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Unit 1 PDF
Unit 1 PDF
ENGINEERING COLLEGE
TIRUCHIRAPALLI- 621213.
QUESTION BANK
The basic unit of nervous system is the neuron. The neuron is the single cell with a cell body,
sometimes called as soma, one or more input fibers called dendrites & a long transmitting fiber
called as axon. The axon branches near its ending into two or more terminals. The portion of the
axon immediately adjacent to the cell body is called axon hillock. This is the point at which the
action potentials are usually generated. Branches that leave the main axon are often called
collaterals. The axons & dendrites are coated with a fatty insulating substance called as myelin.
The coating is called as myelin sheath. In some cases the myelin sheath is interrupted at rather
intervals by the nodes of ranvier, which helps the speed of transmission of of information along
the nerves. Outside of the central nervous system, the myelin sheath is surrounded by an
insulating layer called as neurilemma. This layer is thinner than the myelin sheath & continuous
over the nodes of ranvier, is made up of thin cells called Schwann cells.
1. With relevant graph explain the relationship between the action potential & muscle contraction.
(NOV 2007)
Certain systems of the body generate their own monitoring signals, which convey the useful
information about the function they represent. These signals are called as Bioelectric Potentials.
They are actually ionic voltages produced as a result of electrochemical activity of certain special
type of cells. The transducers convert these ionic potential to electric voltages. These natural
signals can be measured, monitored & aid the physician in diagnosis & treatment of various
diseases.
Certain types of cells within the body, such as nerve & muscle cells are encased in a semi
permeable membrane that permits some substances to pass through the membrane while others
kept out.
Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids. These fluids are conductive solutions
+ +
containing charged atoms known as ions. These principal ions are sodium Na , potassium K &
chloride C-. the membrane of the excitable cells readily permits entry of potassium & chloride
ions but effectively blocks the entry of sodium ions. Since the various ions seek a balance
between the inside of the cell & the outside, both according to the concentration of electric
charge, the inability of the sodium to penetrate the membrane results in two conditions.
First the concentration of sodium cells inside the cell becomes much lower than in the intercellular
fluid outside. Since the sodium ions are positive, this would tend to make the outside of the cell
more positive than inside. Second in an attempt to balance the electric charge, additional
potassium ions which are also positive enter the cell, causing a higher concentration of potassium
on the inside than on the outside. This charge balance cannot be achieved, however, because of
the concentration imbalance of potassium ions. Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference
across the membrane, negative on the inside & positive on the outside.
This membrane potential is called the resting potential of the cell & is maintained until some kind
of disturbance upsets the equilibrium. Since the membrane potential measurement is made from
inside the cell with respect to the body fluids, the resting potential is negative & ranges from -60
to -100mV. A cell in resting state is said to be polarized.
When a section of a cell membrane is excited by the flow of ionic current or by some form of
externally applied energy, the membrane changes its characteristics & begins to allow some of
the sodium ions to enter. This movement of sodium ions into the cell constitutes an ionic current
flow that further reduces the barrier of the membrane to sodium ions. The net result is avalanche
effect in which sodium ion rush into the cell to try to reach a balance with the ions outside. At the
same time potassium ions, which were in higher concentration inside the cell during the resting
state, try to leave the cell but are unable to move as rapidly as sodium ions. As a result the cell
has a slightly positive potential on the inside due to the imbalance of potassium ions. This
potential is known as action potential & is approximately equal to +20mV. A cell that has been
Once the rush of sodium ions through the cell membrane has stopped, a new state of equilibrium
is reached. the ionic currents that lowered the barrier to sodium ions are no longer present & the
membrane reverts back to its original selectively permeable condition, whereas the passage of
sodium ions from the outside to the inside of the cell is again blocked. It would take a long time
for the resting potential to develop again. But by an active process called as sodium pump, the
sodium ions are quickly transported to the outside of the cell, & the cell again becomes polarized
& assumes its resting potential. This process is called is called repolarization. The rate of
pumping is directly proportional to the sodium concentration in the cell.
The above figure shows the action potential waveform, beginning at the resting potential,
depolarizing & returning to the resting potential after repolarization
Following the generation of action potential, there is a brief period of time during which the cell
cannot respond to any new stimulus. This period is called absolute refractory period, lasting about
1 msec in nerve cells. Following the absolute refractory period, there occurs a relative refractory
period, during which another action potential can be triggered, but a stronger stimulation is
required. In nerve cells, the relative refractory period lasts several milliseconds.
2. Explain in detail how pulsatile blood volume changes can be measured using photoelectric type
resistive transducer. (NOV 2007)
The portion of the axon immediately adjacent to the cell body is called axon hillock. This is the
point at which the action potentials are usually generated. Branches that leave the main axon are
often called collaterals. The axons & dendrites are coated with a fatty insulating substance called
as myelin. The coating is called as myelin sheath. In some cases the myelin sheath is interrupted
at rather intervals by the nodes of ranvier, which helps the speed of transmission of of information
along the nerves. Outside of the central nervous system, the myelin sheath is surrounded by an
insulating layer called as neurilemma. This layer is thinner than the myelin sheath & continuous
over the nodes of ranvier, is made up of thin cells called Schwann cells.
Both axons & dendrites are called as nerve fibers & a bundle of individual nerve fibber is called as
nerve. Nerves that carry information from various parts of the body to the brain is called afferent
nerves & that from brain to various parts of the body is called efferent nerves.
Central Nervous system (CNS)
Cell bodies & small fibers in fresh brain are gray in color & are called gray matter, whereas the
myelin coating of larger fibers has a white appearance & are called as white matter. Collection of
neuronal cell bodies within the central nervous system is called nuclei; whereas the collection
outside the central nervous system is called ganglia. The central nervous system is generally said
to have bilateral symmetry.
Nerve fibers outside the CNS are called peripheral nerves. Afferent peripheral nerves that brings
sensory information to the CNS is called sensory nerves, whereas the the efferent nerves that
control the motor functions of the muscles are called as motor nerves.
The interconnection between neurons is called as synapses. All synapses occur at or near cell
bodies. In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to
pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell. Synapses are essential to neuronal function:
neurons are cells that are specialized to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are
the means by which they do so. At a synapse, the plasma membrane of the signal-passing
neuron (the presynaptic neuron) comes into close apposition with the membrane of the target
(postsynaptic) cell. Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites contain extensive arrays
of molecular machinery that link the two membranes together and carry out the signaling process.
In many synapses, the presynaptic part is located on an axon, but some presynaptic sites are
located on a dendrite or soma.Astrocytes also exchange information with the synaptic neurons,
responding to synaptic activity and, in turn, regulating neurotransmission.
5. Discuss the different ways of transport of ions through the cell membrane. (NOV 2011)
Same as Q1
6. Explain the different parts of central nervous system & their activity. (NOV 2011)
Same as Q2
7. Briefly explain the action of piezoelectric transducer as arterial pressure sensor. (NOV 2011)
The cell also contains highly organized physical structures, called organells consisting of cell’s
chemical constituents. The cytoplasm is filled with cytosol ( clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm),
in which the minute & large particles and organelle are dispersed. Ribosome are minute
granular particles in the cytosol & are composed of a mixture of Ribonucleic acid (RNA) &
proteins & they function in the synthesis of protein in the cells. Lysosomes are vesicular
organells & provide an intracellular digestive system that allows the cell to digest & therby
remove unwanted substance & damage or the forign structures such as bacteria. The
mitochondria organells are called as power house of the cell. The cells extract significant
amount of energy from the nutrients & oxygen by means of the mitochondria. The mitochondria
contains the deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) similar to that found in the nucleus. DNA is the basic
structure of the nucleus that controls the replication of the cell. Nucleus contains large quantity
of DNA which are called genes.
The genes first reproduce themselves & after this, the cell splits by a special process called
mitosisi to form two daughter cells. Inside the nucleus there is nucleolus which contains a large
amount of RNA & protein of the type found in ribosome. The size of the cell is in the range of 5 –
10 µm.
Nature of Cancer Cells:
Generally cancer is caused by mutation or abnormal activation of cellular genes that control cell
growth 7cell mitosis. The abnormal genes are called oncogenes. The problem of mutation can
be increased by following factors.
Exposure of ionizing radiations – x rays , gamma rays & UV rays can produce ions in tissue
cells. These ions are highly reactive & can rupture DNA strands thus causing mutation.
Chemical Substance – like aniline dye derivatives from chemical plants cause mutations.
These chemical substances are called carcinogen. Carcinogens are present in cigarette
smoke.
Physical Irritants – continuous abrasion of linings of intestinal tract by some type of food
produces damage to the tissues which lead to rapid replacement of the cells by mitosis
which causes mutation.
10. What are the characteristic features to be considered while selecting a transducer? (MAY 2012)