Combinatorial Problems in Braid Groups: Name: Zaffar Iqbal Year of Admission: 2004 Registration No.: 56-GCU-PHD-SMS-04

Combinatorial Problems in Braid
Groups
Since 1864
Name: Zaffar Iqbal

Year of Admission: 2004
Registration No. : 56-GCU-PHD-SMS-04
Abdus Salam School of Mathematical Sciences

GC University Lahore, Pakistan
Combinatorial Problems in Braid
Groups
Submitted to
in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Mathematics
By
Name: Zaffar Iqbal

Year of Admission: 2004
Registration No.: 56-GCU-PHD-SMS-04

i
DECLARATION
I, Zaffar Iqbal, Registration No. 56-GCU-PHD-SMS-04, a student at Abdus

Salam School of Mathematical Sciences, GC University Lahore, in the subject
of Mathematics, hereby declare that the matter printed in this thesis titled
“Combinatorial Problems in Braid Groups”
is my own work and that
(i) I am not registered for the similar degree elsewhere contemporaneously.

(ii) No direct major work had already been done by me or anybody else on
this topic; I worked on, for the Ph. D. degree.
(iii) The work, I am submitting for the Ph. D. degree has not already been
submitted elsewhere and shall not in future be submitted by me for
obtaining similar degree from any other institution.
Dated: ------------------------- ------------------------------------

Signature
ii
RESEARCH COMPLETION CERTIFICATE
Certified that the research work contained in this thesis titled

“Combinatorial Problems in Braid Groups” has been carried out and completed
by Mr. Zaffar Iqbal, Registration No. 56-GCU-PHD-SMS-04, under my
supervision.
----------------------------- -------------------------------
Date Supervisor
Dr. Barbu Berceanu
Submitted through
Dr. A. D. Raza Choudary --------------------------------

Director General Controller of Examinations
Abdus Salam School of Mathematical GC University Lahore.
Sciences, GC University Lahore.
iii
Dedicated to my father
Inayat Hussain
iv
Table of Contents
Table of Contents v
Acknowledgements vii
Introduction 1
1 Preliminaries 4
1.1 Braids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Braid Groups and Braid Monoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Coxeter Groups and Artin Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Notations and Reduction Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Growth function and the Hilbert series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Garside Elements of Spherical Artin Monoids 13

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Relative Garside Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Computation of Relative Garside and Garside Elements . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Complete Presentation of Some Artin Monoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 Hilbert Series of Positive Braids 28

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 Proof of Deligne’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 Generalization of Deligne’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4 Universal Upper Bound for the Growth of Artin monoids 46

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2 The Hilbert Series of the Monoid Kn∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.3 Chebyshev Recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.4 The Monoid En∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
v
4.5 Spherical Artin Monoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Bibliography 65
vi
Acknowledgements
I am extremely grateful to Allah for providing me this opportunity and blessing me

with an ability to create this piece of work.
I am very pleased to thank my supervisor, Dr. Barbu Berceanu, for his regular
guidance throughout my research. I am very much impressed by his teaching, patience
and kindness. He always encouraged me during research, especially whenever I was
disappointed due to hurdles I faced during my research. His personality is a role
model for me.
I would like to thank Dr. A. D. R. Choudary, the Director General Abdus Salam
School of Mathematical Sciences, who provided me the opportunity of doing Ph.D.
at this school. I admire his efforts that he succeeded to attract world renowned
mathematicians who contributed a lot at this school. I admit that his consistent
guidance towards hard work and quality research made possible that I could produce
this work.
I would like to thank Higher Education Commission and the Government of Pun-
jab for their financial support. It is a fact that their financial support made me
possible to concentrate fully on my research.
I humbly pray to Allah for my parents for their guidance and moral support
throughout my life. I would like to thank my colleagues, specially Abdul Rauf Nizami
and Usman Ali for their moral support during my studies. I would also like to thank
official staff at ASSMS for their cooperation.
ASSMS, Lahore Zaffar Iqbal
March 18, 2009.
vii
Introduction
The braid group Bn+1 admits the classical presentation given by Artin in [2] in gener-
ators x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and relations xi xj = xj xi if |i − j| ≥ 2 and xi+1 xi xi+1 = xi xi+1 xi
if 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. Elements of Bn+1 are words expressed in the generators and their
inverses. The monoid MB n+1 with generators y1 , y2 , . . . , yn is defined by the presen-
tation of Bn+1 . Garside [15] proved that MB n+1 ,→ Bn+1 . With this identification
we call the elements of MB n+1 positive braids (see details in Chapter 1).
In 1972, P. Deligne [14] proved that the Hilbert series of all the Artin monoids are
rational functions, particularly: the Hilbert series of the braid monoid MB n+1 is a
rational function. In 1992, P. Xu [22] found the Hilbert series for the braid monoids
MB 3 and MB 4 and she also proved that the Hilbert series of MB n+1 is a rational
function. She developed a linear system for MB n+1 of size n! and she succeeded to
reduce it further.
Chapter 1 contains the basic notions of braids and braid monoids, in particular
Garside’s results [15]. Next, Coxeter Groups, Artin groups, spherical Artin groups
(monoids), and right-angled groups (monoids) are introduced. The terminology and
notions of reduction rules or rewriting system are included. The notions of the Hilbert
function, the Hilbert series, and the growth rate are also included in this chapter. This
chapter contains the results of Bokut [7] on the non-commutative Gröbner bases or
complete presentation of the braid monoid MB n+1 . The first chapter does not contain
original results.
1
2
In Chapter 2 we introduce and characterize relative Garside element corresponding

to an embedding Γn−1 ,→ Γn (the Coxeter graph Γn−1 is obtained from Coxeter graph
Γn by just deleting one vertex from it). We compute this relative Garside element
using its characterization. Using the relative Garside element we describe completely
the Garside elements of spherical Artin monoids. In this chapter we give a reduced
complete presentation (i.e., all the relations do not contain reducible words) of MB n+1
by modifying the Bokut’s complete presentation of MB n+1 . We give another proof
of the Theorem 1.4.1. We also give the complete presentation of the spherical Artin

monoids M(Bn ) and M I2 (p) . The initial part of this chapter is a result of joint
work with Barbu Berceanu and Usman Ali. The results of this chapter are contained
in the paper [4].
In Chapter 3 we show that the growth functions of the monoids MB 3 and MB 4
are exponential and we find the corresponding growth rates. Using the reduced com-
plete presentation (non-commutative Gröbner bases) of the braid monoid MB n+1 (see
Chapter 1) we find another system of equations to compute inductively the Hilbert
series of MB n+1 and MB +
n+1 and we give another proof of Deligne’s theorem. We
construct a linear system of equations for reducible words as well as for irreducible
words. The size of the system is n2 + 2n − 3 which is much smaller than the size
n−1
2n−1 + 2[ 2
]
− 2 of Xu’s system for n ≥ 7. Using this system we show that the Hilbert
series for both reducible and irreducible words are rational and the Hilbert series for
the set of positive braids coprime with Garside element is rational. We also prove
that for a given word α the Hilbert series of the words starting with α is a rational
function. The results of this chapter are contained in the paper [16] which is accepted
for publication.
While studying the growth functions for MB 3 and MB 4 , we observe that the
growth rates are 1.618 and 2.0868 (approximately) respectively. We put ourselves a
natural question: whether the growth rate is bounded above or not, as n approaches
3
infinity? In Chapter 4 we prove that the growth rate is bounded above by 4, even
for a larger class of monoids, i.e., the spherical Artin monoids. In order to find these
estimations we use right angled Artin monoids (in particular a new family of Coxeter
graphs and corresponding Artin monoid, Kn∞ ). Also we give a general theorem on
the real roots of Chebyshev type families of polynomials. The results of this chapter
are contained in the paper [3] which has been submitted.
Chapter 1
Preliminaries
1.1 Braids
Definition 1.1.1. Consider the lines y = 0, z = 1 and y = 0, z = 0 in R3 and choose
n + 1 points on each of these lines having abscissas 1, 2, . . . , n + 1. An (n + 1)-strand
braid is a set of n + 1 smooth paths connecting the chosen points on the first line
with the points on the second line (in arbitrary order), such that any plane z = t
(t ∈ [0, 1]) intersects these paths in n + 1 points.
Equivalently we can define the braid in another way.
Definition 1.1.2. Let n ≥ 1 be an integer, and let z1 , . . . , zn+1 be n + 1 distinct
points in the plane R2 . Assume that zk = (k, 0) for all 1 ≤ k ≤ n + 1. Define a braid
on (n + 1)-strands to be a (n + 1)-tuple β = (b1 , . . . , bn+1 ) of paths, bk : [0, 1] → R2 ,
such that
• bk (0) = zk for all 1 ≤ k ≤ n + 1;
• there exists a permutation χ = θ(β) ∈ Sn such that bk (1) = zχ(k) for all 1 ≤ k ≤ n+1;
• bk (t) 6= bl (t) for all k 6= l and for all t ∈ [0, 1].
For example,
4
5
z1 z2 z3
• • •
@
@
@
@
@
@ @
@ @
@ @
@ @
• @• @•
z1 z2 z3
is a 3-strand braid. The set of all (n + 1)-strand braids generates a group Bn+1 under
the operation of product. The product is concatenation of braids and rescaling the
z-coordinates. The ith element xi of this group is given by
z1 · · · zi−1 zi zi+1 zi+2 · · · zn+1

• • • • • •
A
A
··· ···
A
A xi
A
A
• • • A• • •
The inverse of xi is just a mirror image (horizontal) of xi , and is denoted by x−1

i .
z1 · · · zi−1 zi zi+1 zi+2 · · · zn+1

• • • • • •
A
A
x−1
A
··· ··· i
A
A
• • • A• • •
The identity element e is the braid without any crossings.

z1 · · · zi zi+1 · · · zn+1
• • • •
··· ··· e
• • • •
6
1.2 Braid Groups and Braid Monoids

The braid group Bn+1 admits the following classical presentation given by E. Artin:
Theorem 1.2.1. [2]

* +
xi xj = xj xi if | i − j | ≥ 2
Bn+1 = x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .

xi+1 xi xi+1 = xi xi+1 xi if 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1

Elements of Bn+1 are words expressed in the generators x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and their

inverses. For the monoid defined by
* +
y y = y y if | i − j | ≥ 2
i j j i
MB n+1 = y1 , y2 , . . . , yn
yi+1 yi yi+1 = yi yi+1 yi if 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1
there is an obvious map ψ : MB n+1 → Bn+1 given by ψ(yi ) = xi and the image of
this map is the submonoid of positive words. Garside [15] proved the basic fact:
Theorem 1.2.2. [15] The canonical map ψ : MB n+1 → Bn+1 is injective.
Now we can identify the elements of MB n+1 with their images in Bn+1 and we
call these elements positive braids.
Definition 1.2.1. In the braid group Bn+1 , there is a fundamental positive braid
∆n+1 (or simply ∆) which is defined by ∆ = (x1 )(x2 x1 ) · · · (xn xn−1 · · · x1 ) . The ∆ is
called Garside braid (see Fig.1.1 below).

7
z1 z2 z3 zn+1
• • • ··· •
@
@
@
@
@
@ @
@ @
@ @
@ @
@ @
@ @ @
@ @ @
@ @ @
@ @ @
• · · · @• @• @•
Fig. 1.1
Chow [12] proved that ∆2 generates the center of Bn+1 , n ≥ 2. Geometrically, Garside
braid is a half twist of the identity braid. This braid has some nice properties given
by Garside in [15].
Lemma 1.2.3. In the braid monoid MB n+1 :
1) ∆xi = xn+1−i ∆, 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
2) For each j (1 ≤ j ≤ n), D(∆) (the set of words equivalent to ∆) contains a word
with initial letter xj and a word with final letter also xj .
A general reference for these results is Birman’s book [6].
1.3 Coxeter Groups and Artin Groups

Let S be a set. A Coxeter matrix over S is a square matrix M = (mst )s,t∈S indexed
by the the elements of S such that
• mss = 1 for all s ∈ S;
• mst = mts ∈ {2, 3, 4, . . . , ∞} for all s, t ∈ S, s 6= t.
8
A Coxeter graph Γ is a labeled graph defined by the following data.

• S is a set of vertices of Γ.
• Two vertices s, t ∈ S, s 6= t are joined by an edge if mst ≥ 3. This edge is labeled
by mst if mst ≥ 4.
A Coxeter matrix M = (mst )s,t∈S is usually represented by its Coxeter graph Γ =

Γ(M ).
Definition 1.3.1. Let M = (mst )s,t∈S be the Coxeter matrix of the Coxeter graph Γ.
Then the group defined by
W = s ∈ S | s2 = 1 , (st)mst = 1 for all s, t ∈ S, s 6= t, and mst 6= ∞

is called the Coxeter Group (of type Γ).

D E
2
In a simple way we can write W = s ∈ S | s = 1, |sts{z· ·}· = tst
| {z· ·}· . We call
mst factors mst factors
Γ to be of spherical type if W is finite.
(An )n≥1 : • • • • •
x1 x2 x3 ··· xn−1 xn
(Bn )n≥2 : • 4 • • • •
x1 x2 x3 ··· xn−1 xn
• xn−1
(Dn )n≥4 :

• • • •
x1 x2 x3 · · · xn−2
H
HH
• xn
(En )n=6,7,8 : x1 x2 x3 x5 ··· xn

• • • • •
• x4
F4 : 4
• • • •
x1 x2 x3 x4
G2 : • 6 •
x1 x2
9
(Hn )n=3,4 : 5 5
• • • • • • •
x1 x2 x3 x1 x2 x3 x4
p
I2 (p) p≥5,p6=6 : • •
x1 x2
Fig. 1.2. The connected spherical type Coxeter graphs.
Definition 1.3.2. If W is a Coxeter Group (with the Coxeter matrix M = (mst )s,t∈S
of the Coxeter graph Γ) then the Artin Group associated to W is defined by

D E
A = s ∈ S sts ·
| {z }· · = tst · ·
| {z } .·
mst factors mst factors
If W is finite then A is called a spherical Artin group.
Definition 1.3.3. In the spherical type Coxeter graphs, if all the labels mst ≥ 3
are replaced by ∞ then the associated groups (monoids) are called right-angled Artin
groups (monoids).
1.4 Notations and Reduction Rules

We are using the following notations for the words in MB n+1 .
• We will use ia j b k c · · · for a word xai xbj xck · · · when required.
• If U = U1 W , V = W V1 are the given words, then we denote their overlap (at W )
by U × V = U1 W V1 .
W
• Uα,β = {αW β : W ∈ MB n+1 }.
• U∗,β = set of words ending with β and Uδ,∗ = set of words starting with δ.
• Suppose β = αγ and δ = γε; then U∗,β × Vδ,∗ = {U × V | U ∈ U∗,β , V ∈ Vδ,∗ }.
γ γ
• We write U |W (U is a divisor of W ) if there exist V1 , V2 ∈ MB n+1 such that
W = V1 U V2 ; otherwise U - W.
10
Let |W | denotes the length of a positive word W . In a free monoid Fn [S] generated
by S = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } the total order on the set of generators given by x1 < · · · < xn
is extended to length-lexicographic order. A relation R is written in the form ai = bi
where ai is a monomial greater than bi . If ai | aj then i = j (and also ai - bj ). We
denote by ai (R) and bi (R) the terms ai and bi respectively of the given relation R.
In a monoid, a word containing the L.H.S. of a relation is called reducible word
and a word which does not contain the L.H.S. of a relation is called irreducible word.
The irreducible words are also known as canonical forms. We denote A[k] by the set
of irreducible words and by B [k] the set of reducible words in MB k .
• Let S1 and S2 (not necessarily different) be relations in MB k . Then the word of
the form a(S1 ) × a(S2 ) is called an ambiguity.
W1
We define two reduction rules (left and right reductions):
(
W, if ai (R) - W for all relations R.
L(W ) =
L(γbj δ), if W = γaj δ and if W = εak η then |γ| < |ε|,
(
W, if ai (R) - W for all relations R.
R(W ) =
L(γbj δ), if W = γaj δ and if W = εak η then |δ| < |η|.
The reduction rule γai δ → γbi δ gives a unique canonical form if all the ambiguities are
solvable (for any overlap ai = γi δ, aj = δj , δ 6= 1, reductions of (γi δ)j → bi j → · · ·
and γi (δj ) → γi bj → · · · gives the same result). The Diamond lemma (see [5] or
[13]) says that if all the ambiguities are solvable, then the set of irreducible words is
in bijection with the monoid with the presentation hx1 , x2 , . . . , xn : ai = bi , i ∈ Ii (I
could be an infinite set). A presentation of a monoid is complete if and only if all the
ambiguities are solvable.
We denote by α(i, j) = α(xi , xi−1 , . . . , xj ) an arbitrary irreducible word (possibly
empty) in xi , xi−1 , . . . , xj and α(i, i) = α(xi ). We denote the “shift” of α(i, j) by
Σα(i, j) = α(xi+1 , . . . , xj+1 ).

11
In an irreducible word β(n−1, j) no letter xn−1 , xn−2 , . . . , xj is missing and β(n−1, j)

is nonempty when j ≤ n − 1 and is empty when j = n.
• If F is a family of relations and w is a word, we write F - w if and only if no a(R)
is a divisor of w, where R is an arbitrary relation of the family F.
All the following notions are in [1], [5], [7] ,[10] or in [13] under different names:
complete presentation, Gröbner bases, presentation with solvable ambiguities, rewrit-
ing system and so on. The Gröbner basis (i.e., the canonical forms for the elements
of the monoids) are precisely the words w which cannot be reduced: no ai is a sub-
word of w : ai - w. Bokut [7] gave the non-commutative Gröbner bases or complete
presentation of the braid monoid MB n+1 and proved:
Theorem 1.4.1. [7] A complete presentation (non-commutative Gröbner bases) of
MB n+1 consists of the following relations:
1) xs xk = xk xs , s − k ≥ 2,
2) xi+1 xi α(i − 1, 1)β(i, j)xi+1 xi xi−1 · · · xj = xi xi+1 xi α(i − 1, 1)xi xi−1 · · · xj Σβ(i, j),
1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, 1 ≤ j ≤ i + 1.
1.5 Growth function and the Hilbert series

Let M be a finitely generated monoid and k denotes the length of the word w ∈ M .
The Hilbert function or the growth function of M is the function H(M, k) = ak , the
number of elements of M of word length k. The Hilbert series of M is the formal
power series
∞
X
HM (t) = ak tk .
k=0
For a sequence {sk }k≥1 of positive numbers, we define the growth rate by:
Definition 1.5.1. We say that {sk }k≥1 has a growth rate less than γ (γ is a real
12
number) if
log s
k
lim exp < γ.
k k
This is equivalent to the fact that there exists γ0 < γ and c > 0 such that sk < c γ0k
n
βi αik has a growth rate
P
for all k. For instance, if max |αi | < γ, the sequence ck =
1≤i≤n i=1
less than γ. In this case we have also ck+1
ck+1
ck
< γ for k 0; if the sequence ck k
is convergent, its limit is called the growth ratio of the sequence {ck }. See [21] for a
general discussion of growth functions.
We have mentioned that P. Deligne [14] proved that the Hilbert series of all the
Artin monoids are rational functions, particularly:
Theorem 1.5.1. [14] The Hilbert series of the braid monoid MB n+1 is a rational
function.
Chapter 2
Garside Elements of Spherical

Artin Monoids
2.1 Introduction
Our method is to find the Garside elements of the spherical Artin monoids by induc-
tion. For this purpose we introduce and characterize relative Garside element. We
compute this relative Garside element using its characterization. Using the relative
Garside element we describe completely the Garside elements of all the spherical Artin
monoids. In last section we give the reduced complete presentation of the monoid
MB n+1 as a consequence of Theorem 1.4.1. We give another proof of Theorem 1.4.1.

The complete presentations of the monoids M(Bn ) and M I2 (p) are also given at
the end.
2.2 Relative Garside Element

First, we recollect basic properties of the (absolute) Garside elements of an Artin
spherical monoid M(Γ) (see [14], [19], [20]). This element is the L.C.M. of the set of
generators x1 , . . . , xn . ∆(Γ) is square free (there is no generator xi such that x2i | ∆).
13
14
In some cases ∆(Γ) itself is a square: for example
∆(A3 ) = x1 (x2 x1 )(x3 x2 x1 ) = (x1 x3 x2 )2 ;
∆ I2 (4k) = (x1 x2 · · · x2 )2 .

| {z }
2k times
The image of ∆(Γ) in the corresponding Coxeter group W (Γ) is the longest element
of this group and it has order two [9].
We will use the following generalization of Garside lemma [15]:
Lemma 2.2.1. In an Artin monoid, if w = xi X = xk Y and
xi xk xi · · · (mik times) = xk xi xk · · · (mik times),
then w = (xi xk xi xk · · ·)V = (xk xi xk xi · · ·)V.

| {z } | {z }
mik times mik times
Suppose we have an inclusion of Coxeter graphs Γn−1 ⊂ Γn with the set of vertices
{x1 , . . . , xn−1 }, respectively {x1 , . . . , xn }. Using the general properties of Garside
elements we have
∆(Γn−1 ) |L ∆(Γn ).
Definition 2.2.1. We define the relative Garside element ∆(Γn , Γn−1 ) by
∆(Γn ) = ∆(Γn−1 )∆(Γn , Γn−1 ).
If there is no ambiguity related to the inclusion Γn−1 ⊂ Γn , we denote in a simple

form:
∆n = ∆n−1 Tn
Proposition 2.2.2. The relative Garside element Tn for Γn−1 ⊂ Γn satisfies the
following properties:
15
1) Tn is square free;
2) xi |L Tn ⇔ i = n;
3) there is a bijection σ : {1, . . . , n−1} → {1, . . . , m,

b . . . , n} such that xi Tn = Tn xσ(i) ;
4) xj |R Tn ⇔ j = m.
Proof. Let ∆n = ∆n−1 Tn then
1) Tn is square free because ∆n is square free;
2) xi (1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1) cannot be a left divisor of Tn : otherwise, Tn = xi U . But
xi |R ∆n−1 implies ∆n−1 = V xi . Therefore ∆n = ∆n−1 Tn = V x2i U , a contradiction.
3) Let σn−1 : {1, . . . , n − 1} → {1, . . . , n − 1} and σn : {1, . . . , n} → {1, . . . , n} the
bijection defined by conjugation with ∆n−1 , respectively ∆n :
xi ∆n−1 = ∆n−1 xσn−1 (i) , xi ∆n = ∆n xσn (i) . Now
∆n−1 xi Tn = xσn−1
−1
(i) ∆n−1 Tn = xσn−1
−1
(i) ∆n = ∆n xσn ◦σn−1
−1
(i) = ∆n−1 Tn xσn ◦σn−1
−1
(i) ,
−1
therefore xi Tn = Tn xσ(i) , where σ = σn ◦ σn−1 . The image of σ contains the elements
1, . . . , n, but not σn (n) = m.
4) Let xj 6= xm then there exists i ∈ {1, . . . , n−1} such that j = σ(i) and xi Tn = Tn xj .
Suppose xj |R Tn . Then Tn = Sxj . But xi Tn = Tn xj = Sx2j , a contradiction, because
xi Tn is a divisor of ∆n .
Proposition 2.2.3. If Un ∈ M(Γn ) satisfies:
1) x2m - Un ;
2) xi |L Un ⇔ i = n;
3) there is a bijection τ : {1, . . . , n − 1} → {1, . . . , b

k, . . . , n} such that xi Un = Un xτ (i) ,
then Un = Tn (and also k = m, τ = σ).

16
Proof. Let us define D = ∆n−1 Un . Because xi |L ∆n−1 , i = 1, . . . , n − 1 and from 3)
and 2) we have xn |L Dn , we obtain xi |L ∆n−1 Un for any i = 1, . . . , n, therefore ∆n |L D.
This implies that ∆n−1 Tn |L ∆n−1 Un , i.e., Tn |L Un . If Tn 6= Un , then Tn xj W = Un . If
j 6= m, then j = σn (i) for some i ∈ {1, . . . , n − 1}, hence Un = Tn xσ(i) W = xi Tn W
and this contradicts 2). If j = m, then Un = (Sxm )xm W which contradicts 1).
Proposition 2.2.4. If Un ∈ M(Γn ) satisfies:
1) xn |L Un ;
2) there is a bijection τ : {1, . . . , n − 1} → {1, . . . , b

k, . . . , n} such that xi Un = Un xτ (i) ;
3) Un has minimal length among the words satisfying 1) and 2),
then Un = Tn (and also k = m, τ = σ).
Proof. Let us define D = ∆n−1 Un . As in the previous proof, 1) and 2) implies
xi |L D for all i = 1, . . . , n. Therefore ∆n |L D, hence Tn |L Un . Because of 3), we have
|Un | ≤ |Tn | and Tn satisfies 1) and 2), therefore Tn = Un .
2.3 Computation of Relative Garside and Garside
Elements
1. Starting with A1 : •x and the Garside element ∆(A1 ) = x1 , we will construct,

1
inductively, the Garside elements of the classical list.
2. If the graph Γ is a disjoint union of Γ1 , Γ2 then M(Γ) ∼

= M(Γ1 ) × M(Γ2 ) and
∆(Γ) = ∆(Γ1 ) · ∆(Γ2 ) = ∆(Γ2 ) · ∆(Γ1 ).
3. Construction of ∆(An , An−1 ):
Let Un = xn xn−1 · · · x1 ; then Un satisfies the properties of the Proposition 2.2.3:

17
1) Un is square free (Un is rigid, i.e, there is unique word representing Un );
2) xi |L Un ⇔ i = n for the same reason;
3) xi Un = Un xi+1 , i.e., σ(i) = i + 1 where i = 1, . . . , n − 1.
Corollary 2.3.1. (classical Garside element)
∆(An ) = x1 (x2 x1 ) · · · (xn−1 · · · x1 )(xn · · · x1 ).
4. Construction of ∆(Dn , An−1 ):
Let Un = (xn xn−2 xn−3 · · · x1 )(xn−1 xn−2 · · · x2 )(xn xn−2 xn−3 · · · x3 )(xn−1 xn−2 · · · x4 ) · · · .
For Un we have two cases: n = even and n = odd. Let n be even, hence
Un = (xn xn−2 xn−3 · · · x1 )(xn−1 xn−2 xn−3 · · · x2 ) · · · (xn−1 xn−2 )xn .
We check the conditions in Proposition 2.2.3:
1) First we prove that Un is square free and also that xn xn−1 is not a divisor of Un .
• xn−1

Dn : • • •
x1 x2 · · · xn−2
HH
H • xn
↓
An−1 : • • • •
y1 y2 · · · yn−2 yn−1
Define a projection pr : Dn → An−1 as follows:


 yi , i≤n−1

pr(xi ) =
 yn−1 , i = n.

The image of Un under the map pr is ∆n−1 which is square free. Now if x2j | Un ; then
pr(x2j ) = yj2 | ∆n−1 , a contradiction. Therefore Un is square free. Also if xn xn−1 | Un ,

18
2
then pr(xn xn−1 ) = yn−1 | ∆n−1 , a contradiction.
2) xi |L Un ⇔ i = n: (⇐) is obvious. (⇒) Suppose on contrary that xi |L Un for
i ≤ n − 1. We have the following three cases:
(i) i = n − 1, (ii) i = n − 2 and (iii) i ≤ n − 3.
By induction we know that
Tn−1 = (xn−1 xn−3 xn−4 · · · x1 )(xn−2 xn−3 · · · x2 )(xn−1 xn−3 xn−4 · · · x3 ) · · · .
Changing the variables in this way:
x1 → x2 , x2 → x3 , . . . , xn−3 → xn−2 , xn−2 → xn , xn−1 → xn−1 ,
• xn−2

Dn−1 : • • •H
(x1 < · · · < xn−2 < xn−1 )
x1 x2 · · · xn−3 HH
• xn−1
↓
• xn
Dn−1 : • (x2 < · · · < xn−2 < xn < xn−1 )

• •
x2 x3 · · · xn−2
H
HH
• xn−1
Tn−1 becomes (xn−1 xn−2 xn−3 · · · x2 )(xn xn−2 xn−3 · · · x3 )(xn−1 xn−2 xn−3 · · · x4 ) · · · . As
Un = xn xn−2 xn−3 · · · x1 Tn−1 so if xi |L Tn−1 then this implies i = n − 1 (by induction
this is true for i ∈ {2, 3, . . . , n, n − 1}) and also x1 |L Tn−1 is impossible because Tn−1
does not contain x1 .

2
(i) xn−1 |L Un implies xn−1 xn α1 = Un (by Lemma 2.2.1) and pr(Un ) contains yn−1 ,a
contradiction.
(ii) If xn−2 |L Un then Lemma 2.2.1 implies that xn xn−2 xn α2 = xn xn−2 xn−3 · · · x1 Tn−1
⇒ xn α2 = xn−3 xn−4 · · · x1 Tn−1
⇒ xn xn−3 · · · x1 α3 = xn−3 · · · x1 Tn−1
⇒ xn α3 = Tn−1 , a contradiction.
(iii) If xi |L Un (i = 1, . . . , n − 3) then xn xi β1 = xn xn−2 · · · xi+1 xi · · · x1 Tn−1

19
⇒ xi β1 = xn−2 · · · xi+1 xi · · · x1 Tn−1
⇒ xi xn−2 · · · xi+2 β2 = xn−2 · · · xi+2 xi+1 xi · · · x1 Tn−1
⇒ xi β2 = xi+1 xi · · · x1 Tn−1
⇒ xi+1 xi xi+1 β3 = xi+1 xi xi−1 · · · x1 Tn−1
⇒ xi+1 xi−1 · · · x1 β4 = xi−1 · · · x1 Tn−1
⇒ xi+1 |L Tn−1 , a contradiction.
3) xi Un = Un xn−i , i.e., σ(i) = n − i.
Therefore Un = Tn . Similarly we can show that for odd n:
Tn = (xn xn−2 xn−3 · · · x1 )(xn−1 xn−2 · · · x2 )(xn xn−2 xn−3 · · · x3 )(xn−1 xn−2 · · · x4)· · ·(xn−1).
Corollary 2.3.2.
∆(Dn ) = x1 (x2 x1 ) · · · (xn−1 · · · x1 )(xn xn−2 xn−3 · · · x1 )(xn−1 xn−2 · · · x2 ) · · ·
5. Construction of ∆(I2 (p), A1 ):
Let us define U2 (p) = x2 x1 x2 · · · (p − 1 factors). Then Un satisfies Proposition 2.2.4:
1) clearly x2 |L U2 (p);
2) we have x1 U2 (2p + 1) = U2 (2p + 1)x2 and x1 U2 (2p) = U2 (2p)x1 ;
3) any relation x1 V = V xσ(1) should involve the unique defining relation
x2 x1 x2 · · · (p factors) = x1 x2 x1 · · · (p factors).
So the length of V is greater than or equal to p − 1; hence U2 (p) has minimal length
with 1) and 2).
Corollary 2.3.3.

∆ I2 (p) = x1 x2 x1 x2 · · · (p factors).
20
Example 2.3.4. We also give (without proof ) the relative Garside elements (and
also Garside elements) of the monoids F4 , H3 , and H4 .
1) For the monoid F4 , T4 = x4 T3 x4 T3 x4 where T3 = x3 x2 x1 x3 x2 x3 . The element T4
satisfies the property that xi T4 = T4 xi , i = 1, 2, 3. Therefore
∆(F4 ) = x1 x2 x1 T3 x4 T3 x4 T3 x4
such that xi ∆(F4 ) = ∆(F4 )xi , i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
2) For H3 , T3 = x3 x2 x1 x2 x1 x3 x2 x1 x2 x3 with the property that x1 T3 = T3 x2 and
x2 T3 = T3 x1 . Therefore
∆(H3 ) = x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 · x3 x2 x1 x2 x1 x3 x2 x1 x2 x3
such that xi ∆(H3 ) = ∆(H3 )xi , i = 1, 2, 3.
3) For H4 , T4 = x4 T3 x4 T3 x4 T3 x4 T3 x4 with the property that xi T4 = T4 xi , i = 1, 2, 3.
Therefore ∆(H4 ) = x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 T3 T4 such that xi ∆(H4 ) = ∆(H4 )xi , i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
2.4 Complete Presentation of Some Artin Monoids
For the reduced complete presentation we are using the following notations for the
relations in MB n+1 and for α(n − 2, 1) we will write α.

[n+1]
• Rnk = xn xk = xk xn (k ≤ n − 2).
[n+1]
• Rα;n = xn xn−1 α xn = xn−1 xn xn−1 α : xn−1 α ∈ A[n] (α can be empty).
[n+1]
• Rα,β;n−1 = xn xn−1 αβ(n − 1)xn xn−1 = xn−1 xn xn−1 α xn−1 Σβ(n − 1) :
[n+1]
xn−1 αβ(n − 1) ∈ A[n] and R[n] , Rα;n - xn xn−1 αβ(n − 1)xn .
[n+1]
• Rα,β;j = xn xn−1 αβ(n − 1, j)xn · · · xj = xn−1 xn xn−1 α xn−1 · · · xj Σβ(n − 1, j) :
[n+1] [n+1]
xn−1 αβ(n−1, j) ∈ A[n] and R[n] , Rα;n , . . . , Rα,β;j+1 - xn xn−1 αβ(n−1, j)xn · · · xj+1 ,
21
1 ≤ j ≤ n − 2.
• The relations R[n+1] are given inductively by R[1] = ∅ and

a n−2
a [n+1]
a a [n+1]
a a [n+1]
R[n+1] = R[n] Rnk R[n+1]
α;n Rα,β;n−1 ··· Rα,β;1 .
k=1
Now we explain the reduced complete presentation of MB n+1 as a corollary of
Theorem 1.4.1.
Corollary 2.4.1. The braid monoid MB n+1 have a reduced complete presentation

x1 , . . . , xn | R[n+1] .
Proof. (of Corollary 2.4.1 and also another proof of Theorem 1.4.1)
We use induction to prove that the above reduced presentation of MB n+1 is
complete. In first step we describe how the relations R[n+1] are obtained from the
defining relations and ambiguities between them. In second step we show that all
[n+1]
the new ambiguities are solvable. For simplicity we will write R∗ instead of R∗ .
For n = 2 we prove that the presentation MB 3 = hx1 , x2 : R∅,2 , R∅,1r ;1 i is complete,
where R∅,2 : x2 x1 x2 = x1 x2 x1 and R∅,1r ;1 : x2 xr1 x2 x1 = x1 x2 x21 xr−1

2 , r ≥ 2. Let i ≤ j,
R∅,1i ;1 : x2 xi1 x2 x1 = x1 x2 x21 xi−1

2 and R∅,1j ;1 : x2 xj1 x2 x1 = x1 x2 x21 xj−1
2 . Then we have
the following ambiguities:
R∅,2 R∅,2 , R∅,2 R∅,1i ;1 , R∅,1i ;1 R∅,2 , R∅,1i ;1 R∅,1i ;1 , R∅,1i ;1 R∅,1j ;1 , R∅,1j ;1 R∅,1i ;1 .
(we are not mentioning the overlap in the ambiguities) First we show that the relations
R∅,1r ;1 are satisfied in MB 3 . In the ambiguity R∅,2 R∅,2 : x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 , L(R∅,2 R∅,2 ) =
x1 x2 x21 x2 , R(R∅,2 R∅,2 ) = x2 x21 x2 x1 , i.e., R∅,2 R∅,2 gives the relation R∅,12 ;1 . The
ambiguity R∅,12 ;1 R∅,2 gives R∅,13 ;1 and in general R∅,1r−1 ;1 R∅,2 gives R∅,1r ;1 which
are satisfied in MB 3 . Now we show that all other ambiguities are solvable. In the
ambiguity R∅,2 R∅,1i ;1 : x2 x1 x2 xi1 x2 x1 ; L(R∅,2 R∅,1i ;1 ) = L(x1 x2 xi+1

1 x2 x1 ) and
22
R(R∅,2 R∅,1i ;1 ) = R(x2 x21 x2 x21 xi−1 i+1

2 ) = R(x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 ). Therefore this ambiguity is
solvable. Generally for any i and j, in the ambiguity R∅,1i ;1 R∅,1j ;1 : x2 xi1 x2 xj1 x2 x1 ;
j−1
L(R∅,1i ;1 R∅,1j ;1 ) = L(x1 x2 x21 xi−1
2 x1 x2 x1 )
and
2 j−1 j−1
R(R∅,1i ;1 R∅,1j ;1 ) = R(x2 xi+1 2 i
1 x2 x1 x2 ) = R(x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 )
= R(x1 x2 x21 x2i−1 xj−1

1 x2 x1 ).
Therefore all the ambiguities are solvable. Hence the above reduced presentation is
complete. Now suppose the relations are true for any n. We prove them for n + 1 in
the following way.
Step 1. i) Using induction we show that the relations Rα;n are satisfied in MB n+1 .
The ambiguity R∅;n Rn(n−2) gives the relations Rxn−2 ;n , Rxn−2 ;n Rn(n−2) gives Rx2n−2 ;n
and so on Rxrn−2 ;n Rn(n−2) gives Rα(n−2);n . The ambiguity Rα(n−2);n Rn(n−3) gives the
relations Rα(n−2)xn−3 ;n . The ambiguity Rα(n−2)xn−3 ;n Rn(n−3) gives Rα(n−2)x2n−3 ;n and
so on Rα(n−2)xsn−3 ;n Rn(n−3) gives Rα(n−2,n−3);n . Continuing this process, the ambigu-
ity Rα(n−2;2);n Rn.1 gives Rα(n−2,2)x1 ;n , Rα(n−2,2)x1 ;n Rn.1 gives Rα(n−2,2)x21 ;n and so on
Rα(n−2,2)xt1 ;n Rn.1 gives the relations Rα;n which are satisfied in MB n+1 .
ii) The ambiguity Rα,n R∅;n gives Rα,xn−1 ;n−1 , Rα,xn−1 ;n−1 R∅;n gives Rα,x2n−1 ;n−1 and
so on Rα,xrn−1 ;n−1 R∅;n gives the relations Rα,β(n−1);n−1 which are satisfied in MB n+1 .
iii) Using induction again we show that the relations Rα,β;1 are satisfied in MB n+1 .
The ambiguity Rα,β(n−1);n−1 R∅;n−1 gives the relations Rα,β(n−1)xn−2 ;n−2 ,
Rα,β(n−1)xn−2 ;n−1 R∅;n−1 gives Rα,β(n−1)x2n−2 ;n−2 and so on Rα,β(n−1)xsn−2 ;n−1 R∅;n−1 gives
Rα,β(n−1,n−2);n−2 . Continuing the above process, the ambiguity Rα,β(n−1,2);2 R∅;2 gives
Rα,β(n−1,2)x1 ;1 , Rα,β(n−1,2)x1 ;1 R∅;2 gives Rα,β(n−1,2)x21 ;1 and so on Rα,β(n−1,2)xt1 ;1 R∅;2 gives

23
the relations Rα,β(n−1,1);1 which are satisfied in MB n+1 .
Step 2. Here we show that all other ambiguities are solvable. In the ambiguity
Rα;n Rγ;n : xn xn−1 αxn xn−1 γ(n − 2, 1)xn ;

L Rα;n Rγ;n = L xn−1 xn xn−1 αxn−1 γ(n − 2, 1)xn ,

R Rα;n Rγ;n = R xn xn−1 αxn−1 xn xn−1 γ(n − 2, 1)

= R xn−1 xn xn−1 αxn−1 xn γ(n − 2, 1)

= R xn−1 xn xn−1 αxn−1 γ(n − 2, 1)xn .
Therefore this ambiguity is solvable. In the ambiguity
Rα;n Rγ,δ;j : xn xn−1 αxn xn−1 γ(n − 2, 1)δ(n − 1, j)xn xn−1 · · · xj ;

L Rα;n Rγ,δ;j = L xn−1 xn xn−1 αxn−1 γ(n − 2, 1)δ(n − 1, j)xn xn−1 · · · xj and

R Rα;n Rγ,δ;j = R xn xn−1 αxn−1 xn xn−1 γ(n − 2, 1)xn−1 · · · xj Σδ(n − 1, j)

= R xn−1 xn xn−1 αxn−1 xn γ(n − 2, 1)xn−1 · · · xj Σδ(n − 1, j)

= R xn−1 xn xn−1 αxn−1 γ(n − 2, 1)xn xn−1 · · · xj Σδ(n − 1, j)

= R xn−1 xn xn−1 α xn−1 γ(n − 2, 1) δ(n − 1, j)xn xn−1 · · · xj .
Therefore this ambiguity is also solvable. In general let the ambiguity
Rα,β;j Rγ(k−2,1),δ(k−1,i);i : xn xn−1 αβ(n − 1, j)xn · · · xk+1 xk xk−1 · · · xj γ(k − 2, 1)
δ(k − 1, i)xk · · · xi overlaps at xk · · · xj and i ≤ j ≤ k. Then

L Rα,β;j Rγ,δ;i = L xn−1 xn xn−1 α xn−1 · · · xj Σβ(n − 1, j)γ(k − 2, 1)δ(k − 1, i)xk · · · xi
and

R Rα,β;j Rγ,δ;i

= R xn xn−1 αβ(n−1,j)xn · · · xk+1 xk−1 xk · · · xj γ(k−2,1)xk−1 · · · xi Σδ(k−1, i)

= R xn xn−1 α{β(n − 1, j)xk−1 }xn · · · xj γ(k − 2, 1)xk−1 · · · xi Σδ(k − 1, i)
24

= R xn−1 xn xn−1 α xn−1 · · · xj Σβ(n − 1, j)xk γ(k − 2, 1)xk−1 · · · xi Σδ(k − 1, i)

= R xn−1 xn xn−1 α xn−1 · · · xj Σβ(n − 1, j)γ(k − 2, 1)xk · · · xi Σδ(k − 1, i)

= R xn−1 xn xn−1 α xn−1 · · · xj Σβ(n − 1, j)γ(k − 2, 1)δ(k − 1, i)xk · · · xi .
Therefore this ambiguity is solvable too. Hence the reduced presentation of MB n+1
is complete.

Next we give the complete presentations of the monoids M(Bn ) and M I2 (p) .
We are using the following notations for the relations in M(Bn ) and for α∗ (n − 2, 1)
we will write α∗ .
• R[k] = set of relations in M(Bk ).

[n]
• Rnk = xn xk = xk xn (k ≤ n − 2).
[n]
• Rn;i : xn xn−1 αβ(n−1, i)xn xn−1 · · · xi = xn−1 xn xn−1 αxn−1 · · · xi Σβ(n−1, i).
[n]
• Rn;ii : xn xn−1 α1 β1 (n − 1, 2)α2 (i − 1, 1)β2 (n − 1, i + 1)xn · · · x1 x2 · · · xi =
xn−1 xn xn−1 α1 xn−1 · · · x1 Σβ1 (n − 1, 2)x2 · · · xi α2 (i − 1, 1)Σβ2 (n − 1, i + 1).
• The relations R[n] are given inductively by R[1] = ∅ and

a n−2
a [n]
a
[n]
a [n]
[n] [n−1]
R =R Rnk Rn;i Rn;ii .
k=1
Theorem 2.4.2. The monoid M(Bn ) have a complete presentation
x1 , . . . , xn | R[n] .

Proof. We will check here few ambiguities only. For example in the ambiguity
[n] [k]
Rn;ii Rk;jj : xn xn−1 α1 β1 (n−1, 2)α2 (i−1, 1)β2 (n−1, i+1)xn · · · xk+1 xk · · · xi · · · x1 · · · xi
α3 (k − 2, 1)β3 (k − 1, 2)α4 (j − 1, 1)β4 (k − 1, j + 1)xk · · · x1 · · · xj ;

[n] [k]
L Rn;ii Rk;jj = L xn−1 xn xn−1 α1 xn−1 · · · x1 Σβ1 (n−1,2)x2 · · · xi α2 (i−1,1)Σβ2 (n−1, i+1)

α3 (k−2,1)β3 (k−1, 2)α4 (j −1, 1)β4 (k−1, j +1)xk · · · x1 · · · xj ,
[n] [k]
R Rn;ii Rk;jj = R xn xn−1 α1 β1 (n−1, 2)α2 (i−1, 1)β2 (n−1, i+1)xn · · · xk+1 xk−1 xk xk−1
25

xk−2 · · · x1 · · · xi α3 (k−2, 1)xk−1 · · · x1 Σβ3 (k−1, 2)x2 · · · xj α4 (j−1, 1)Σβ4 (k−1, j+1)
= R xn xn−1 α1 β1 (n − 1, 2)α2 (i − 1, 1){β2 (n − 1, i + 1)xk−1 }xn · · · x1 · · · xi α3 (k − 2, 1)

xk−1 · · · x1 Σβ3 (k−1, 2)x2 · · · xj α4 (j −1, 1)Σβ4 (k−1, j +1)
= R xn−1 xn xn−1 α1 xn−1 · · · x1 Σβ1 (n−1,2)x2 · · · xi α2 (i−1,1)Σβ2 (n−1, i+1)xk α3 (k − 2, 1)

xk−1 · · · x1 Σβ3 (k−1, 2)x2 · · · xj α4 (j −1, 1)Σβ4 (k−1, j +1)
= R xn−1 xn xn−1 α1 xn−1 · · · x1 Σβ1 (n−1,2)x2 · · · xi α2 (i−1,1)Σβ2 (n−1, i+1)α3 (k − 2, 1)

xk · · · x1 Σβ3 (k−1, 2)x2 · · · xj α4 (j −1, 1)Σβ4 (k−1, j +1)

β3 (k−1, 2)xk · · · x1 x2 · · · xj α4 (j −1, 1)Σβ4 (k−1, j +1)

β3 (k−1, 2)α4 (j −1, 1)β4 (k−1, j +1)xk · · · x1 · · · xj .
Therefore this ambiguity is solvable. Also in the ambiguity

[n] [k]
Rn;kk Rk;ii : xn xn−1 α1 β1 (n − 1, 2)α2 (k − 1, 1)β2 (n − 1, k + 1)xn · · · x1 · · · xk−1 xk xk−1
α3 (k − 2, 1)β3 (k − 1, 2)α4 (i − 1, 1)β4 (k − 1, i + 1)xk · · · x1 · · · xi ;

[n] [k]
L Rn;kk Rk;ii = L xn−1 xn xn−1 α1 xn−1 · · · x1 Σβ1 (n − 1, 2)x2 · · · xk α2 (k − 1, 1)

Σβ2 (n−1, k +1)xk−1 α3 (k −2, 1)β3 (k −1, 2)α4 (i−1, 1)β4 (k −1, i+1)xk · · · x1 · · · xi
= L xn−1 xn xn−1 α1 xn−1 · · · x1 Σβ1 (n − 1, 2)x2 · · · xk α2 (k − 1, 1)xk−1 Σβ2 (n − 1, k + 1)

α3 (k − 2, 1)β3 (k − 1, 2)α4 (i − 1, 1)β4 (k − 1, i + 1)xk · · · x1 · · · xi ,
[n] [k]
R Rn;kk Rk;ii = R xn xn−1 α1 β1 (n − 1, 2)α2 (k − 1, 1)β2 (n − 1, k + 1)xn · · · xk · · · x1 · · ·

x2k−1 xk xk−1 α3 (k − 2, 1)xk−1 · · · x1 Σβ3 (k − 1, 2)x2 · · · xi α4 (i − 1, 1)Σβ4 (k − 1, i + 1)
= R xn xn−1 α1 β1 (n−1, 2)α2 (k−1, 1)β2 (n−1, k+1)xn · · · x1 · · · xk+1 xk−1 xk xk−1 xk−2 · · ·

x1 · · · xk−1 x2k α3 (k − 2, 1)xk−1 · · · x1 Σβ3 (k − 1, 2)x2 · · · xi α4 (i − 1, 1)Σβ4 (k − 1, i + 1)
= R xn xn−1 α1 β1 (n − 1, 2){α2 (k − 1, 1)xk−1 }β2 (n − 1, k + 1)xn · · · x1 · · · xk α3 (k − 2, 1)

xk · · · x1 Σβ3 (k − 1, 2)x2 · · · xi α4 (i − 1, 1)Σβ4 (k − 1, i + 1)
26
= R xn−1 xn xn−1 α1 xn−1 · · · x1 Σβ1 (n − 1, 2)x2 · · · xk α2 (k − 1, 1)xk−1 Σβ2 (n − 1, k + 1)

α3 (k − 2, 1)β3 (k − 1, 2) · · · x1 · · · xi α4 (i − 1, 1)Σβ4 (k − 1, i + 1)xk
= R xn−1 xn xn−1 α1 xn−1 · · · x1 Σβ1 (n − 1, 2)x2 · · · xk α2 (k − 1, 1)xk−1 Σβ2 (n − 1, k + 1)

α3 (k − 2, 1)β3 (k − 1, 2)α4 (i − 1, 1)β4 (k − 1, i + 1)xk · · · x1 · · · xi .
Therefore this ambiguity is solvable too. Hence the above presentation is complete.

Theorem 2.4.3. The complete presentations of the monoid M I2 (p) are

1) M I2 (2k + 1) = x1 , x2 | P2k+1 , x2 xr1 ∆ = ∆x1 xr2 , r ≥ 1 and

2) M I2 (2k) = x1 , x2 | P2k , x2 xr1 ∆ = ∆x2 xr1 , r ≥ 1 , where
Pl : x2 x1 x2 x1 · · · (l factors) = x1 x2 x1 x2 · · · (l factors).
Proof. 1) Let
R(r) : x2 xr1 x2 x1 x2 · · · x2 x1 = x1 x2 x1 · · · x2 x21 xr−1

2 ,r ≥ 2
| {z } | {z }
2k factors 2k factors
and
R(s) : x2 xs1 x2 x1 x2 · · · x2 x1 = x1 x2 x1 · · · x2 x21 xs−1

2 ,s ≥ 2
| {z } | {z }

be the relations in M I2 (2k +1) . We will check the ambiguity R(r)R(s) only. Other
cases are similar. In the ambiguity
R(r)R(s) : x2 xr1 x2 x1 x2 · · · x2 x1 xs−1 x x x ···x x ;

| {z } 1 | 2 1 2{z 2 }1
L R(r)R(s) = L x2 xr−1 s−2

1 ∆x 1 ∆
= L ∆x1 xr−1 s−2

2 x1 ∆
= L ∆x1 xr−2 s−2

2 ∆x1 x1
= L ∆x1 ∆xr−1 s−2

1 x2 ,
27
R R(r)R(s) = R x2 xr1 x2 x1 x2 · · · x2 x1 x2 xs−1

1 ∆
| {z }
2k−2 factors
= R x2 xr1 x2 x1 x2 · · · x2 x1 ∆x1 xs−1

| {z } 2
2k−2 factors
x2 xr1 x2 x1 x2 · · · x2 x1 ∆x1 x2 x1 xs−1

= R 2
| {z }
2k−4 factors
..
.
= R x2 xr1 ∆ x1 x2 x1 · · · x2 x1 xs−1

| {z } 2
2k−1 factors
0
= R ∆x1 xr2 ∆0 xs−2 ∆ = x x · · · x and x r 0
∆ = ∆ 0 r
x
2 | 1 2{z }2 2 1
2k factors
= R ∆x1 ∆0 xr1 xs−2

2
= R ∆x1 ∆xr−1 s−2

1 x2 .
Therefore this ambiguity is solvable. Hence the presentation 1) is complete. Similarly

we can prove that the presentation of M I2 (2k) is complete.
Chapter 3
Hilbert Series of Positive Braids
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter first we show that the growth functions of the monoids MB 3 and MB 4
are exponential and we find the corresponding growth rates. Using the reduced com-
plete presentation (non-commutative Gröbner bases) of the braid monoids MB n+1
(see Chapter 1) we construct a linear system (other than Xu’s system) of equations for
the reducible as well as for the irreducible words to compute inductively the Hilbert
series of MB n+1 . The size of the system is n2 + 2n − 3 which is much smaller than the
n−1
size 2n−1 + 2[ 2
]
− 2 of Xu’s system for n ≥ 7. Using this system we show that the
Hilbert series of both reducible and irreducible words are rational. We give another
proof of Deligne’s theorem. We also prove that the Hilbert series of MB +

n+1 (the set of
positive braids coprime with ∆) is rational. At the end we prove the Theorem 3.1.2,
a generalization of Theorem 1.5.1 which states that for a given word α the Hilbert
series of the words starting with α is a rational function.

[n+1]
In order to use shorter notations, we introduce the following: generally Aα
[n+1]
and Bα,ω be the irreducible and reducible words respectively in MB n+1 , and α is
28
29
related with the prefix (beginning) of a word and ω is related with the suffix (end)
[n+1]
of the word. For example Ak(k−1)···i denotes the set of irreducible words in MB n+1
[n+1]
starting with xk xk−1 · · · xi ; Bj,k denotes the set of reducible words starting with
xn xn−1 · · · xj and ending with xn xn−1 · · · xk . As special cases we use the following
notations: if j = ∗ then the word will start with xn xn−1 and if j = n − 1 then the
word will start with xn x2n−1 . Also a special reducible word xk xk−1 xk is denoted by
[n+1]
B∅,k . We will use ia j b k c · · · for a word xai xbj xck · · · , when required.
All the above sets are graded by length, so we can introduce the Hilbert series of
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
these sets. Let Qα,ω (t) denotes the Hilbert series of Bα,ω , Pα (t) of Aα and
[n+1] ` [n+1] ` [n+1] ` ` [n+1]
HM (t) of A[n+1] = {e} A1 A2 · · · An for the monoid M .
Let MB +
n+1 = MB n+1 r ∆MB n+1 be the set of positive braids coprime with ∆.
Using Garside decomposition
a
Bn+1 = ∆k MB +
n+1
k∈Z
the word problem in Bn+1 is reduced to the word problem in MB n+1 and the compu-
tation of ∆ exponent. There is an obvious but lengthy algorithm to solve the word
problem in MB n+1 [15].
A reduced complete presentation of MB n+1 has been discussed in detail in Chap-
ter 2. Using this presentation, we will compute inductively the Hilbert series of
MB n+1 and MB +
n+1 and give another proof of Deligne’s theorem. As a consequence
of Deligne’s theorem we prove
Corollary 3.1.1. The Hilbert series of the braid monoids MB +

n+1 is a rational
function.
[n+1]
Let α be an irreducible word in MB n+1 and Aα be the set of all irreducible
30
words in MB n+1 starting with α then we prove the following generalization of the
Theorem 1.5.1:
[n+1]
Theorem 3.1.2. The Hilbert series of Aα is a rational function.
In Section 3.2 complete results are given for MB 3 and MB 4 , i.e., we compute the
Hilbert series for these monoids and show that the growth functions of these series
are exponential. In this section we prove Theorem 1.5.1 and the rationality of some
related Hilbert series and in Section 3.3 we prove Theorem 3.1.2.
3.2 Proof of Deligne’s Theorem
Firstly we present in detail the main idea of the general proof for the simplest case:
[3]
HMB (t).
Proposition 3.2.1. Hilbert series of MB 3 is given by
[3] 1
HMB (t) = .
(1 − t)(1 − t − t2 )
Proof. To obtain this series we will compute the Hilbert series for the reducible words
[2]
as well as for the irreducible words. The Hilbert series for A1 = {x1 , x21 , x31 , . . .} is
given by
[2] t
P1 = t + t2 + t3 + · · · = .
1−t
[3]
First we compute the Hilbert series for the reducible words. As B∅,2 contains only
[3]
one word x2 x1 x2 , we have Q∅,2 = t3 . The reduced complete presentation gives the
[3] [2] [3] t5
decomposition B1,1 = {x2 x1 } × A1 × {x2 x1 }, hence Q1,1 = 1−t
.
Now we compute the Hilbert series for the irreducible words. If w is an irreducible
word then the product x1 w is also irreducible. Thus we have the decomposition
31
[3] [2] ` [2] [3] [3] [2] [2] [3]

A1 = A1 A1 × A2 and so P1 = P1 + P1 P2 . Therefore
[3] t t [3]
P1 = + P . (3.2.1)
1−t 1−t 2
The product x2 w, (w irreducible starting with x2 ) is also irreducible. Therefore

[3] ` [3] ` [3]

A2 = {x2 } A21 {x2 } × A2 . Hence we have the series
[3] [3] [3]

P2 = t + P21 + tP2 · (3.2.2)
If we multiply x2 on the left with an irreducible word starting with x1 then we can
[3] [3]
have the reducible words of the form B∅,2 = {x2 x1 x2 } or B1,1 = {x2 xa1 x2 x1 }. In order
to obtain irreducible words starting with x2 x1 we have to delete the above reducible
[3]
words from {x2 } × A1 . Thus
a [3]
[3] [3] [3] [3] [3]
A21 = {x2 } × A1 r B∅,2 × A2 B1,1 × A21
2 21
[3]
and the set in the parenthesis is contained in {x2 } × A1 . Therefore
[3] [3] [3] t3 [3]

P21 = tP1 − t2 P2 − P21 · (3.2.3)
1−t
Solving the Equations (3.2.1), (3.2.2) and (3.2.3) simultaneously we get
[3] t [3] t + t2 [3] t2

P1 = , P 2 = , P 21 = .
(1 − t)(1 − t − t2 ) 1 − t − t2 1 − t − t2
[3] [3]
Now we have A[3] = {e}
` `
A1 A2 . Therefore
[3] [3] [3]

HMB (t) = 1 + P1 + P2
1
=
(1 − t)(1 − t − t2 )
[3]
= 1 + 2t + 4t2 + 7t3 + 12t4 + 20t5 + 33t6 + · · · + ak tk + · · · .
32
[3]
Remark 3.2.2. One can see that the coefficients ak in the series are related with

Fibonacci numbers F0 = 1, F1 = 1, F2 = 2, F3 = 3, F4 = 5, F5 = 8, . . . by the
[3]
relation ak = Fk+2 − 1.
Remark 3.2.3. As
√ √
1 −1 5−2 5 5+2 5
= + +
(1 − t)(1 − t − t2 ) 1 − t 5(1 + c1 t) 5(1 − c2 t)
√ √
5−1 5+1
where c1 = 2
and c2 = 2
. The first two terms have a negligible contribution in
approximating the series, while the last term

√
5 + 2 5
1 + c2 t + c22 t2 + c32 t3 + · · ·
5
√ √
[3] 5+2 5 5+1 k [3]

approximates the series. Hence ak ≈ 5 2
. Thus the growth function of ak
√
5+1
is exponential and the growth rate is 2
.
In the next case, n = 3, all the technicalities of the general case appear; this is
why we give a complete and detailed proof.
Proposition 3.2.4. Hilbert series of MB 4 is given by
[4] 1
HMB (t) = .
(1 − t)(1 − 2t − t2 + t3 + t4 + t5 )
Proof. As in Proposition 3.2.1, we start to compute the series for the reducible words,
[4]
i.e., B∗,∗ . Using the reduced complete presentation we have only two types of reducible
[4] [4] ` [4] [4] [2]
words ending with x3 , i.e., B∗,3 = Bφ,3 B1,3 where B1,3 = {x3 x2 } × A1 × {x3 } and
[4] [4] [4] [4] t4 t3
Bφ,3 = {x3 x2 x3 }. Hence Q∗,3 = Qφ,3 + Q1,3 = t3 + 1−t
= 1−t
.
Again using reduced complete presentation we have only two types of reducible
[4] [4] ` [4] [4] [2]
words ending with x2 , i.e., B∗,2 = B2,2 B1,2 where B2,2 = {x3 x2 } × ΣA1 × {x3 x2 }
[4] [2] [2] [4] t5 t7 t5 (1−t+t2 )
and B1,2 = {x3 x2 x1 } × A1 × ΣA1 × {x3 x2 }. Hence Q∗,2 = 1−t
+ (1−t)2
= (1−t)2
.
33
[4] [4] ` [4]

For reducible words ending with x1 we have also two types, i.e., B∗,1 = B2,1 B1,1 .
[3] [4]
The set {x3 x2 } × A2 × {x3 x2 x1 } is disjoint union of B2,1 = {x3 xa2 β(2, 1)x3 x2 x1 } and
{x3 xb2 x3 x2 } × {x1 }. So we have the formulae,

[4] [3] [4] [4] t7
B2,1 = {x3 x2 }×A2 ×{x3 x2 x1 }r B2,2 ×{x1 } and Q2,1 = (1−t)(1−t−t2 )
. Using similar
arguments we have

[4] [3] [4] ` [4]
B1,1 = {x3 x2 x1 } × A21 × {x3 x2 x1 } r B1,3 × {x2 x1 } B1,2 × {x1 } and so
21
[4] t10 [4] t7 t10 t7 (1−t+t3 )
Q1,1 = (1−t)2 (1−t−t2 )
. Hence Q∗,1 = (1−t)(1−t−t2 )
+ (1−t)2 (1−t−t2 )
= (1−t)2 (1−t−t2 )
.
[4]
In the second part we compute the series for the irreducible words, A∗ . We
[4] [3] ` [3] [4] [4] [3] ` [3] [4]
have the following decompositions: A1 = A1 A1 × A3 , A2 = A2 A2 × A3 ,
[4] [3] ` [3] [4] [4] ` [4] ` [4]
A21 = A21 A21 ×A3 and A3 = {x3 } {x3 }×A3 A32 and their corresponding
Hilbert series are

[4] [3] [3] [4]
P 1 = P1 + P1 P3 , (3.2.4)
[4] [3] [3] [4]

P 2 = P2 + P2 P3 , (3.2.5)
[4] [3] [3] [4]

P21 = P21 + P21 P3 , (3.2.6)
[4] [4] [4]

P3 = t + tP3 + P32 . (3.2.7)
If we multiply x3 on the left with an irreducible word starting with x2 then we can
[4] [3] [3]
have the reducible words of the form B∗,3 , B∗,2 or B∗,1 . In order to obtain irreducible
[3]
words starting with x2 x1 we have to delete the above reducible words from {x3 }×A2 .
Thus
a [4] a [4]
[4] [4] [4] [4] [4] [4]
A32 = {x3 } × A2 r B∗,3 × A3 B∗,2 × A32 B∗,1 × A321
3 32 321
[3]
and the set in the parenthesis is contained in {x3 } × A2 . Therefore
[4] [4] t2 [4] t3 − t4 + t5 [4] t4 − t5 + t7 [4]

P32 = tP2 − P3 − 2
P 32 − 2 2
P321 . (3.2.8)
1−t (1 − t) (1 − t) (1 − t − t )
34
Using similar arguments we have

[4] [4] [4] [4] ` [4] [4] ` [4] [4]
A321 = {x3 } × A21 r B1,3 × A3 B1,2 × A32 B1,1 × A321 and this implies
3 32 321
[4] [4] t3 [4] t5 [4] t7 [4]

P321 = tP21 − P3 − P − P . (3.2.9)
1−t (1 − t)2 32 (1 − t)2 (1 − t − t2 ) 321
Let T5 = 1 − 2t − t2 + t3 + t4 + t5 . Solving the Equations (3.2.4), . . . , (3.2.9) simulta-
neously we get
[4] t [4] t(1 + t) [4] t2
P1 = , P2 = , P21 = ,
(1 − t)T5 T5 T5
[4] t(1 − t2 − t3 − t4 ) [4] t2 (1 − t2 − t3 ) [4] t3 (1 − t − t2 )
P3 = , P32 = and P321 = .
T5 T5 T5
` [4] ` [4] ` [4]
Now A[4] = {e} A1 A2 A3 implies
[4] [4] [4] [4]

HMB (t) = 1 + P1 + P2 + P3
1
= .
(1 − t)(1 − 2t − t2 + t3 + t4 + t5 )
[4]
Remark 3.2.5. For HMB (t) we have
1 1 .515 .269+.296t 2.638 2.56
(1−t)(1−2t−t2 +t3 +t4 +t5 )
≈ 1−t
+ 1+.85t
+ 1+.493t+.449t2
− 1−1.256t
+ 1−2.0868t
.
The only term that contributes in approximating the series is
2.56
= 2.56 1 + 2.0868t + (2.0868)2 t2 + (2.0868)3 t3 + · · · .
1 − 2.0868t
[4] [4]
Hence ak > 2.56(2.0868)k . Thus in this case the growth function of ak is exponential
and the growth rate is 2.0868.
In the next lemma we construct a linear system for the reducible words in MB n+1 .
Lemma 3.2.6. The following relations hold for the reducible words in MB n+1 .
n−1
[n+1] [n] P j−1 [n+1]
1) Qn−1,1 = tn+2 Pn−1 − t Qn−1,j .
j=2
35
[n+1] [n−1]
2) Qn−2,n = t3 Pn−2 .
[n+1] [n−1] [2] [n] [2]
3) Qn−2,n−1 = t4 Pn−2 P1 − t2 Q∗,n−1 P1 .
n−1
P j−i [n+1] n−1
[n+1] [n−1] [n−i+1] [n] [n−i+1]
4) Qn−2,i = tn−i+3 Pn−2 Pn−i t Qn−2,j − tj−i+2 Q∗,j P(n−i)···(j−i+1) ,
P
−
j=i+1 j=i
i = 1, . . . , n − 2 .
Proof. Here we are using again the reduced complete presentation of MB n+1 .
[n]
1) The set {xn xn−1 } × An−1 × {xn xn−1 · · · x1 } can be written as a disjoint union of
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
the sets Bn−1,1 , Bn−1,2 × {x1 }, . . . , Bn−1,n−1 × {xn−2 · · · x1 }. Therefore
[n+1]
xn x2n−1 β(n − 1, 1)xn · · · x1

Bn−1,1 =
[n]
= {xn xn−1 } × An−1 × {xn xn−1 · · · x1 }
a a
[n+1] [n+1]
r Bn−1,2 × {x1 } Bn−1,3 × {x2 x1 } ···
!
a [n+1]
a a [n+1]

Bn−1,j × {xj−1 · · · x1 } ··· Bn−1,n−1 × {xn−2 · · · x1 }
implies

[n+1] n+2 [n] [n+1] 2 [n+1] j−1 [n+1] n−2 [n+1]
Qn−1,1 =t Pn−1 − tQn−1,2 +t Qn−1,3 +···+t Qn−1,j +···+t Qn−1,n−2
or
n−1
X
[n+1] n+2 [n] [n+1]
Qn−1,1 =t Pn−1 − tj−1 Qn−1,j .
j=2
[n+1] [n−1]
2) Bn−2,n = xn xn−1 xn−2 α(n − 2, 1)xn = {xn xn−1 xn−2 } × An−2 × {xn } implies
n−2
[n+1] [n−1]
Qn−2,n = t3 Pn−2
36
3)
[n+1]
Bn−2,n−1 = xn xn−1 xn−2 α(n − 2, 1)β(n − 1)xn xn−1
[n−1] [2]
= {xn xn−1 xn−2 } × An−2 × Σn−2 A1 × {xn xn−1 }
n−2
[n] [2]
r{xn } × B∗,n−1 × Σn−2 A1 × {xn xn−1 }
n−1
implies
[n+1] [n−1] [2] [n] [2]
Qn−2,n−1 = t4 Pn−2 P1 − t2 Q∗,n−1 P1 .
[n+1]
4) Bn−2,i = xn xn−1 xn−2 α(n − 2, 1)β(n − 1, i)xn · · · xi

[n−1] [n−i+1] [n+1]
= {xn xn−1 xn−2 } × An−2 × Σi−1 An−i × {xn · · · xi }r Bn−2,i+1 ×{xi }
n−2
!
a a [n+1] a a
[n+1]

··· Bn−2,j × {xj−1 · · · xi } ··· Bn−2,n−1 × {xn−2 · · · xi }

[n] [n−i+1]
r {xn } × B∗,i × Σi−1 A(n−i)···1 × {xn · · · xi }
(n−1)···i
a [n] [n−i+1]
a
{xn } × B∗,i+1 × Σi−1 A(n−i)···2 × {xn · · · xi } ···
(n−1)···(i+1)
a [n]
a
[n−i+1]
i−1
{xn } × × Σ
B∗,j × {xn · · · xi } ···
A(n−i)···(j−i+1)
(n−1)···j
!
a [n] [n−i+1]

{xn } × B∗,n−1 × Σi−1 An−i × {xn · · · xi }
n−1
implies

[n+1] n−i+3 [n−1] [n−i+1] [n+1] j−i [n+1] n−i−1 [n+1]
Qn−2,i =t Pn−2 Pn−i − ··· + t
tQn−2,i+1 + + ··· + t Qn−2,j Qn−2,n−1

[n] [n−i+1] [n] [n−i+1] [n] [n−i+1]
− t2 Q∗,i P(n−i)···1+ · · · + tj−i+2 Q∗,j P(n−i)···(j−i+1)+ · · · + tn−i+1 Q∗,n−1 Pn−i
or for i = 1, . . . , n − 2,
n−1
X n−1
X
[n+1] n−i+3 [n−1] [n−i+1] j−i [n+1] [n] [n−i+1]
Qn−2,i =t Pn−2 Pn−i − t Qn−2,j − tj−i+2 Q∗,j P(n−i)···(j−i+1) .
j=i+1 j=i
37
Applying the procedure analogous to Lemma 3.2.6 we have the following
Lemma 3.2.7. For k = 1, . . . , n − 3,

[n+1] [n−1]
1) Qk,n = t3 P(n−2)···k .
[n+1] [n−1] [2] [n] [2]
2) Qk,n−1 = t4 P(n−2)···k P1 − t2 Qk,n−1 P1 .
n−1
P j−i [n+1] n−1
[n+1] [n−1] [n−i+1] P j−i+2 [n] [n−i+1]
3) Qk,i = tn−i+3 P(n−2)···k Pn−i − t Qk,j − t Qk,j P(n−i)···(j−i+1) ,
j=i+1 j=i
i = 1, . . . , n − 2.
Lemma 3.2.8. In MB n+1 ,

[n+1] [n+1]
1) Qn−1,n = Q∅,i = 0.
[n+1]
2) Q∅,n = t3 .
[n+1] [n−i+2]
3) Qn−1,i = Qn−i,1 , i = 2, . . . , n − 1.
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
4) Q∗,n = Q∅,n + Qn−2,n and Q∗,i = Qn−2,i + Qn−1,i for i = 1, . . . , n − 1.
Proof. (of Lemma 3.2.8)

[n+1]
1) There are no reducible words of the form Bn−1,n = xn xm n−1 xn : m ≥ 2 and
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
B∅,i = xn xn−1 xn xn−1 xn−2 · · · xi : 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1 . Therefore, Qn−1,n = Q∅,i = 0.
[n+1] [n+1]
2) Q∅,n = t3 as B∅,n = xn xn−1 xn .
[n+1]
3) Bn−1,i = xn x2n−1 β(n−1, i)xn · · · xi = Σi−1 xn−i+1 x2n−i β(n−i, 1)xn−i+1 · · · x1
[n+1] [n−i+2]
implies Qn−1,i = Qn−i,1 , i = 2, . . . , n − 1.
[n+1] [n+1] ` [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
4) B∗,n = xn xn−1 α(n − 2, 1)xn = B∅,n Bn−2,n implies Q∗,n = Q∅,n + Qn−2,n
[n+1] [n+1] ` [n+1]
and B∗,i = xn xn−1 α(n − 2, 1)β(n − 1, i)xn xn−1 · · · xi = Bn−2,i Bn−1,i implies
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Q∗,i = Qn−2,i + Qn−1,i for i = 1, . . . , n − 1.
[n+1]
Proposition 3.2.9. The Hilbert series Q∗,∗ of the reducible words in MB n+1 is
[m] [m]
rational in P∗ and Q∗,∗ , m ≤ n.
38
Proof. We prove that the system BX = C (constructed in Lemma 3.2.6, 3.2.7 and
[n+1]
3.2.8) of n(n − 1) equations with variables Qi,j , 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, 1 ≤ j ≤ n, has a
unique solution. The matrix B(t) of coefficients of this system is given as:
 
 1 t t2 · · · tn−2
0
   
Tn 0 · · · 0 0 1 t · · ·
 tn−3 0 
   
 
 0 Tn · · · 0  0 0 1 · · · tn−4 0
 
B(t) =  . where T n = 
   
. .. .. 

 ... ... ... .. .. 
. . .  . .
   
0 0 · · · Tn 0 0 0 · · ·
 1 0 
 
0 0 0 ··· 0 1
and the submatrices in the first, second , . . . , last row are obtained respectively for
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
the variables Qn−1,j , Qn−2,j , . . . , Q1,j , 1 ≤ j ≤ n. The upper triangular submatrix
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Tn is same for each of Qn−1,j , Qn−2,j , . . . , Q2,j and Q1,j . Now |B(t)| = 1 and
[n+1]
C ∈ M∗ Q(t) . Hence the system X = B −1 C ∈ M∗ Q(t) . Therefore Q∗,∗ is

[m] [m]
rational in P∗ and Q∗,∗ , m ≤ n.
[n+1]
We construct another linear system in the variables P∗ analogous to Lemma
3.2.6, 3.2.7 and 3.2.8.
Lemma 3.2.10. The following relations hold for the irreducible words in MB n+1 .
[n+1] [n] [n+1] [n]
1) Pk = Pk Pn + Pk , k = 1, . . . , n − 1.
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
2) Pn = tPn + Pn(n−1) + t.
[n+1] [n] [n+1] [n]
3) P(n−1)···i = P(n−1)···i Pn + P(n−1)···i , i = 1, . . . , n − 2.
n
[n+1] [n+1] P j−n−1 [n+1] [n+1]
4) Pn(n−1) = tPn−1 − t Q∗,j Pn···j .
j=1
n
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
tj−n−1 Qk,j Pn···j , k = 1, . . . , n − 2.
P
5) Pn···k = tP(n−1)···k −
j=1
[n+1] [n] ` [n] [n+1]

Proof. 1) Ak = Ak Ak × An implies
39
[n+1] [n] [n] [n+1]

Pk = Pk + Pk Pn , k = 1, . . . , n − 1.
[n+1] `
[n+1] ` [n+1]
2) An = {xn } {xn } × An An(n−1) implies
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Pn = tPn + Pn(n−1) + t.
[n+1] [n] ` [n] [n+1]
3) A(n−1)···i = A(n−1)···i A(n−1)···i × An implies
[n+1] [n] [n+1] [n]
P(n−1)···i = P(n−1)···i Pn + P(n−1)···i , i = 1, . . . , n − 2.
By using the technique of Proposition 3.2.4 we have:
4)
a a
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
An(n−1) = {xn } × An−1 r B∗,1 × An···1 B∗,2 × An···2 ···
n···1 n···2
!
a [n+1] [n+1]
a a
[n+1]
B∗,j × An···j ··· B∗,n × A[n+1]
n
n···j n
implies

[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Pn(n−1) = tPn−1 − t−n Q∗,1 Pn···1 + t−n+1 Q∗,2 Pn···2 + · · ·

[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
+ tj−n−1 Q∗,j Pn···j + · · · + t−1 Q∗,n Pn or
n
X
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Pn(n−1) = tPn−1 − tj−n−1 Q∗,j Pn···j .
j=1
5) The decomposition
a a
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
An···k = {xn } × A(n−1)···k r Bk,1 × An···1 Bk,2 × An···2 ···
n···1 n···2
!
a [n+1] [n+1]
a a [n+1]

Bk,j × An···j ··· Bk,n × A[n+1]
n
n···j n
gives the series

[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Pn···k = tP(n−1)···k − t−n Qk,1 Pn···1 + t−n+1 Qk,2 Pn···2 +

j−n−1 [n+1] [n+1] −1 [n+1] [n+1]
··· + t Qk,j Pn···j + ··· + t Qk,n Pn or
40
n
X
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Pn···k = tPn−1···k − tj−n−1 Qk,j Pn···j , k = 1, . . . , n − 2.
j=1
[n+1]
Proposition 3.2.11. The Hilbert series P∗ of irreducible words in MB n+1 is a
[n] [n+1]
rational function in P∗ and Q∗,∗ .
Proof. Putting the values of k and i in Lemma 3.2.10 we obtain

[n+1] [n] [n+1] [n]
P1 = P1 P1 + P1 ,
[n+1] [n] [n+1] [n]
P2 = P2 P2 + P2 ,
..
.
[n+1] [n] [n+1] [n]
Pn−1 = Pn−1 Pn−1 + Pn−1 ,
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Pn = tPn + Pn(n−1) + t,
[n+1] [n] [n+1] [n]
P(n−1)(n−2) = P(n−1)(n−2) Pn + P(n−1)(n−2) ,
[n+1] [n] [n+1] [n]
P(n−1)(n−2)(n−3) = P(n−1)(n−2)(n−3) Pn + P(n−1)(n−2)(n−3) ,
..
.
[n+1] [n] [n+1] [n]
P(n−1)(n−2)···1 = P(n−1)(n−2)···1 Pn + P(n−1)(n−2)···1 ,
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Pn(n−1) = tPn−1 − t−1 Q∗,n Pn − t−2 Q∗,n−1 Pn(n−1) − · · · − t−n Q∗,1 Pn(n−1)···1 ,
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Pn(n−1)(n−2) = tP(n−1)(n−2) − t−1 Qn−2,n Pn − t−2 Qn−2,n−1 Pn(n−1) − · · ·
[n+1] [n+1]
− t−n Qn−2,1 Pn(n−1)···1 ,
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Pn(n−1)···1 = tP(n−1)···1 −t−1 Q1,n Pn −t−2 Q1,n−1 Pn(n−1) −· · ·−t−n Q1,1 Pn(n−1)···1 .
The partitioned matrix B(t) of this system BX = C of 3n − 3 equations and as many

41
variables at t = 0 is given by
 
In 0 Dn×(n−1)  
   −1, if i = n, j = 1

B(0) =  0 In−2 0 
 where D = (dij ) such that dij =
   0, otherwise.

0 0 In−1
[n+1]
Here the submatrices in the first row are obtained for the variables Pi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n,
[n+1] [n+1]
second for P(n−1)···j , 1 ≤ j ≤ n − 2 and third for Pn···k , 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1. As |B(0)| = 1,

we found that |B(t)| = 1 + d1 t + d2 t2 + · · · . Hence B(t) is invertible in M∗ Q(t) .
[n+1]
Now C ∈ M∗ Q(t) . Therefore the system X = B −1 C ∈ M∗ Q(t) . Hence P∗

is
[n] [n+1]
rational in P∗ and Q∗,∗ .
Now using the above results we can easily prove Theorem 1.5.1.
[n+1]
Proof. (of Theorem 1.5.1) In Proposition 3.2.11 we see that Pi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n are
rational functions. Therefore

[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
HMB (t) = 1 + P1 + P2 + · · · + Pn[n+1]
is rational.
Corollary 3.1.1 can be easily proved now.
n(n+1)
Proof. (of Corollary 3.1.1) Note that |∆| = 2
for the Garside element ∆. Using
the decomposition
a a a
MB n+1 = MB +
n+1 ∆MB +
n+1 ∆2 MB +
n+1 ···
the corresponding Hilbert series is

[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
HMB (t) = HMB+ (t) + t|∆| HMB+ (t) + t2|∆| HMB+ (t) + · · ·
[n+1]
= 1 + t|∆| + t2|∆| + · · · HMB+ (t)
1 [n+1]
= |∆|
HMB+ (t).
1−t
42
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]

As HMB (t) is rational, the series HMB+ (t) = (1 − t|∆| )HMB (t) is also a rational
function.
3.3 Generalization of Deligne’s Theorem
Now we prove the Theorem 3.1.2, a generalization of Theorem 1.5.1 using induction
and the reduced complete presentation of MB n+1 .
First we discuss the particular case n = 2. Now we use the induction on |α|. If
[3]
|α| = 0 then A[3] = MB 3 and the rationality of HMB (t) was proved in Proposition
3.2.1. If |α| = 1 then the claim of the theorem was also proved in Proposition 3.2.1,
[3] [3]
i.e., P1 and P2 are rational. Let |α| > 1 then we have two cases.
[3]
(1). Let the first letter of α be x1 , i.e., α = x1 β. By induction Pβ is a rational
[3] [3] [3]
function. From Proposition 3.2.1 we know that Ax1 β = {x1 } × Aβ , therefore Px1 β =
[3]
tPβ is a rational function.
(2). Let the first letter of α be x2 , α = x2 β; then we have two subcases:

[3] [3]
(2.1). Let β ∈ A1 . If β = x1 , then from Proposition 3.2.1, P21 is rational.
If β = xa1 , a ≥ 2, then from reduced complete presentation of MB 3 we get

[3] [3] [3] [3] [3] a+1 [3]
A21a = {x2 } × A1a r {x2 xa1 x2 xa+1 · · · } × A21 , hence P21a = tP1a − t1−t P21 is
` `
1
rational by induction hypothesis.
If β = xa1 x2 then again using reduced complete presentation,

[3] [3] [3] [3] [3] [3]
A21a 2 = {x2 } × A1a 2 r {x2 xa1 x2 } × A1 implies P21a 2 = tP1a 2 − ta+2 P1 , rational by
[3] [3] [3]
induction. Finally if β = xa1 xb2 ω, b ≥ 2 then Pα = Px2 β = tPβ is rational.
We cannot have β = xa1 x2 x1 γ because α = x2 xa1 x2 x1 γ is reducible.

[3] [3] [3] [3] [3]
(2.2). If β ∈ A2 then Ax2 β = {x2 } × Aβ (see Proposition 3.2.1) and Px2 β = tPβ is
[3]
rational. Hence for any irreducible positive braid word α in MB 3 , Pα is a rational
43
function.
Now we prove the theorem for the general case n ≥ 3.
Proof. (of Theorem 3.1.2) We will use double induction on n and |α|. If |α| = 0 then
[n+1]
A[n+1] = MB n+1 and HMB (t) is rational, proved earlier. If |α| = 1 then the claim
[n+1]
of the theorem was also proved in Proposition 3.2.11, i.e., Pj is rational for all
j = 1, . . . , n. If |α| > 1, we have two cases:

[n+1] [n] ` [n] [n+1]

Case 1. First suppose that α does not contain xn . Now A α = Aα Aα ×An
[n+1] [n] [n] [n+1]
and the corresponding series Pα = P α + Pα Pn is rational by induction.
Case 2. Now suppose that α contains xn . In this case we have the following subcases:
Case 2.1. If xn is not first letter of α, i.e., α = α1 (n−1, 1)xn α2 (n, 1) (α1 is nonempty)
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
then Aα = {α1 } × Axn α2 and so Pα = t|α1 | Pxn α2 is rational.
Case 2.2. If α = xn β and xn 6∈ β then we have two further subcases:
Case 2.2.1. Let β = xn−1 γ(n − 2, 1)δ(n − 1, j) where δ starts with xn−1 and contains
only the letters xn−1 , xn−2 , . . . , xj . Using the reduced complete presentation we have
[n+1] [n+1]
A[n+1]
α = {xn } × Aβ r {xn xn−1 γ} × {δ} × An···j . (3.3.1)
The word δ(n − 1, j) must contain all the letters xn−1 , xn−2 , . . . , xj , hence
|α| ≥ n − j + 2 > |xn−1 xn−2 · · · xj | = n − j .
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]

Therefore from Equation 3.3.1, Pα = tPβ − t2+|γ|+|δ| Pn···j is also rational by
induction.
[n+1]
Case 2.2.2. Let β = xn−1 xn−2 γ(n − 2, 1), i.e., α = xn xn−1 xn−2 γ(n − 2, 1). Let Bα,xi
be the set of words in the L.H.S. of relations in MB n+1 starting with the given word
[n+1] [n−1]
α and ending with xn · · · xi . Then Bα,xn = {xn xn−1 } × Axn−2 γ × {xn } and hence
44
[n+1] [n−1]
Qα,xn = t3 Pxn−2 γ is rational by induction. Also
[n+1] [2]
Bα,xn−1
= {xn xn−1 } × A[n−1]
xn−2 γ × Σ
n−2
A1 × {xn xn−1 }
[2]
r{xn } × Bx[n]n−1 xn−2 γ,xn−1 × Σn−2 A1 × {xn xn−1 }.
n−1
[n+1] [n−1] [2] [n] [2] [n+1]

Therefore Qα,xn−1 = t4 Pxn−2 γ P1 − t2 Qxn−1 xn−2 γ,xn−1 P1 is rational. Suppose Qα,xk+1
[n+1]
is rational. We will show that Qα,xk is rational. Since
[n+1] [n−k+1]
Bα,xk
= {xn xn−1 } × A[n−1]
xn−2 γ × Σ
k−1
An−k × {xn · · · xk } r
n−1
a a
Bx[n+1]
n xn−1 xn−2 γ,xj
× {x j−1 · · · x k }
j=k+1
n−1
!
a [n−k+1]

{xn } × Bx[n]n−1 xn−2 γ,xj × Σk−1 A(n−k)···(j−k+1) × {xn · · · xk } .
(n−1)···j
j=k
Thus
n−1
X
[n−k+1]
Q[n+1]
α,xk = tn−k+3 Px[n−1] P
n−2 γ n−k
− tj−k Qx[n+1]
n xn−1 xn−2 γ,xj
j=k+1
n−1
X [n−k+1]
− tj−k+2 Qx[n]n−1 xn−2 γ,xj P(n−k)···(j−k+1) , k = 1, . . . , n − 2
j=k
is rational. Using the reduced complete presentation we have the decomposition

n
a
[n+1] [n+1]
A[n+1]
α = {xn } × Aβ r [n+1]
Bα,xj
× An···j
n···j
j=1
n
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
tj−n−1 Qα,xj Pn···j is rational.
P
and so Pα = tPβ −
j=1
Case 2.3. Let α = xn β and β contains a unique xn such that β = γ1 (n−1, 1)xn γ2 (n−
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
1, 1). If β = xn γ2 then Aα = {xn } × Aβ and Pα = tPβ is rational.
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
For γ2 6= xn−1 xn−2 · · · xj we have Aα = {xn } × Aβ and Pα = tPβ is
rational and for γ2 = xn−1 xn−2 · · · xj , j ≥ 2 and γ1 (n−1, 1) = xn−1 δ(n−2, 1)ε(n−1, k),
i.e., α = xn xn−1 δ(n − 2, 1)ε(n − 1, k)xn xn−1 · · · xj , k < j (for k ≥ j, α is reducible)

45
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]

we have Aα = {xn } × Aβ r {xn xn−1 δε} × An···k . Using the argument of the
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Subcase 2.2.1, Pα = tPβ − t2+|δ|+|ε| Pn···k is rational by induction.
Case 2.4. If xn is the first letter of α and α = xn β such that β contains xn at least
[n+1] [n+1]
twice, i.e., β = γ1 (n − 1, 1)xn γ2 (n − 1, 1)xn γ3 (n, 1) then Aα = {xn } × Aβ and
[n+1] [n+1]
hence Pα = tPβ is rational. The case α = xn γ1 (n − 1, 1)xn xn−1 · · · x1 cannot
appear because in that case α will be reducible.

[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] [n+1]
Let α = xi β and β = xj γ; if i ≤ j then Aα = {xi } × Aβ and Pα = tPβ
is rational by induction. The case j ≤ i − 2 cannot appear because xi xj γ is reducible

[n+1]
in this case. Hence for any irreducible α, Pα is a rational function.
Chapter 4
Universal Upper Bound for the

Growth of Artin monoids
4.1 Introduction
Let bk be the number of braids with three strands and k positive crossings. One can
prove that bk is given by b0 = 1, b1 = 2, b2 = 4, b3 = 7, b4 = 12, b5 = 20; from
the results in Chapter 2 we have bk = Fk+2 − 1, where {Fk } are Fibonacci numbers.
√
1+ 5
Therefore the growth function of this sequence is exponential with growth rate 2
.
A A Z
Z A A A ZZ
A A Z A A A Z
A A ZZ A A A ZZ
A A Z A A A Z
b1 = 2 b2 = 4
In this chapter we generalize this to all spherical Artin monoids (and also to some
associated right-angled Artin monoids) and we find a universal upper bound for the
growth functions of all these monoids.
To a given Coxeter graph Γ we associate the monoid Gn+ with the following pre-
sentation (generators corresponds to the vertices, and relations corresponds to the
46
47
labels mij of the graphs):

D E
Gn+ = x1 , x2 , . . . , xn xi xj xi xj · · · = xj xi xj xi · · · ;
| {z } | {z }
mij times mij times
the associated group Gn is defined by the same presentation.
We study the growth function of these monoids (or groups), with a fixed set of
generators {x1 , . . . , xn }, i.e., the growth of the sequence k 7→ #{words of length k in
the given alphabet}.
Let us look at two extremal Coxeter graphs, say Nn and Cn , where Nn is the totally
disconnected graph with n vertices (all the labels are 2) and Cn is the complete graph
and all labels are ∞. The first monoid Nn+ is the free abelian monoid with Hilbert
series
∞
1 X n−1+k k
= t
(1 − t)n k=0
n − 1
with polynomial growth function. The second monoid Cn+ is the free monoid with
Hilbert series
∞
1 X
= nk tk
1 − nt k=0
and the growth function is exponential nk and this is unbounded for the sequence
(Cn )n≥1 .
In spite of the last example, we shall show that the family of spherical Artin
monoids has a universal upper bound for the growth function.
In [14] P. Deligne proved that all spherical Artin monoids have rational Hilbert
series and he gave a formula in terms of the number of reflections in the associated
Weyl groups.
In [22] P. Xu studied the growth function of the monoid of positive braids (the
series An ) and she found explicit formulae for the Hilbert series of A3 and A4 .
48
The main result of this chapter is
Theorem 4.1.1. The growth rate of all spherical Artin monoids (with classical
generators) is less than 4.
In order to prove this we use the associated right-angled Artin monoids:
X∗∞ = {A∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
∗ , B∗ , D∗ , E∗ , F4 , G2 , H3 , H4 , I2 (p)}
where all the labels ≥ 3 are replaced by ∞. For example, to the Artin monoid of
positive braids we associate the monoid A∞

n given by the Coxeter graph:
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
• • • ··· • •
x1 x2 x3 xn−1 xn
The sequence A∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
∗ contains B∗ , F4 , G2 , H∗ , I2 (p), so the study of growth rate
is reduced to two sequences of monoids (A∞ ∞

∗ and D∗ ) and three exceptional cases
E6∞ , E7∞ , and E8∞ . Next we reduce the series A∞ ∞

∗ and D∗ to a unique series: we
introduce a new monoid Kn∞ with Coxeter graph:

yn−1
•
∞
∞ ∞ ∞
(Kn∞ )n≥3 : ∞

• • • •
y1 y2 y3 ··· yn−2
HH
∞HH
H•
yn
and presentation
* +
yi yj = yj yi , j + 2 ≤ i ≤ n − 1
Kn∞ = y 1 , y2 , . . . , y n .

yn yk = yk yn , 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 3

Because we will not use the groups associated to Coxeter graphs with labels ∞,
we simplify the notations: A∞ ∞ ∞ + ∞ +

n , . . . , Kn instead of (An ) , . . . , (Kn ) .
49
Let X∗+ be the set of monoids associated to the connected spherical type Coxeter
graphs, i.e.,
X∗+ = {A+ + + + + + + + +
∗ , B∗ , D∗ , E∗ , F4 , G2 , H3 , H4 , I2 (p)}
The growth rate of X∗+ (X∗ in the classical list, but not E∗ ) is less than the growth
rate of K∗∞ as a consequence of the next proposition:
Proposition 4.1.2. There exist canonical surjective homogeneous maps :

φ ψ
Kn∞ Xn∞ Xn+ .
Growth functions for Artin groups were studied by many authors, using different
set of generators. J. Mairesse and F. Mathéus [17] proved that the dihedral series
I2 (p) with classical generators {x1 , x2 , x−1 −1

1 , x2 } has a rational growth function; one
can easily show that 4 is still an upper bound for the growth rate. R. Charney
[11] analyzed the growth function of Artin groups with the set of normal generators
{d, d−1 : d is a divisor of the Garside element ∆} and the same groups {I2 (p)} have
unbounded growth ratio p − 1. In a recent paper [18] J. Mangahas shows that the
growth rates of braid groups have a lower bound which does not depend on the (finite)
set of generators.
The main idea was to reduce the study of Artin group Xn to the study of associated
monoid Xn+ . F. A. Garside [15] and P. Deligne [14] introduced the fundamental word
∆n ∈ Xn+ and the canonical decomposition

a
Xn = ∆kn Xn+ ;
k∈Z
using these one can show
Theorem 4.1.3. All spherical Artin groups Xn , as monoids generated by the set
{x1 , . . . , xn , ∇ = ∆−1
n } have growth rate less than 4.
50
In Section 4.2 we solve the word problem for Kn∞ and compute its Hilbert series
and also those of A∞ ∞

n and Dn .
In Section 4.3 we show that Kn∞ has growth rate less than 4 using a sequence
of Chebyshev type polynomials. In Proposition 4.3.1 we give sufficient conditions
for Chebyshev type sequences of polynomials to have only real roots in a bounded
interval.
In Section 4.4 we describe the results corresponding to the exceptional monoids
E6∞ , E7∞ and E8∞ .
The last section contains the proofs of the Theorems 4.1.1 and 4.1.3 and of the
Proposition 4.1.2 and also the extension of all the previous results to the spherical
Artin monoids with non-connected Coxeter graphs.
For small values of k, it is easy to compute the number of positive braids with
n + 1 strands (n ≥ 2) and k positive crossings:
[n+1] [n+1] [n+1] n2 + 3n − 2 [n+1] (n − 1)(n2 + 10n + 18)

b0 = 1, b1 = n, b2 = , b3 = .
2 6
The asymptotic growth is nevertheless uniformly bounded:

[n+1]
Corollary 4.1.4. If bk is the number of positive (n + 1)-braids with k positive
[n+1] [n+1]
crossings, then for any n and for large values of k we have bk+1 < 4 bk .
4.2 The Hilbert Series of the Monoid Kn∞
In a presentation of a monoid we fix a total order of the generators; in all our examples
we choose the natural order y1 < y2 < · · · < yn . Such a presentation is complete if
and only if all the ambiguities are solvable (see [5], [13]).
51
Lemma 4.2.1. The presentation

* +
yi yj = yj yi , j + 2 ≤ i ≤ n − 1
Kn∞ = y 1 , y2 , . . . , y n

yn yk = yk yn , 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 3

is a complete presentation.
Proof. All the ambiguities are of type yi yj yk , i − 2 ≥ j ≥ k + 2 (i = n should be
≥ j +3) and these can be simplified in two ways; after three steps we get the canonical
word yk yj yi .
As a consequence we obtain a solution of the word problem in Kn∞ . The smallest
words in length-lexicographic order are given by the next proposition and the defining
relations are sufficient for the rewriting system of this monoid:
Proposition 4.2.2. In Kn∞ the canonical form of a nonempty word is given by
a b hk
yia10 yia11−1 · · · yi1k−k
1
y b0 y b1 · · · yi2k−k
1 i2 i2 −1
2
2
· · · yihp0 yihp1−1 · · · yip −k
p
p
where ij − kj < ij+1 , j = 1, . . . , p − 1 and all the exponents are positive; as a special
j∗
case, after the factor ynd∗ could also appear yn−2 .
Remark 4.2.3. Similar results are true for A∞ ∞ ∞

∗ , D∗ , and E∗ .
[n] P [n] k
Now we start to compute the Hilbert series HK (t) = ck t of Kn∞ and also
k≥0
[n] P [n] k [n] [n]
HK;i (t) = ck;i t ; here ck (or ck ) and ck;i (or ck;i ) denote the number of words
k≥0
in Kn∞ of length k, respectively words (in canonical form) of length k starting with
ak tk ,
P P k
yi . In the same way we denote by bk t the Hilbert series (or generating
k≥0 k≥0
functions) of the monoids X∗+ , respectively X∗∞ .
52
Corollary 4.2.4. In the monoid Kn∞ the following relations are satisfied
n
P
a) c0 = 1, c1;i = 1, ck = ck;i (k ≥ 1).
i=1
b) ck;i (k ≥ 2) are given by the recurrence
ck;1 = ck−1;1 + ck−1;2 + · · · + ck−1;n
ck;2 = ck−1;1 + ck−1;2 + · · · + ck−1;n
ck;3 = ck−1;2 + ck−1;3 + · · · + ck−1;n

..
.
ck;j = ck−1;j−1 + ck−1;j + · · · + ck−1;n

..
.
ck;n−1 = ck−1;n−2 + ck−1;n−1 + ck−1;n
ck;n = ck−1;n−2 + ck−1;n−1 + ck−1;n .
The characteristic polynomial of the above recurrence is given by:

 
λ − 1 −1 ··· −1 −1 −1 −1
 
 
 −1 λ − 1 · · · −1 −1 −1 −1 
 
 
 0
 −1 · · · −1 −1 −1 −1 
 . .. .. .. .. .. 
 
Kn (λ) = det  .. . . . . . 
 
 
 0
 0 · · · −1 λ − 1 −1 −1 
 
 0 0 ··· 0 −1 λ − 1 −1 
 
 
0 0 ··· 0 −1 −1 λ − 1

Lemma 4.2.5. The polynomials Kn (λ) n≥3 satisfy the recurrence:
Kn (λ) = λKn−1 (λ) − λKn−2 (λ) (n ≥ 5) (4.2.1)
with K3 (λ) = λ3 − 3λ2 , K4 (λ) = λ4 − 4λ3 + 2λ2 .

53
Proof. Decompose Kn as a sum of two determinants Un and Vn with the first rows
given by [λ, 0, . . . , 0] and [−1, −1, . . . , −1] respectively. Elementary operations on the
first two rows will give Un (λ) = λKn−1 (λ) and Vn (λ) = −λKn−2 (λ). We can extend
the recurrence for n ≥ 2 by defining K0 (λ) = 2, K1 (λ) = λ, and K2 (λ) = λ2 − 2λ.
From Corollary 4.2.4 we have:
Corollary 4.2.6. The Hilbert series of Kn∞ is given by :
[n] [n] [n] [n]

HK (t) = 1 + HK;1 (t) + HK;2 (t) + · · · + HK;n (t)
[n] [n] [n] [n]
HK;1 (t) = t + tHK;1 (t) + tHK;2 (t) + · · · + tHK;n (t)
[n] [n] [n] [n]
[n] [n] [n] [n]
..
.
[n] [n] [n] [n]
HK;n−1 (t) = t + tHK;n−2 (t) + tHK;n−1 (t) + tHK;n (t)
[n] [n] [n] [n]
HK;n (t) = t + tHK;n−2 (t) + tHK;n−1 (t) + tHK;n (t)
1

The determinant of the system given by the last n equations equals tn Kn t
. The
Hilbert series of K3∞ and K4∞ are given in the next two examples.
Example 4.2.7. K3∞ is the free monoid in three variables. Hence
[3] 1
HK (t) = .
1 − 3t
54
[4] [4] [4] [4] t−t2

Example 4.2.8. In K4∞ , HK;1 = HK;2 = t
1−4t+2t2
, HK;3 = HK;4 = 1−4t+2t2
and
[4] [4] [4] [4] [4]

HK (t) = 1 + HK;1 + HK;2 + HK;3 + HK;4
1
=
1 − 4t + 2t2
= 1 + 4t + 14t2 + 48t3 + 164t4 + 560t5 + · · · .
The characteristic polynomials An (λ) of A∞

n satisfy the same recurrence:
Lemma 4.2.9.
An (λ) = λAn−1 (λ) − λAn−2 (λ) (n ≥ 2) (4.2.2)
with A0 (λ) = 1 and A1 (λ) = λ − 1.
and also
Lemma 4.2.10. The polynomials Kn (λ) and An (λ) (n ≥ 0) satisfy
Kn (λ) = λAn−1 (λ) − λ2 An−3 (λ) (n ≥ 3). (4.2.3)
Proof. This relation is true for n = 3 and n = 4 and An and Kn satisfy the same
recurrence.
[n]
Lemma 4.2.11. The Hilbert series HK;m (t), 2 ≤ m ≤ n − 1 is given by
[n] tm−1 Am−2 ( 1t )

HK;m (t) = .
tn Kn 1t
Proof. The det Lm in Cramer’s rule can be reduced to a product of two determinants,
one equal to tm−1 Am−2 ( 1t ) and a second one, given by a unipotent n − m triangular
matrix.
Problem 4.2.12. The Hilbert series of the monoid Kn∞ is given by
[n] 1
HK (t) = .
tn Kn ( 1t )
55
Proof. From the lemma 4.2.11 we have
[n] [n] [n] [n]

HK (t) = 1 + HK;1 (t) + HK;2 (t) + · · · + HK;n (t)
1
1 n
1
2
1
n−2
= n t Kn + 2t + t A1 + · · · + 2t An−3
t Kn ( 1t ) t t t
1
1 2
1
n−2
1
n−1
= n 2t + t A1 + · · · + t An−3 + t An−1
t Kn ( 1t ) t t t

1 1
= n 1 2t + t2 A2 (using the Relations 4.2.2 and 4.2.3).
t Kn ( t ) t
1
= n .
t Kn ( 1t )

Now we will separate the zero roots of Kn from the others [x] is the floor function .
Problem 4.2.13. The polynomial Kn (λ) has the following form:
n+1
Kn (λ) = λ[ 2
]
Kn (λ)
where Kn is a polynomial of degree [ n2 ]; the sequence (Kn )n≥0 is defined by
1) K0 = 2, K1 = 1, K2 = λ − 2, K3 = λ − 3 ;
2) Kn+2 = (λ − 2)Kn − Kn−2 .
Proof. We prove these relations by induction:
K2p = λ(K2p−1 − K2p−2 ) = λp (λK2p−1 − K2p−2 ) = λp K2p
and
K2p+1 = λ(K2p − K2p−1 ) = λp+1 (K2p − K2p−1 ) = λp+1 K2p+1 .
that is,
n+1
Kn (λ) = λ[ 2
]
Kn (λ).
56
For n = 2p + 1 we have
K2p+1 = K2p − K2p−1 = (λK2p−1 − K2p−2 ) − K2p−1
= (λ − 1)K2p−1 − K2p−1 − K2p−3 = (λ − 2)K2p−1 − K2p−3 ;
a similar proof for n = 2p starts with K2p = λK2p−1 − K2p−2 .
Remark 4.2.14. The results of Proposition 4.2.13 hold for the monoids A∞
n and
Dn∞ :
n
A) The polynomial An (λ) has the form An (λ) = λ[ 2 ] An (λ) where An is a polynomial
of degree [ n+1
2
]; the sequence (An )n≥−1 is defined by:
1) A−1 = 1, A0 = 1, A1 = λ − 1, A2 = λ − 2.
2) A2p+1 = (λ − 2)A2p−1 − A2p−3 and A2p+2 = (λ − 2)A2p − A2p−2 .
D) Dn (λ), the determinant associated to the monoid Dn∞ , has the form Dn (λ) =
n−1
λ[ 2
]
Dn (λ) where Dn is a polynomial of degree [ n+2
2
]; the sequence (Dn )n≥3 is defined
by:
1) D3 (λ) = λ2 − 3λ + 1, D4 (λ) = λ3 − 4λ2 + 3λ − 1, and D5 (λ) = λ3 − 5λ2 + 6λ − 2.
2) D2p+1 = (λ − 2)D2p−1 − D2p−3 and D2p+2 = (λ − 2)D2p − D2p−2 .
An explicit formula for K∗ (λ) is given by
Lemma 4.2.15. Denote by q(λ) the quadratic polynomial λ2 − 4λ. Then we have
[ p2 ]
1 p

(λ − 2)p−2i q i (λ).
P
1) K2p (λ) = 2p−1 2i
i=0
[ p2 ] [ p−1
2
]
1 p 1 p
p−2i i

(λ − 2)p−2i−1 q i (λ).
P P
2) K2p+1 (λ) = 2p 2i
(λ − 2) q (λ) + 2p
(λ − 4) 2i+1
i=0 i=0
Proof. The solutions of the characteristic equation α2 − (λ − 2)α + 1 = 0 are

57
q(λ) . Hence Kk = h1 α1p + h2 α2p with

1
p 1
p
α1 = 2
λ−2+ q(λ) , α2 = 2
λ−2−

 (1, 1),
 k = 2p
(h1 , h2 ) = √ √
q(λ)+λ−4 q(λ)−λ+4

 √ , √ , k = 2p + 1
2 q(λ) 2 q(λ)
we obtain the required forms.
4.3 Chebyshev Recurrence
The recurrences of the Proposition 4.2.13 and those of the Remark 4.2.14 are close to
the recurrence for classical Chebyshev polynomials, Tn (λ) = cos(n arccos λ): Tn (λ) =
2λTn−1 (λ) − Tn−2 (λ) with initial values T0 = 1, T1 = λ (see [8]). We prove, under
general hypothesis, that all the roots of such polynomials are real and contained in
a bounded common interval [a, b]; in the classical case this interval is [−1, 1], in our
case the interval is [0, 4].
Proposition 4.3.1. Let a < b be two real numbers. If the sequence of polynomials
{Rn }n≥0 , Rn ∈ R[X] satisfies the following conditions:
a) [degree] : R0 = constant, R1 = a polynomial of degree 1,
b) [recurrence] : there are α, β ∈ R, α 6= 0 such that
Rn = (αX + β)Rn−1 − Rn−2 , n ≥ 2,
c) [boundary conditions] : we have either
i) Rn (a)Rn+1 (a) > 0, Rn (b)Rn+1 (b) < 0 for any n or
ii) Rn (a)Rn+1 (a) < 0, Rn (b)Rn+1 (b) > 0 for any n
then the following relations hold:
1) deg Rn = n,
58
2) all the roots of Rn are real, distinct and contained in (a, b):
(n) (n)
a < x1 < x2 < · · · < x(n)
n < b,
3) the roots of Rn+1 separate the roots of Rn , i.e.,
(n+1) (n) (n+1) (n) (n+1)

a < x1 < x1 < x2 < x2 < · · · < x(n)
n < xn+1 < b.
Proof. We prove the proposition under the hypothesis c(i). Changing the sequence
{Rn } with {−Rn } we can suppose that R0 (a) > 0. Starting induction by n, let
(m) (n+1)
{xi }i=1,...,m be the roots of Rm . Suppose the roots {xi } separate the roots
(n) (n+1) (n)
{xi } and the signs of Rn xi and Rn+1 xi are those given in the following
table:
a x1
(n)
x2
(n)
··· xn−1
(n) (n)
xn b
Rn •
− •
+ 0 0 0 ∓ 0 ±
a (n+1)
x1
(n+1)
x2
(n+1)
x3
···
(n+1)
xn−1 xn
(n+1) (n+1)
xn+1 b
Rn+1 •
− •
+
• •
+ 0 0 0 0 ∓ 0 ± 0 ∓
a (n+2)
x1
(n+2)
x2
(n+2)
x3
(n+2)
x4
···
(n+2)
xn−1
(n+2)
xn
(n+2)
xn+1
(n+2)
xn+2 b
Rn+2 •
− •
+
•
− • •± •
+ 0 0 0 0 0 ∓ 0 0 ∓ 0 ±
This table is true for n = 0, by hypothesis:
a b
R0 +
+ +
a (1)
x1 b
R1 + − −
+
a (2)
x1
(2)
x2 b
R2 •
−
+ +
Using the given recurrence we get
(n+1) (n+1)
Rn+2 xi = −Rn xi ,
59
so we have opposite signs on the lines Rn and Rn+2 . Now Rn+2 has at least one root
(n+2) (n+1) (n+2) (n+1) (n+1)
in the intervals: x1 ∈ a, x1 , xj ∈ xj−1 , xj , 2 ≤ j ≤ n + 1 and
(n+2) (n+1)
xn+2 ∈ xn+1 , b . The polynomial Rn+2 has degree n + 2, hence all the roots of
(n+2) (n+2) (n+1) (n+2)
Rn+2 are x1 , . . . , xn+2 and the pattern of signs of Rn+2 xi and Rn+1 xi
is the same. The version c(ii) is similar.
The boundary conditions are satisfied by the polynomials Kn :
Lemma 4.3.2. For p ≥ 0 :
1) K2p (0) = 2(−1)p , K2p+1 (0) = (−1)p (2p + 1) ;
2) K2p (4) = 2, K2p+1 (4) = 1.
Proof. This can be checked using recurrence or Lemma 4.2.15.
Using Lemma 4.3.2, in Proposition 4.2.13 the precise multiplicity of the zero root
of Kn is [ n+1
2
].
Remark 4.3.3. The same is true for An but not for Dn . One can prove that Dn has
at most two roots in C r R; for example, D4 , D6 , D7 have two complex roots, D5 has
only real roots.
Remark 4.3.4. We cannot expect to obtain Chebyshev type recurrence for the polyno-
mials corresponding to spherical Artin monoids. For instance, in the case the monoid
n+1

A+
n , Deligne’s theorem ([14], 4.14) shows that the degree of the denominator is 2
=
the number of hyperplanes of the braid arrangement.
Applying Proposition 4.3.1 to the sequences (K2n ) and (K2n+1 ) we obtain:

60
Theorem 4.3.5. a) All the roots of Kn are real and belong to (0, 4).
b) All the roots of Kn are real and belong to [0, 4), with zero root of multiplicity [ n+1
2
]
and other [ n2 ] nonzero simple roots.

[n]
Corollary 4.3.6. The growth rate of ck is less than 4 for any n.
Proof. Let m = [ n2 ] and 0 < α1 < α2 < · · · < αm < 4 be the m roots of Kn . From
Propositions 4.2.12 and 4.2.13 we have

∞
[n]
X [n] 1 1
HK (t) = ck tk = =
k=0
tn Kn ( 1t ) tm K 1
n( t )
1
=
(1 − α1 t)(1 − α2 t) · · · (1 − αm t)
β1 β2 βm
= + + ··· +
1 − α1 t 1 − α2 t 1 − αm t
X∞ X m
= βi (n)αik tk
k=0 i=1
4.4 The Monoid En∞
The reason to replace the standard order of vertices
x1 ∞ x3 ∞ x4 ∞ x5 ∞ ··· xn
(En∞ )n=6,7,8 : • • • • •
∞
• x2
by the order given in the introduction is to obtain a complete presentation (in the
standard order one have to solve the ambiguity x3 x2 x1 and to add new relations: see
[5]).
The growth rate of these monoids can be reduced to the growth rate of E8∞ :
61
Lemma 4.4.1. There exist homogeneous injective morphisms E6∞ E7∞ E8∞
defined by xi 7→ xi .
Lemma 4.4.2. In the monoid E8∞ the following are satisfied

8
P
a) b0 = 1, b1;i = 1; bk = bk;i (k ≥ 1);
i=1
b) bk;i (k ≥ 2) are given by the recurrence
bk;1 = bk−1;1 + bk−1;2 + bk−1;3 + bk−1;4 + bk−1;5 + bk−1;6 + bk−1;7 + bk−1;8
bk;2 = bk−1;1 + bk−1;2 + bk−1;3 + bk−1;4 + bk−1;5 + bk−1;6 + bk−1;7 + bk−1;8
bk;3 = bk−1;2 + bk−1;3 + bk−1;4 + bk−1;5 + bk−1;6 + bk−1;7 + bk−1;8
bk;4 = bk−1;3 + bk−1;4 + bk−1;5 + bk−1;6 + bk−1;7 + bk−1;8
bk;5 = bk−1;3 + bk−1;5 + bk−1;6 + bk−1;7 + bk−1;8
bk;6 = bk−1;5 + bk−1;6 + bk−1;7 + bk−1;8
bk;7 = bk−1;6 + bk−1;7 + bk−1;8
bk;8 = bk−1;7 + bk−1;8
Proof. (of Lemma 4.4.1 and 4.4.2): As in Lemma 4.2.1 and Proposition 4.2.2, the
presentation of E∗∞ is complete and the word problem in these monoids has a simple
solution.
The characteristic polynomial of this recurrence is given by:
E8 (λ) = λ4 (λ − 1)(λ3 − 7λ2 + 14λ − 7)
having the nonzero roots in (0, 4): λ1 ≈ 0.75, λ2 = 1, λ3 ≈ 2.44, λ4 ≈ 3.80.
Remark 4.4.3. One can consider the whole sequence (En∞ )n≥6 : the corresponding
n
polynomials are given by En (λ) = λ[ 2 ] (λ − 1)Kn−1 (λ) and they satisfy the hypothesis
of Proposition 4.3.1 (if we discard the common roots 0 and 1).

62
4.5 Spherical Artin Monoids
Proof. (of Proposition 4.1.2) The maps φ : Kn∞ → A∞ ∞ ∞

n and φ : Kn → Dn , φ(yi ) = xi
and ψ : Xn∞ → Xn+ , ψ(xi ) = xi are well defined because the images of the generators
satisfy the defining relations of the domains and these images generate the range-
monoids.
Using the notations given in the introduction:

[n] [n] [n]
Corollary 4.5.1. ak ≤ bk ≤ ck .
Proof. (of Theorem 4.1.1: connected graphs) For the monoids E6∞ , E7∞ and E8∞ we
use the Corollary 4.5.1 and the results of Section 4 and obtain the inequalities
[n] [n] [8]

ak ≤ bk ≤ bk < β γ k < β 4k where n = 6, 7, 8.
For the other monoids we put together the inequalities obtained before:
[n] [n] [n]

ak ≤ bk ≤ ck < β(n) δ k < β(n) 4k .
Here β = constant, β(n) = constant in k, and γ, δ are between the greatest root of
the corresponding polynomials and 4.
The last step in the proof is to show that a spherical Artin monoid with a non-
connected Coxeter diagram has growth rate less than 4. The monoid associated to
`
a disjoint union of graphs Γ1 Γ2 is the direct product of the monoids associated to
Γ1 and Γ2 .
Lemma 4.5.2. If M1 and M2 are two monoids with growth rate less than γ, then
M1 × M2 has growth rate less than γ.

63
Proof. Let us denote by m1 (k), m2 (k), p(k) the numbers of words of length k (k ≥ 1)
in M1 , M2 and M1 × M2 respectively. Then
p(k) = m1 (k) + m1 (k − 1)m2 (1) + · · · + m2 (k).
Choose δ > 1 and γ0 such that for i = 1, 2,

log mi (k)
lim exp < δ < γ0 < γ,
k k
and two constants c1 and c2 such that for any k, m1 (k) ≤ c1 δ k and m2 (k) ≤ c2 δ k .
Take c3 = max{c1 , c2 , c1 c2 } and we obtain p(k) ≤ (k + 1)c3 δ k . We can find another
constant c such that (k + 1) c3 δ k < cγ0k . Now p(k) < cγ0k , hence p(k) has growth rate
less than γ.
Proof. (of Theorem 4.1.1: non-connected graphs) Take γ = 4 and apply the lemma
inductively for a finite number of connected Coxeter graphs.
∆kn Xn+ gives a non-

`
Proof. (of Theorem 4.1.3) Garside’s decomposition Xn =
k∈Z
increasing length map ϕ : h∇i × Xn+ → Xn defined by ϕ(∇k , m) = ∆−k
n m (in
the codomain we consider length function using monoid generators ∇ = ∆−1

n and
x1 , . . . , xn ). This map is surjective because Garside element ∆n has two basic prop-
erties:
• any generator xi is a (left) divisor of ∆n in the monoid Xn+ : ∆n = xi wi , hence
x−1 −1
i = wi ∆n = wi ∇;
• ∆n commutes with x1 , . . . , xn up to a permutation: ∆n xi = xσ(i) ∆n , therefore any
element g ∈ Xn can be written as a product g = ∇k m, where k ≥ 0 and m ∈ Xn+ .
Moreover, take g ∈ Xn of length l in the (monoid) alphabet {x1 , . . . , xn , ∇} such that
g = ∇k1 m1 ∇k2 m2 · · · ∇ks ms , where l =

P P
ki + length(mi ); commuting with ∇, g
64
P
can be written as the product g = ∇ ki
m01 m02 · · · m0s = ∇k m = ϕ(∇k , m) and the
length of g, length of ∇k m (in the monoid Xn ) and length of (∇k , m) (in M (∇) × Xn+ )
are equal (m0i is mi with permuted generators xj ). Applying Lemma 4.5.2 we obtain
the result.
Bibliography
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296(1986), pp. 641-659.
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arXiv:0805.2656v1 [math.GR], 2008.
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monoids (in preparation).
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178-218.
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Combinatorial Problems in Braid Groups: Name: Zaffar Iqbal Year of Admission: 2004 Registration No.: 56-GCU-PHD-SMS-04

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Combinatorial Problems in Braid Groups: Name: Zaffar Iqbal Year of Admission: 2004 Registration No.: 56-GCU-PHD-SMS-04

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Combinatorial Problems in Braid

Name: Zaffar Iqbal

Abdus Salam School of Mathematical Sciences

Abdus Salam School of Mathematical Sciences

GC University Lahore, Pakistan

in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of

Name: Zaffar Iqbal

Abdus Salam School of Mathematical Sciences

I, Zaffar Iqbal, Registration No. 56-GCU-PHD-SMS-04, a student at Abdus

is my own work and that

(i) I am not registered for the similar degree elsewhere contemporaneously.

Dated: ------------------------- ------------------------------------

Certified that the research work contained in this thesis titled

Dr. A. D. Raza Choudary --------------------------------

2 Garside Elements of Spherical Artin Monoids 13

3 Hilbert Series of Positive Braids 28

4 Universal Upper Bound for the Growth of Artin monoids 46

I am extremely grateful to Allah for providing me this opportunity and blessing me

In Chapter 2 we introduce and characterize relative Garside element corresponding

Definition 1.1.1. Consider the lines y = 0, z = 1 and y = 0, z = 0 in R3 and choose

n + 1 points on each of these lines having abscissas 1, 2, . . . , n + 1. An (n + 1)-strand

(t ∈ [0, 1]) intersects these paths in n + 1 points.

Equivalently we can define the braid in another way.

Definition 1.1.2. Let n ≥ 1 be an integer, and let z1 , . . . , zn+1 be n + 1 distinct

on (n + 1)-strands to be a (n + 1)-tuple β = (b1 , . . . , bn+1 ) of paths, bk : [0, 1] → R2 ,

• bk (0) = zk for all 1 ≤ k ≤ n + 1;

• bk (t) 6= bl (t) for all k 6= l and for all t ∈ [0, 1].

z1 · · · zi−1 zi zi+1 zi+2 · · · zn+1

The inverse of xi is just a mirror image (horizontal) of xi , and is denoted by x−1

z1 · · · zi−1 zi zi+1 zi+2 · · · zn+1

The identity element e is the braid without any crossings.

1.2 Braid Groups and Braid Monoids

Theorem 1.2.1. [2]

Elements of Bn+1 are words expressed in the generators x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and their

Theorem 1.2.2. [15] The canonical map ψ : MB n+1 → Bn+1 is injective.

called Garside braid (see Fig.1.1 below).

Lemma 1.2.3. In the braid monoid MB n+1 :

with initial letter xj and a word with final letter also xj .

A general reference for these results is Birman’s book [6].

1.3 Coxeter Groups and Artin Groups

A Coxeter graph Γ is a labeled graph defined by the following data.

Then the group defined by

W = s ∈ S | s2 = 1 , (st)mst = 1 for all s, t ∈ S, s 6= t, and mst 6= ∞

is called the Coxeter Group (of type Γ).

(En )n=6,7,8 : x1 x2 x3 x5 ··· xn

Fig. 1.2. The connected spherical type Coxeter graphs.

of the Coxeter graph Γ) then the Artin Group associated to W is defined by

If W is finite then A is called a spherical Artin group.

1.4 Notations and Reduction Rules

Σα(i, j) = α(xi+1 , . . . , xj+1 ).

In an irreducible word β(n−1, j) no letter xn−1 , xn−2 , . . . , xj is missing and β(n−1, j)

Theorem 1.4.1. [7] A complete presentation (non-commutative Gröbner bases) of

MB n+1 consists of the following relations:

1.5 Growth function and the Hilbert series

Garside Elements of Spherical

2.2 Relative Garside Element

In some cases ∆(Γ) itself is a square: for example

∆(A3 ) = x1 (x2 x1 )(x3 x2 x1 ) = (x1 x3 x2 )2 ;

Lemma 2.2.1. In an Artin monoid, if w = xi X = xk Y and

xi xk xi · · · (mik times) = xk xi xk · · · (mik times),

then w = (xi xk xi xk · · ·)V = (xk xi xk xi · · ·)V.

Definition 2.2.1. We define the relative Garside element ∆(Γn , Γn−1 ) by