Sun-Seeking Eternal Flight Solar-Powered Airplane for

Venus Exploration
Zhu Xiongfeng 1; Guo Zheng 2; and Hou Zhongxi 3

Abstract: A novel sun-seeking eternal flight solar-powered airplane (SESPA) for Venus exploration is proposed with consideration of the
high atmospheric density and long rotation period of Venus. The flight track is in accordance with the latitude circle of Venus. The flight speed
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equals the resultant velocity of the zonal wind speed and the rotation speed of Venus, and the flight direction is opposite to the resultant
velocity. The SESPA can fly consistently at daytime under the local midday, thus increasing the utilization ratio of solar cells and eliminating
the need for a battery. This feature reduces the system complexity and mission costs of the SESPA. This paper introduces the atmospheric
characteristics of Venus and analyzes the feasibility of a SESPA for Venus exploration. A set of constraints of realizing sun-seeking
eternal flight is derived. The designed SESPA is feasible for the atmospheric flight only when all constraints have been satisfied. Finally,
the favorable flight condition for the SESPA is analyzed. The result shows the feasible flight altitude of the SESPA ranges from 71.5–75 km.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)AS.1943-5525.0000465. © 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Venus; Solar-powered airplane; Sun-seeking eternal flight; High-altitude long endurance; Planetary probe.

Introduction
Venus is the second planet from the Sun. The radius of Venus is
6,052 km, which is slightly less than the radius of Earth
(i.e., 6,371 km). The gravitational acceleration of Venus is 8.87 m=s2 ,
which is comparable to the 9.8 m=s2 of Earth. Venus also has a
thick atmosphere. However, the atmosphere of Venus is approxi-
mately composed of 96.4% CO2 and has a runaway greenhouse
effect (Landis et al. 2003). The temperature of the surface is nearly
500°C, which decreases to −100°C at the 100-km altitude of the
outer atmosphere (Smith and West 1983; Landis et al. 2003).
The atmosphere of Venus contains small amounts of O2 but high
amounts of H2 SO4 , free sulfur, and trace contaminants. The envi-
ronment of Venus has attracted the attention of scientists (Landis
et al. 2003). The scientific exploration of terrestrial planets, such as
Venus and Mars, aims to reveal the evolution of the solar system,
the origin of life, and the feasibility of immigration to outer space.
Different kinds of exploration vehicles have been sent to Venus,
such as Venera and Vega from the Soviet Union, and Pioneer Venus
and Magellan missions from the United States (Landis et al. 2005).
Some of these vehicles use the gravity of Venus to gather informa-
tion while descending toward the surface or use manufactured bal-
loons to sail along the wind of Venus. These techniques result in
limited coverage area and poor vehicular control. Some vehicles
are orbiting spacecraft however with the disadvantage of low res-
olution. Some other vehicles such as Venera are lander vehicles,
1
Ph.D. Candidate, College of Aerospace Sciences and Engineering,
National Univ. of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China
(corresponding author). E-mail: zhuxiongfeng@nudt.edu.cn; zhuxiongfeng@
yeah.net
2
Professor, College of Aerospace Sciences and Engineering, National
Univ. of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China.
3
Professor, College of Aerospace Sciences and Engineering, National
Univ. of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on May 8, 2014; approved on
August 27, 2014; published online on October 9, 2014. Discussion period
open until March 9, 2015; separate discussions must be submitted for in-
dividual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Aerospace Engineer-
ing, © ASCE, ISSN 0893-1321/04014127(7)/$25.00.
which are difficult to carry out long-duration mission due to the
extremely high temperature and pressure on the surface of Venus.
Recently, a number of studies on Venus exploration probes have
been conducted. Gilmorea et al. (2005) studied balloon experi-
ments for Venus and the Venus flyer robot. Klaasena and Greeley
(2003) studied the Venus exploration of volcanoes and atmosphere,
which is also based on balloon vehicles. Other researchers (Moroz
1981; Smith and West 1983; Landis 2001, 2006; Landis et al. 2002,
2003, 2005; Colozza 2004a, b; Colozza and Landis 2005) sug-
gested the use of solar-powered airplanes for Venus exploration.
These scientists have also initiated a preliminary design process
on the size constraint of the Pioneer Venus aeroshell. This design
channels a new approach for Venus exploration.
This paper focuses on the development of a solar-powered air-
plane for Venus exploration. Venus has the slowest rotation among
the planets in the solar system. The day period of Venus is 243 Earth
days, and the sidereal year period is 224 Earth days. Only 1 Venus
day and 1 Venus night occur during 1 Venus year. The rotation speed
of Venus is considerably slow in that the linear velocity in the equator
is only 3.7 m=s (13.4 km=h; Landis et al. 2003), which is less than
most level flight speeds of terrestrial prototype solar-powered air-
planes, such as Helios (Noll et al. 2004), Qinetiq (2012), and
Sky-Sailor (Noth et al. 2006). However, the feasibility of a solar-
powered airplane that can fly a track while continuously seeking
the sun remains in question. Thus, a novel sun-seeking eternal flight
solar-powered airplane (SESPA) is proposed in this paper (Zhu et al.
2013). The SESPA requires that the level flight speed should not be
less than the resultant velocity of the zonal wind speed and the
rotation speed of Venus. The slow rotation speed of Venus is favor-
able for SESPA compared with other planets or planetary satellites,
such as Mars, Titan, and Earth. Compared with conventional solar-
powered airplanes, SESPA can cruise continuously at daytime
under local midday, thus allowing the solar cell to work constantly
at a state of ultimate utilization. Onboard batteries are not needed
because SESPA does not have to work at night. The SESPA has
abundant power that can decrease the dimensions of the vehicle,
thus enhancing system reliability and economic efficiency.
The feasibility of realizing SESPA for Venus exploration is
discussed in this paper. The appropriate flight altitude is further

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J. Aerosp. Eng., 2015, 28(5): 04014127

 P [bar]
T
P
ρ
Altitude [km]
T I/I0
ρ
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T [k]
ρ [kg/m ]
3
Fig. 1. Atmospheric features versus altitude
studied. This paper is organized as described next. The first section
introduces the atmospheric profile of Venus. The second section
discusses the feasibility of realizing SESPA for Venus exploration.
The third section studies the favorable flight altitude of SESPA
on Venus.
Atmospheric Profile of Venus
The atmospheric density and pressure of Venus decrease exponen-
tially with altitude (Fig. 1). The atmospheric density at the surface
of Venus is 64.79 kg=m3 , which sharply decreases to 7.89 ×
10−5 kg=m3 at the 100-km altitude of the outer atmosphere. The
atmospheric density is 1.225 kg=m3 at an altitude of 52.4 km.
Thus, flying an aircraft at such an altitude is equivalent to the Earth
surface. The atmospheric pressure at the surface of Venus is
92.1 bar, which quickly decreases to 2.7 × 10−5 bar at the 100-km
altitude of the outer atmosphere. The atmospheric pressure is
1.01325 bar at an altitude of 54.1 km, which is identical to the
atmospheric pressure at the terrestrial surface. The atmospheric tem-
perature decreases linearly piecewise with altitude. The atmospheric
temperature is 735.3 K at the surface of Venus and decreases to
175.4 K at the 100-km altitude of the outer atmosphere (National
Earth Science Teachers Association 2010). The atmospheric temper-
ature is 288 K at an altitude of 56.3 km, which is identical to the
temperature at the terrestrial surface (Smith and West 1983; Colozza
2004a, b). It is well-known that high temperature is harmful to solar
cell, while low temperature is harmful to electronics. An environmen-
tal controller is necessary when the temperature is extreme, which is
unacceptable for the solar-powered airplane. Thus, a flight altitude of
55–75 km is thought favorable for the solar-powered airplane.
A steady zonal wind blows from east to west (the same direction
as the rotation of Venus) through the atmosphere of Venus below
100 km, as revealed by previous scientific explorations. The zonal
wind speed is 0.5 m=s at the surface and reaches a maximum speed
of nearly 95 m=s at an altitude of approximately 65 km (Fig. 2).
The zonal wind can circle the surface of Venus every 4 Earth days
[i.e., super-rotation per Landis et al. (2003)]. Considering the
© ASCE
J. Aerosp. Eng., 2015, 28(5): 04014127
Irradiance I/I0
Altitude [km]
Vwind
I/I0
Vwind
Wind speed [m/s]
Fig. 2. Solar intensity and zonal wind versus altitude
suggested flight altitude from 55 to 75 km, the zonal wind speed
ranges from 65 to 95 m=s, which is evidently greater than the
rotation speed at the equator of 3.7 m=s (Colozza 2004a, b). Thus,
overcoming the zonal wind is crucial to achieve sun-seeking eternal
flight.
The solar intensity above the atmosphere of Venus is
2,600 W=m2 , which is higher than the 1,360 W=m2 solar intensity
at Earth’s orbit because Venus is close to the Sun. However, the
solar irradiance decreases significantly because of the thick atmos-
phere. Considering the midspectrum wavelength of 0.72 μm, the
solar irradiance at the surface is 10% of the outer atmospheric in-
tensity, which increases to 35% at the altitude of about 50 km. From
50 km to approximately 65-km altitude, the solar irradiance
increases linearly to 2,600 W=m2 (Colozza 2004a, b). The solar
irradiance reaches 1,360 W=m2 at the altitude of 52.3 km, which
is identical to that of the terrestrial outer atmosphere. Solar power
is fairly abundant for high altitude atmospheric flight on Venus.
Fig. 2 illustrates the solar intensity and zonal wind speed versus
the altitude.
Feasibility of Sun-Seeking Eternal Flight on Venus
The flight track of SESPA for Venus atmospheric exploration is
designed as a latitude circle. To realize sun-seeking eternal flight,
the level flight speed of the SESPA is equivalent to the resultant
velocity of the zonal wind speed and the rotation speed of Venus,
and the flight direction is opposite to the resultant velocity. Since
Venus rotates from east to west, which is the same as the zonal
wind, the flight direction of SESPA should be designed from west
to east. The linear velocity of Venus rotation decreases from the
equator (3.7 m=s) to the polar region (0 m=s). The resultant veloc-
ity is greater in the equator than in other latitude circles. In this
paper, the flight track of SESPA is designed to circle the equator.
In case a SESPA can realize sun-seeking eternal flight above the
equator circle, the SESPA can achieve sun-seeking eternal flight
for most latitude circles of Venus. Fig. 3 shows the futuristic view
of sun-seeking eternal flight of solar-powered airplane for Venus
exploration.
04014127-2 J. Aerosp. Eng.

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Fig. 3. Futuristic view of sun-seeking eternal flight solar-powered
airplane on Venus (adapted from NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
Conceptual Image Lab 2004)
For this paper, a solar-powered airplane with a wing span 3 m
and a chord length 0.4 m [equivalent to the small aircraft proposed
by Landis et al. (2003)] is introduced. The airplane is a high wing
monoplane with a slender fuselage. A motor and a propeller are
assembled at the leading edge of the fuselage, while a T-tail is as-
sembled at the trailing edge of the fuselage. The wing is composed
by three wing panels. The two wingtip panels can be folded so as to
fit the small probe aeroshell. The solar panels are mounted on the
upper surface of the wing panels and the horizontal stabilizer.
The design of the wing is the most critical, as it comprises most
of the structure and mass of the airplane.
There is no immediate intrinsic difference between SESPA and
traditional solar-powered airplanes. In the preliminary design pro-
cess, neither ascent, descent, acceleration, nor deceleration courses
are considered. The only concern is level flight at a certain altitude,
which is the typical single-point design procedure. Therefore, the
preliminary design of SESPA should meet a balance between lift
and weight, thrust and drag, and energy. The three balance relations
are shown in Eqs. (1a)–(1c), which is noted as the governing equa-
tion in this paper [Eqs. (1a)–(1c) are the balance of gravity and lift,
thrust and drag, and energy, respectively]
ρ 40%, while the most commonly used single crystal silicon cell
W ¼ V 2 CL S ð1aÞ
2 has an approximate efficiency of 25%. Generally, the solar cell ef-
ρ the SESPA program is implemented. Thus, the solar cell efficiency
T prop ¼ V 2 CD S ð1bÞ
2
Eneed ≤ Eprvd ð1cÞ
where W = weight; ρ = atmospheric density of the corresponding
flight altitude; V = level flight speed; CL = lift coefficient;
S = wing surface area; T prop = thrust of the propeller; CD = drag
coefficient; Eneed = required energy for level flight; and Eprvd =
available energy of SESPA.
The required level flight power Plev is obtained by multiplying
Eq. (1) by the level flight speed V, expressed as Eq. (2). The level
flight speed corresponds to the resultant velocity of the rotation
speed and zonal wind speed of Venus
ρ that of most gliders. Designing a solar-powered airplane with a drag
Plev ¼ T prop V ¼ CD V 3 S ð2Þ
2 coefficient less than 0.02 is somewhat unrealistic. Thus, researchers
© ASCE 04014127-3
J. Aerosp. Eng., 2015, 28(5): 04014127
Eq. (2) is divided by the wing surface area S, which yields the
required power-to-wing surface area ratio of level flight Plev =S
Plev ρ
¼ CD V 3 ð3Þ
S 2
Transformed by solar panels, maximum power point track
(MPPT), motors, and propellers, the solar energy is finally con-
verted into kinetic energy, which provides the level flight power
consumption of the airplane. The available power of SESPA is
derived as
Pprvd ¼ Psolar Sηsc ηmppt ηmot ηprl ð4Þ
where Psolar = solar intensity at a specified altitude and time
of day, e.g., local midday; ηsc = solar cell efficiency; ηmppt =
MPPT efficiency; ηmot = motor efficiency; and ηprl = propeller
efficiency.
Eq. (4) is divided by the wing surface area S, which yields the
power-to-wing surface area ratio of available power Pprvd =S
Pprvd
¼ Psolar ηsc ηmppt ηmot ηprl ð5Þ
S
Eq. (1c) indicates that the available energy of SESPA should not
be less than the energy requirement i.e., Pprvd t ≥ Plev t. Thus, the
power loading of available power should be equal to or greater than
the required power loading Plev =S.
ρ
Psolar ηsc ηmppt ηmot ηprl ≥ CD V 3 ð6Þ
2
The level flight velocity V in Eq. (6) is the resultant velocity of
the rotation speed and zonal wind speed of Venus. The zonal wind
speed, atmospheric density ρ, and solar intensity Psolar are functions
of the flight altitude. The solar, MPPT, motor, and propeller
efficiencies can be treated as constant parameters; thus, the drag
coefficient CD is achieved as the function of the flight altitude.
Therefore, Eq. (6) can be rewritten as
2Psolar ηsc ηmppt ηmot ηprl
CD ≤ ¼ CD;max ðHÞ ð7Þ
ρV 3
where CD;max = maximum drag coefficient; H = flight altitude.
The solar cell efficiency ηsc of Eq. (7) can refer to the best re-
searched cell efficiency charted (Fig. 4) by National (2012). Fig. 4
shows the multijunction cell has the highest efficiency reaching
ficiency will reach higher applied values in the near future, when
was set at 40% in this paper. The efficiency of the power transfor-
mation devices is relatively high for the current state of the art. In
this paper, the MPPT, motor, and propeller efficiencies are set at
0.95, 0.9, and 0.85, respectively. The previously mentioned param-
eters are substituted into Eq. (7). Then, in Eq. (7), the drag coef-
ficient is finally expressed as a function of flight altitude alone.
Researchers can infer from Eq. (7) that for a given flight altitude
there exists a maximum drag coefficient CD;max . In order to realize
sun-seeking eternal flight, the SESPA should have a drag coeffi-
cient less than the maximum drag coefficient. Fig. 5 shows the
maximum drag coefficient versus flight altitude. The maximum
drag coefficient is depicted decreasing when the flight altitude de-
creases. However, when the flight altitude decreases to 69 km, the
maximum drag coefficient is less than 0.02, which is smaller than
J. Aerosp. Eng.
 the solar-powered airplane is low Mach number flow, the drag
coefficient can usually be estimated
Three-junction
Two-junction CD ¼ CD0 þ CDi þ CDp ð8Þ
Single crystal Si
Multicrystalline Si
where CD0 is the airfoil drag coefficient; CDp is the parasitic drag
coefficient generated by the fuselage, pod, and other parts [for the
Efficiency [%]

present SESPA (Fig. 3), the parasitic drag coefficient CDp is as-
signed as 0.005]; and CDi is the induced drag coefficient, which
is computed as a function of the aspect ratio AR and Oswald’s fac-
tor e. The induced drag coefficient is expressed as (Romeo and
Frulla 2002; Romeo et al. 2004; Noth 2008)

C2L
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CDi ¼ ð9Þ
eπAR

The Oswald’s factor e is the compromise of the nonellipticity of

Year
Fig. 4. Best research cell efficiencies
Maximum drag coefficient CD,max
the lift distribution, which is assigned as 0.8 because the wing con-
figuration is none-tapered and none-swept.
The airfoil theory states that the airfoil drag coefficient CD0 is
related to the profile, angle of attack, and Reynolds number R.
Drela (1989) developed an efficient program called Xfoil to esti-
mate the aerodynamics of airfoils. Xfoil is employed in this paper.
Researchers should first learn the magnitude of the Reynolds num-
ber so as to meet the Xfoil requirements. The Reynolds number is
expressed as

ρVL
R¼ ð10Þ
μ
CD,max
where L = mean aerodynamic chord, which is estimated by the
geometry chord (for this paper, the chord is 0.4 m); and μ =
T
dynamic viscosity, which is related to the nature of the gas and
CD,max
Altitude [km]

temperature T. Temperature is usually not considered in the con-

ceptual design of terrestrial solar-powered airplanes. However, tem-
T
perature should be carefully considered for Venus atmospheric
flight because of the extreme temperature gradient. The dynamic
viscosity is computed using
 1.5  
μ T T0 þ Ts
≈ ð11Þ
μ0 T0 T þ Ts

where μ0 = dynamic viscosity under 0°C; T 0 is 273.16 K; and T s is

T [°C]
Fig. 5. Maximum drag coefficient versus flight altitude
can make a conclusion that the lower flight altitude boundary of the
SESPA is 69 km. When taking into account the ultimate low tem-
perature constraint, the favorable flight altitude of the SESPA is
from 69–75 km. The analysis presented previously can be summed
up in saying that by careful design a solar-powered airplane can
realize sun-seeking eternal flight in the Venus atmosphere.
Sutherland’s constant, which differs for various gases. Sutherland’s
constant versus the gas is shown in Table 1.
Since CO2 constitutes 96.4% of the atmosphere of Venus (Smith
and West 1983), the dynamic viscosity of the atmosphere of Venus
can be substituted by CO2. The dynamic viscosity expressed in
Eq. (11) is a function of temperature, which is a function of altitude.
The viscosity of Venus CO2 versus altitude is shown in Fig. 6.
Substituting Eq. (11) into Eq. (10), the Reynolds number can be
finally expressed as a function of flight altitude. Fig. 6 shows the
Table 1. Sutherland Constant for the Various Gases in the Atmosphere of
Venus

Gas μ0 ð1 × 106 Ns=m2 Þ Sutherland’s constant T s

Favorable Flight Conditions for Sun-Seeking Eternal Terrestrial atmosphere 17.161 124
Flight on Venus N2 16.602 104
Ammonia 9.306 503
In the present section, the writers try to study the favorable flight O2 19.200 125
conditions for sun-seeking eternal flight on Venus. First, the drag H2 8.404 71
CO2 13.807 254
coefficient of the SESPA is estimated. Since the airflow around

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J. Aerosp. Eng., 2015, 28(5): 04014127

 2
Dynamic viscosity [Ns/m ] is larger), when the Reynolds number decreases. The dot points
show the polars with maximum lift-to-drag ratio, where the lift
coefficients are approximately 0.7 and the drag coefficient is ap-
proximately from 0.008 to 0.015. The writers assume the SESPA
Re
μ is flying on the condition of maximum lift-drag coefficient. By
making interpolation using the previously mentioned drag coeffi-
cient, researchers can achieve the actual drag coefficient CDi under
the specified Reynolds numbers.
μ The available parasitic drag coefficient and airfoil drag coeffi-
Altitude [km]

cient are substituted into Eq. (8) to produce the total drag coeffi-
cient, which should be less than the maximum drag coefficient
Re
according to Eq. (7). Combining Eqs. (7) and (8), researchers
can achieve the boundary of the induced drag coefficient
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2Psolar ηsc ηmppt ηmot ηprl

CDi ≤ − CD0 − CDp ð12Þ
ρV 3

Substitute the expression of the induced drag coefficient Eq. (9)

into Eq. (12) yields the boundary of the lift coefficient
 
2
2Psolar ηsc ηmppt ηmot ηprl
Renolds number CL ≤ eπAR − CD0 − CDp ¼ C2L;max ðHÞ
ρV 3
Fig. 6. Dynamic viscosity and Reynolds number versus altitude ð13Þ

Given a set of technical parameters of the SESPA (e.g., chord,

Reynolds number versus flight altitude. For the favorable flight
altitude interval from 69 to 75 km, the Reynolds number is approx-
imately from 1 × 105 to 3 × 105 . In the aerodynamic community,
the Reynolds number less than 1 × 106 is considered as low a low
Reynolds number problem. Usually low Reynolds number will
bring in very high frictional resistance. Moreover, boundary
layer transition and flow separation (sometimes yields separation
bubble) are more common in low Reynolds number airflow
(Gopalarathnam et al. 2003). Usually some high-lift low Reynolds
number airfoils, such as SD7032, E214, E387, FX63-110, FX63-
137, and so on, are employed to construct the main wing (Selig
et al. 1995). For this paper, an airfoil AG 27 designed by Dr. Mark
Drela is selected. The airfoil AG 27 is designed and optimized
using Xfoil program, and thus is fairly fit for the low Reynolds
number airflow. Fig. 7 shows the polars of airfoil AG 27 with the
Reynolds number from 1 × 105 to 4 × 105 . The polar of the airfoil
AG 27 moves to the right side (i.e., the airfoil drag coefficient
1.4
1.2
1 rotation speed of Venus. Thus, the wing loading is also the function
0.8
Profile of AG 27
0.6
L
C
aspect ratio, and so on), the right side of Eq. (13) is only the func-
tion of flight altitude, which means there is a maximum lift
coefficient CL;max for a given flight altitude. The SESPA should
be designed with a lift coefficient smaller than the maximum lift
coefficient. The lift coefficient of the SESPA (Fig. 3) is estimated
using the Athena Vortex Lattic (AVL) program (developed by
Dr. H. Youngren and Dr. M. Drela, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology), which is applicable for aircraft of arbitrary con-
figuration (Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2005). The
result shows the lift coefficient is approximately 0.618. Fig. 8
shows the load distribution of the SESPA calculated by the
AVL program. The maximum lift coefficient of Eq. (13) should
be greater than 0.618. Fig. 9 shows the maximum lift coefficient
versus flight altitude. The maximum lift coefficient is decreasing
when the flight altitude decreases. However, when the flight alti-
tude decreases to approximately 71.5 km, the maximum lift
coefficient is less than 0.618, which means the SESPA cannot fly
with a lift coefficient of 0.618 below the altitude of 71.5 km. Thus
researchers can make a conclusion that the favorable flight altitude
of the SESPA is from 71.5 to 75 km.
The wing loading of the SESPA can be derived from Eq. (1a),
expressed as Eq. (14). The lift coefficient is set 0.618, and the level
flight speed is the resultant velocity of the zonal wind speed and the
of flight altitude
W ρ W
¼ CL V 2 ¼ ðHÞ ð14Þ
S 2 S

Re=100,000
0.4 Re=200,000 The wing loading versus flight altitude is plotted (Fig. 9). Fig. 9
Re=300,000
0.2 Re=400,000
shows the wing loading of the SESPA is decreasing with the incre-
ment of flight altitude. The wing loading interval is from
0 70 to 160 N=m2 , which is compared greater than that of Zephyr
7 [approximately 25 N=m2 per Qinetiq (2012)] and Helios
−0.2 [approximately 39 N=m2 per Noll et al. (2004)]. Larger wing load-
−0.4
ing is favorable for solar-powered airplane since the structure can
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 be made much strengthened and the airplane can carry much more
C
D payload. Considering the gravitational acceleration of Venus is
8.87 m=s2 , the total mass of the SESPA is approximately from
Fig. 7. Polars of AG 27 for different Reynolds numbers
7.89 to 18.04 kg, in view of different designed flight altitude.

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Fig. 8. Load distribution of the SESPA

2 Venus are first introduced in this paper. These characteristics pro-

Wing loading W/S [N/m ]
vide the foundation of atmospheric flight on Venus. The favorable
flight altitude ranges from 55 to 75 km, considering the atmos-
pheric temperature. The feasibility of sun-seeking eternal flight
Max lift coefficient in the atmosphere of Venus is subsequently analyzed, which yields
Wing loading the constraints of maximum drag coefficient and maximum lift co-
efficient. The solar-powered airplane should meet all the previous
W/S CL,max constraints to achieve sun-seeking eternal flight. Finally, the fea-
sible flight altitude of SESPA is from 71.5 to 75 km, the wing load-
ing is approximately from 70 to 160 N=m2 , and the total mass of
Altitude [km]

the SESPA is approximately from 7.89 to 18.04 kg. The SESPA

has higher solar cell utilization and can consistently fly under local
midday, compared with conventional solar-powered airplanes. The
SESPA does not need a battery to sustain flight, thus decreasing
total mass and the system complexity, and enhancing the system
reliability and the economical efficiency. Wing loading is also rel-
atively high, which indicates that for specified wing area the
SESPA can be made more strengthened and can carry more pay-
loads. The possibility analysis of the SESPA for Venus exploration
is also applicable for other terrestrial planets, such as Mars or Titan.

Max lift coefficient CL,max

Notation
Fig. 9. Maximum lift coefficients and wing loading versus altitude
The following symbols are used in this paper:
AR = aspect ratio (dimensionless);
CD = drag coefficient (dimensionless);
Conclusions CD;max = maximum drag coefficient (dimensionless);
CDi = induced drag coefficient (dimensionless);
A novel solar-powered airplane that is capable of sun-seeking eter- CDp = parasitic drag coefficient (dimensionless);
nal flight (i.e., SESPA) for Venus exploration is proposed based on CD0 = airfoil drag coefficient (dimensionless);
the special atmospheric features of Venus, such as high atmospheric CL = lift coefficient (dimensionless);
density and long rotation period. The atmospheric characteristics of CL;max = maximum lift coefficient (dimensionless);

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J. Aerosp. Eng., 2015, 28(5): 04014127

 Eneed = energy needs (J); Landis, G. A., et al. (2002). “Atmospheric flight on Venus.” Rep. American
Eprvd = energy available (J); Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)-2002-0819, Reston,
e = Oswald’s factor (dimensionless); VA.
L = wing chord length (m); Landis, G. A., et al. (2003). “Atmospheric flight on Venus: A conceptual
Plev = level flight power (W); design.” J. Spacecraft Rockets, 40(5), 672–677.
Landis, G. A., et al. (2005). “Venus atmospheric exploration by solar
Pprvd = electric power available (W);
aircraft.” Acta Astronaut., 56(8), 750–755.
Psolar = solar irradiance (W=m2 );
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (2005). “AVL overview.” 〈http://
R = Reynolds number (dimensionless); web.mit.edu/drela/Public/web/avl/〉 (Nov. 21, 2012).
S = wing surface area (m2 ); Moroz, V. I. (1981). “The atmosphere of Venus.” Space Sci. Rev., 29(1),
T prop = thrust of propeller (N); 3–127.
t = time to flight; National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)/Goddard Space
W = weight of the airplane (N); Flight Center Conceptual Image Lab. (2004). “Venus transit 2004.”
ηmot = efficiency of motors (%); 〈http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a020000/a020000/a020027/〉 (Sep. 10,
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Universiti Sains Malaysia on 09/02/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

ηmppt = efficiency of MPPT (%); 2014).

ηprl = efficiency of propellers (%);
ηsc = solar cell efficiency (%);
μ = dynamic viscosity (Ns=m2 );
v = level flight speed (m=s); and
ρ = atmospheric density of Venus (kg=m3 ).
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J. Aerosp. Eng., 2015, 28(5): 04014127