
The overall pattern in Table 3 seems consistent with Harris and
Eoyang's (1977) notion that commitment to stay and commit-
ment to work are Independent constructs and, in combination,
have complex implications for organlzatlons. However, the
table shows fewer statistically significant relationships than
might be desired, and there are some anomalies. For instance,
although there is no significant difference between the correla-
tions for employee-perceived adaptability and the two com-
mitment subscales, the trend IS in a counterintuitive direction.
Indeed, the largest correlation in Table 3 is between
employee-perceived adaptability and commitment to stay.
It would seem unlikely that a linear relationship should exist
betweenany form of commitment and organizational adaptabil-
ity. At the extreme, commitment would appear to milltate
against the individual's (and therefore the organization's) ability
to adapt to change (Salancik, 1977). It is more likely that, with
respect to adaptability, there is some optimal level of commit-
ment - sufficient to evoke needed employee behaviors be-
yond expliclt role stipulations, but not so strong as to incur the
suspension of individual judgment In favor of organizational
precepts
As an additional note on the number of nonsignificant relation-
ships in Table 3, it should be recognized that this study
represents an attempt to find systematic relationships in a
"noisy system." As is often the case with field research, there
are a number of uncontrolled variables. In particular, such
performance measures as operating expense ratios are subject
to many influences besides the motivation of lower-level
employees. Management competence, structural and
technological variables, and various contextual factors combine
to place limits on any potential effort-performance relationship.
Two cautions are required. The first is about the cross-sectional
nature of the research. To the extent that Table 3 does show
relationships between commitment and indicators of organiza-
tional effectiveness, the directionality of the causal arrow has
still not been established. For example, however logical a case
might be made that some optimal level of employee commit-
ment might foster organizational adaptability, there is the
possibility that organizations that are adaptable either induce
commitment in their members or tend to attract and retain a
disproportionate share of committed types of employees.
The second caution is about occupational specificity. As Salan-
cik (1977) pointed out, the impact of employee commitment on
an organization depends, not only on what the employees are
committed to do, but also on what the potential is for those
specific behaviors to influence organizational outcomes. In the
present research, for example, commitment to stay was shown
to have a more clear-cut relationship to voluntary turnover than
to such indicators as operating costs. This may reflect the ready
availability of a replacement labor pool and relatively modest
training costs in the transit industry. In an industry where
labor-pool and technological considerations would combine to
make turnover particularly expensive, commitment to stay
might exert a more powerful impact on operating costs, though
indirectly.
 CONCLUSION
The present research offered an opportunity to uncover a
commitment-performance relationship, if such a relationship
exists, through cross-organizational comparison of commit-
ment levels relative to performance measures within a single
type of service organization. Furthermore, there were reasons
to expect that the role of bus operator was such that a
behavior-performance link might, indeed, exist.
What the research most clearly accomplished was a construc-
tive replication of a relatively large body of earlier work, showing
a definite negative relationship between organizational com-
mitment and voluntary turnover. Beyond that issue, the results
were rather mixed. The statistics that could most nearly be
considered bottom-line indicators f o r t he organizations that
participated in the research were the two operating expense
ratios, yet these aspects of organizational performance were
not significantly associated with organizational commitment.
Although employee-perceived organizational adaptability was
associated with commitment, manager-perceived adaptability
was not. The relationship between tardiness and commitment
was significant; however, employee tardiness rate was not
significantly associated with organizational operating costs.
The overall pattern of relationships between various perform-
ance indicators and the two commitment subscales, though
inconclusive, suggests follow-up research. The relationship
between commitment and behavior very likely depends on the
form that commitment takes. Ratherthan assuming a simplistic
relationship between commitment and positive performance
outcomes, organizational researchers will have to begin to deal
with more complex factors.

REFERENCES

Adams, J. Stacy Department of Health, Education, Hall, DouglasT., and Benjamin

1976 "The structureand dynamlcs of
behavior in organizational
boundary roles." In Marvin D.
Dunnette (ed.),Handbook of
lndustrlal and Organizational
Psychology: 1175-1 199.
Chlcago: Rand McNally.
Buchanan, Bruce ll
1974 "Build~ngorganlzatlonal com-
mitment: The socialization of
managers in work organiza-
tions." Administrative Science
Quarterly. 19: 533-546.
Burns,Tom,and Graham M. Stalker
1961 The Management of Innova-
tlon. London: Tavistock.
Campbell, John P., David A. Bow-
nas, Norman G. Peterson, and Mar-
vin D. Dunnette
1974 The Measurement of Organiza-
tional Effectiveness: A Revlew
of Relevant Research and Opin-
ion. NPRDC TR 75-1, Navy
Personnel Research and De-
velopment Center, San Diego,
CA.
and Welfare
1973 Work In America. Cambridge,
M A . MIT Press.
Dubin, Robert, Joseph E. Cham-
poux, and Lyman W. Porter
1975 "Central life interests and or-
ganizational commitment of
blue-collar and clerical work-
ers." Adm~nistratlveScience
Quarterly, 20: 41 1-421.
Etzioni, Amitai
1975 A Comparative Evaluation of
Complex Organizations: On
Power, Involvement and Their
Correlates, rev. ed. New York.
Free Press
Hall, Douglas T.
1977 "Conflict and congruence
among multiple career com-
mitments as the career un-
folds." Paper presented at an-
nual meeting of Academy of
Management, Orlando, Florida,
August.
Schneider
1972 "Correlates of organizational
Identification as a function of
career pattern and organiza-
tional type." Administrative
Science Quarterly, 17: 340-
350.
Hall, Douglas T., Benjamin
Schneider, and Harold T. Nygren
1970 "Personal factors In organlza-
tional ident~fication Admlnis-
"
trative Science Quarterly, 15:
176-1 90.
Harris, Rueben T., and Carson K.
Eoyang
1977 "A typology of organlzatlonal
commitment." Working paper,
Massachusetts lnst~tuteof
Technology, Sloan School of
Management, Paper No 957-
77, October.

Hrebiniak, Lawrence G., and Joseph
Alutto
1972 "Personal and role-related fac-
tors in the development of or-
ganizatlonal commitment "
Administrative Sclence Quar-
terly, 17: 555-572.
Kanter, Rosabeth Moss
1968 "Commitment and social or-
ganlzation. Astudy of com-
mltment mechanisms in
pian communities." American
Sociological Review, 33' 499-
517.
Katz, Daniel
1964 "The motivational basis of or-
ganizational behavior." Behav-
ioral Science, 9: 131-146.
Kiesler, Charles A.
1971 The Psychology of Commit-
ment. Experiments Linking
Behav~orto Belief New York:
Academic Press.
Koch, James L., and Richard M.
Steers
1978 "Job attachment, satisfaction,
and turnover among public sec-
tor employees." Journal of Vo-
cational Behavior, 12: 119-
128.
Lawrence, Paul R., and Jay W.
Lorsch
1967 Organization and Environment:
Managing Differentiation and
Integration. Boston: Haward
Univers~tyPress.
March, James G., and Herbert A.
Simon
1958 Organizations. New York.
Wiley.
Mott, Paul E.
1972 The Character~sticsof Effec-
Academy of Management
tive Organizations. New York
Journal, 21 : 380-396.
Harper & Row.
Taveggia, Thomas C., and Thomas
Mowday, Richard T., Lyman W.
Ziemba
Porter, and Robert Dubin
1978 ,,A study of the life
1974 "Unit performance, s~tuational
interests' and 'work attach-
factors and employee attitudes
ments' of male and female
in spatially separated work
workers." Journal of Vocat~onal
units." Organizational Behavior
and Human Performance. 12.
231 -248.
Mowday, Richard T., Richard M.
Steers, and Lyman W. Porter
1979 "The measurement of organl-
zational commitment." Journal
of Vocational Behavior, 14.
224-247.
Organizational Commitment and Effectiveness
Muchinsky, Paul M., and Mark L.
Tuttle
1979 "Employee turnover: An empir-
ical and methodological as-
sessment." Journal of Voca-
tlonal Behavior, 14 43-77.
Nunnally, J u m C.
1978 Psychometric Theory, 2d ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Patchen, ,,,lartin
1970 Participation, Achlevement,
and Involvement on the Job.
Englewood Cliffs. NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Perry, James L., and Harold L. Angle
1g80a The of Labor-
Management Relations on
Productivity and Efficiency ~n
Urban Mass Transit: Em-
ployee Attitudes, Withdrawal
Behavior, and Bargaining Unit
Structure Washington' De-
partment of Transportat~on,
March.
1980b Labor-Management Relations
and Public Effective-
ness: AStudy of Urban Mass
Transit. New York: Pergamon
Press.
Porter, Lyman W., William J. Cram-
pon, and Frank J. Smith
1976 "Organizational commitment
and managerial turnover: A Ion-
gltudinal study." Organizational
Behavior and Human Perform-
ance, 15: 87-98.
Porter, Lyman W., and Frank J.
Smith
1970 "The etiology of organizational
commitment." Unpublished
paper. University of California,
Iwlne.
Porter, Lyman W,, Richard M,
Steers, Richard T. Mowday, and
Paul V. Boulian
1974 "Organizational commitment,
job satisfaction, and turnover
among psychiatric techni-
cians." Journal of Applled
Psychology, 59: 603-609.
Salancik' GeraldR'
1977 "Commitment and the control
of organizational behavior." In
Barry M. Staw and Gerald R.
Salancik (eds.),New Directions
in Organizational Behavior:
1-54. Chicago: St. Clalr.
Schein, Edgar H.
1968 "Organizational socialization
and the profession of man-
agement." Industrial Manage-
ment Review, 9 . 1-1 5.
sheidon, E,
1971 "Investments and involve-
ments as mechanisms produc-
ing commitment to the organi-
zation." Administrative Science
Quarterly, 16. 142-1 50.
Staw, Barry M.
1977 "Two sides of commitment."
Paper presented at annual
meeting of Academy of Man-
agement, Orlando, Florida, Au-
gust
Stebbins, Robert A.
1970a Commitment to Deviance
Westport, CT: Greenwood.
1970b "On misunderstand~ngthe
concept of commitment: A
theoretical clarification." So-
cial Forces, 48: 526-529.
steers, M,
1977a "Antecedents and outcomes
of organizational commlt-
ment." Administrative Sci-
ence Quarterly, 22 46-56.
197713 Organizational Effectiveness:
A Behav~oralVlew. Santa
Monica. CA: Goodyear.
Steiger, James H,
1980 8 r ~ e s tfor
s comparing elements
of a correlation matrix." Psy-
chological Bulletin, 87: 245-
251
Stevens, John M., Janice M. Beyer,
and Harrison M. Trice
1978 "Assessing personal. role, and
organizational predictors of
managerial commitment."
Behavior, 12. 305-320.
vroom,victorH,
1964 Work and Motlvatlon, New
York: W~ley.
Woodward, Joan
1965 Industrial Organization: Theory
and Practice. London: Oxford
University Press.
APPENDIX: Self-Report Performance Indicators
Indicator Wording of item

What are your plans for staying wlth this organization?

Intent to quit
1. I intend to stay until I retire.
2. 1 will leave only if an exceptional opportunity turns up.
3. 1 will leave if something better turns up.
4. 1 intend to leave as soon as possible.
Absenteeism How many workdays were you absent from work in the last year (do not count v a c a t l o n ) ? d a y s .
Adaptability A scale was constructed from the following four questions (Alpha=.80). Responses were obtalned on a
7-point summated rating scale with anchor words ranging from "strongly disagree" (1)to "strongly
agree" ( 7 ) :
1. People In this organization do a good job anticipating problems.
2. People in this organization doa good job in keeping up wlth changes in new equipment and new ways
of doing things.
3. When changes are made in routlnes and equipment, people adjust to these changes qulckly.
4. People in this organization do a good job coping with emergency situations brought on by accidents.
equipment and labor problems, or other factors that might cause temporary work overloads.
http://www.jstor.org

LINKED CITATIONS
- Page 1 of 3 -

You have printed the following article:

An Empirical Assessment of Organizational Commitment and Organizational Effectiveness
Harold L. Angle; James L. Perry
Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 1. (Mar., 1981), pp. 1-14.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-8392%28198103%2926%3A1%3C1%3AAEAOOC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A

This article references the following linked citations. If you are trying to access articles from an
off-campus location, you may be required to first logon via your library web site to access JSTOR. Please
visit your library's website or contact a librarian to learn about options for remote access to JSTOR.

References

Review: [Untitled]
Reviewed Work(s):
Prediction of Organizational Behavior by Norman Frederiksen; Ollie Jensen; Albert E. Beaton;
Bruce Bloxom
Paul C. Buchanan
Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2. (Jun., 1974), pp. 287-289.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-8392%28197406%2919%3A2%3C287%3APOOB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0

Central Life Interests and Organizational Commitment of Blue-Collar and Clerical Workers
Robert Dubin; Joseph E. Champoux; Lyman W. Porter
Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. 3. (Sep., 1975), pp. 411-421.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-8392%28197509%2920%3A3%3C411%3ACLIAOC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q

Correlates of Organizational Identification as a Function of Career Pattern and

Organizational Type
Douglas T. Hall; Benjamin Schneider
Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 3. (Sep., 1972), pp. 340-350.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-8392%28197209%2917%3A3%3C340%3ACOOIAA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5
http://www.jstor.org

LINKED CITATIONS
- Page 2 of 3 -

Personal Factors in Organizational Identification

Douglas T. Hall; Benjamin Schneider; Harold T. Nygren
Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 2. (Jun., 1970), pp. 176-190.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-8392%28197006%2915%3A2%3C176%3APFIOI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-E

Personal and Role-Related Factors in the Development of Organizational Commitment

Lawrence G. Hrebiniak; Joseph A. Alutto
Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 4. (Dec., 1972), pp. 555-573.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-8392%28197212%2917%3A4%3C555%3APARFIT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L

Commitment and Social Organization: A Study of Commitment Mechanisms in Utopian

Communities
Rosabeth Moss Kanter
American Sociological Review, Vol. 33, No. 4. (Aug., 1968), pp. 499-517.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-1224%28196808%2933%3A4%3C499%3ACASOAS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1

Investments and Involvements as Mechanisms Producing Commitment to the Organization

Mary E. Sheldon
Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 2. (Jun., 1971), pp. 143-150.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-8392%28197106%2916%3A2%3C143%3AIAIAMP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R

On Misunderstanding the Concept of Commitment: A Theoretical Clarification

Robert A. Stebbins
Social Forces, Vol. 48, No. 4. (Jun., 1970), pp. 526-529.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-7732%28197006%2948%3A4%3C526%3AOMTCOC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R

Antecedents and Outcomes of Organizational Commitment

Richard M. Steers
Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 22, No. 1. (Mar., 1977), pp. 46-56.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-8392%28197703%2922%3A1%3C46%3AAAOOOC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M
http://www.jstor.org

LINKED CITATIONS
- Page 3 of 3 -

Assessing Personal, Role, and Organizational Predictors of Managerial Commitment

John M. Stevens; Janice M. Beyer; Harrison M. Trice
The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 21, No. 3. (Sep., 1978), pp. 380-396.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-4273%28197809%2921%3A3%3C380%3AAPRAOP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V