Section 4 — Factors Affecting Oil Performance and Engine Wear Any good lubrication management program must maintain oil change intervals so the engine receives maximum and continual protection. If oil degrades to the point where protection is diminished, engine life cycle is shortened and costs begin to rise. A number of factors can contribute to oil degradation and accelerated wear. They can be placed into two categories: fixed factors and variable factors. Fixed Factors By establishing an oil change optimization program, you and your customer have already identified two fixed factors. 1. You will be testing a specific engine design. And, 2. You will be using one particular oil So for the purposes of this project, the engine design and branditype of oil can be considered fixed. The interaction of these two fixed factors, together with certain variables, will determine the optimal oil change interval. Engine Design ‘An engine’s design and operating characteristics dictate the need for certain oil lubircation qualities. ‘Temperatures, cylinder pressures, horsepower, type of aspiration (naturally aspirated, turbocharged or turbocharges/aftercooled), overall performance rating, sump capacity, oil consumption rate and fuel consumption rate are some of the engine design parameters that impact a lubricant’s useful life. When developing a new engine model, manufacturers consider the lubricating capability of the oil as if it were another engine part. As a result, engine features play a significant role in determining the ‘manufacturer’s recommendations for lubricant classification, viscosity ranges and oil change intervals. The useful life of the same oil used in two or more differently designed engine sin the same application will vary due to engine design and operating characteristics, Please note that two different Caterpillar ‘engine models in the same application may, therefore, have different optimal oil change intervals. Engine oil technology of the past will not provide optimum life and performance in current and future engines. Caterpillar engines have advance through the years to provide the performance and features that customers demand, These advancements have resulted in numerous improvements: * Increased horsepower, from smaller sized engines. * Smokeless combustion «Reduced emissions + Reduced fuel consumption * Reduced oil consumption+ Better response and lugging ability with electronic engine controls Alll these engine improvements have an effect on the engine oil. Increased horsepower drives up temperatures and promotes oil oxidation. Emissions reductions increase soot levels in the oil. Concurrent with higher demands on crankcase oil, engine users are pressing for longer oil drain intervals, Oil technology must keep pace with engine technology and customer needs to provide products that work together for optimum engine life and performance. Engine oil has undergone changes to meet the increasing demands on engines for emissions and performance. These changes are best tracked by the American Petroleum Institute (API) service category and the corresponding engine improvements. API and Caterpillar PC Engines Caterpillar has been active in development of diesel engine oils (DEO) since the 1930s, and Caterpillar set the standards for DEO until the early 1970s. In 1973, API introduced their oil classification system. API CD (previously called Caterpillar Series 3), was adequate for Caterpillar precombustion chamber (PC) type diesel engines. By the early 1980s, the drive was on for improved fuel economy and diesel engines were changing. New engine designs were introduced with direct injection (DI) fuel systems. In 1983, API introduced the CE oil category to address the needs of both DI and PC diesel engines. API and Caterpillar DI Engines The CF-4 category was introduced in 1990 as the first oil category totally dedicated to the modem direct injection (DI) diesel engine. Low emissions, reduced fuel consumption, and higher power ratings were all driving the designs for diesel engines. CF-4 oils tightened the limits on piston deposits to improve engine durability and reliability. By 1994, the emissions laws has changed again and low sulfur diesel fuel was common in North America. Responding to these changes, the API released CG-4 in 1995, and CH-4 in 1998, These oils are designed to operate in the latest low emissions DI diesel engine and in non-tegulated DI diesel engines. CG-4 and CH-4 are especially effective in controlling soot and wear. The following chart shows the progression of oil categories and engine performance. For up-to-date lubrication performance recommendations, refer to the Operation and Maintenance Manual Supplements listed on page 46 of this bulletin. Note: Some oil formulations in particular engine applications will form more deposits than others on engine parts over time. This starts to happen as the oil nears its breakpoint. With some oils, it takes only a few times of operation near the breakpoint for lacquering and carbon to build up enough to cause ring packing and cause an increase in oil consumption. The absence of any apparent or significant increase in wear metals (particularly iron) as the oil change period is being “walked out” in time does not necessarily mean that all is proceeding well. To the contrary, it can mean damage is occurring. Therefore, be sure to monitor the key wear metals for moderate increases normally expected to accumulate because of the increase hours on th eoil. If the ‘wear metals (especially iron) do NOT increase accordingly something is wrong...especially if iron decreases. In this case, more than likely, the wear metals are being diluted by an increased amount of‘make-up during the oil change interval. Ifso, ring packing and/or bore polishing has probably already occurred, Variable Factors The amount of wear occurring during an oil change interval is a general indication of how well a lubricant has performed during that time period. There are several variable factors that operators and maintenance engineers can control to affect a lubricant’s performance, The rate and amount of wear occurring in an engine depends on four factors, as discussed in customer bulletin PEGP7035 (Section 2). These variables are: "Maintenance "Application = External Contamination "Internal Contamination Allof these variables affect the overall condition of the oil. Oil Condition is monitored by SeO¢S oil analysis. Most CH-4 and CG-4 oils will do a satisfactory job of controlling engine wear in their early hours of usage. Engine damage and wear becomes a problem when the oil begins to deteriorate. Deterioration begins at early hours for a low quality oil and at considerably higher hours for top grade oils. However, any oil will eventually deteriorate and begin to allow engine damage and wear. In general, the objective of an oil change optimization program is to identify the usage interval at which a particular oil no longer provides sufficient protection for the engine components. The variable affecting engine oil performance are discussed in detail in the next section.Section 5 — Variable Factors Defined Managing Oil Change Intervals Managing oil change intervals is a matter of monitoring the oil condition and the corresponding change in wear metal levels and rates of generation. Assuming there are no external or internal contamination problems, there are only two factors remaining (maintenance and application) that could adversely affect oil condition and, thereby, reduce engine life. An important consideration during the Project is to hold all factors as constant as possible with the exception of one: the oil change interval. Varying the oil change interval will alter the oil condition, which in turn will affect the overall rate of wear metal debris generation. It is this inter-relationship between the length of time an oil has been in use and the rate of wear metal debris generation that determines the optimal oil change interval. A significant increase in the rate of wear metals in the oil marks the point where the oil has begun to lose its lubricating properties. We call this the oil’s “break point.” Trending infrared analysis results (oxidation, soot, sulfation and nitration levels) and trending the wear metals (with consideration for make-up oil) will be of primary importance, The goal is to avoid exceeding an oxidation, soot or sulfation level that results in an increase in wear metals. During the Project, the oil’s break point will be determined. Reduce the oil change interval 50 hours from the oil condition break point. This new interval — defined by infrared and wear metal trend increases — will be the optimum oil change interval for the specific oil in use, for that specific engine, in that specific application Ultimately, your goal is to establish an oil change interval that is based on an inerease in Oil Condition Analysis (infrared) trends before the wear metal trend increases. If the oil change is delayed each time until the wear metal increase indicates oil degradation, unacceptable engine wear will have already ‘occurred. If this happens repeatedly, the life of the engine will be shortened. So it is important to establish the optimal change interval at the point before the oil has deteriorated. Ifany variable changes, a new optimum oil change interval must be determined. Discussion of Variable Factors Maintenance 1. Oil Type~ Engine manufacturers recommend a classification and viscosity of oil based on an engine’s performance and operating requirements. Not all oils of the same classification (CH-4, CG-4 for example) are of the same quality. In fact, there is a range of quality within a given classification, The API classification only defines the minimum performance standards that an oil must meet.The key to optimum engine life is the consistent use of the best quality oil in that classification and viscosity. Using incorrect API classifications, viscosities, TBN levels or poor quality oils will result in shortened engine life. Ina genuine attempt to keep maintenance costs down, oil is sometimes purchased based on price within a classification rating. But like everything else, you get what you pay for. Generally, the higher priced oils will perform better than the lower priced oils of the same classification rating, providing more protection over time than the lower cost oils. Therefore, itis imperative that the best quality, classification, viscosity and TBN oil be used starting with initial fil. Plugged Air Filters ~ Restricted air flow affects the ratio of air to fuel entering the combustion chamber. An imbalance in this ratio impacts sooting. A decrease in air flow results in a relative increase in fuel. This produces still more soot. Left uncorrected, this condition can accelerate wear. Engine Fuel System Settings — An out-of-tune engine can contribute to hgiher operating temperatures, improper air-to-fuel ratio and oil degradation. Extended Oil Changes — The longer an oil is in use and the more it is exposed to air, heat, combustion products, contamination and moisture, the more it will degrade due to oxidation, nitration, soot and sulfation. All other factors being equal, different oils degrade at different rates. Engine manufacturers recommend oil change intervals based on their research and knowledge of engine design and available oil classification performance capabilities. The optimal life of the oil filter should also be taken into account. When extending oil change intervals, Cat Filters are strongly recommended for their superior construction and strength. They have been proven to achieve a 500 hour oil change interval. Cooling System — The cooling system must be properly maintained for optimum engine operating temperatures. High temperatures increase the rate of oil oxidation. Coolant that remains below optimum temperature causes more moisture to condense within the crankcase, and increases acid formation in the oil. Acid formation depletes the TBN buffers more rapidly, resulting in metal attack Fuel Sulfur ~ A final factor to consider is the sulfur level of the fuel, Caterpillar recommends that fuel sulfur not exceed 0.5% by weight. This is not a problem in North America because of government mandates that sulfur in on-highway #2 diesel fuel not exceed 0.05% to help control exhaust particulate emissions. This low sulfur fuel is also widely used in the off-highway market. Off-highway diesel fuel in North America is mandated to not exceed 0.5% fuel sulfur. Most countries have a limit of 0.5% for all diesel fuel. However, diesel fuels in some locations may legally be sold with sulfur content up to 1.0%. In some places, the level may even exceed 1.0%. If you are uncertain of the sulfur level of the fuel being used, be certain to ask the fuel supplier to provide that information for each shipment of fuel. Suppliers are required to provide fuel sulfur information upon request. If the sulfur level exceeds 0.5%, oil change intervals should not beincreased beyond those published and, in fact, many need to be shortened, For more information about fuel sulfur and an oil’s TBN requirements, please refer to Oil In Your Engine (SEBD0640). Application 1 Geographic Location/Climate ~ Ambient temperature, clevation, humidity and dust all combine to affect oil degradation rates. Temperature extremes can either incrase oxidation (heat) or contribute to the formation of acids (cold). Engines operating at higher elevations experience accelerated sooting as if they were operating with partially plugged air filters. High humidity is a factor in the formation of acids (sulfation), particularly in combination with cool temperatures. Dust acts as a grinding agent on mating surfaces, accelerating the build-up of wear particles in the oil Note that oil condition factors and, as a consequence, the rate of wear metal generation may vary from summer to winter, or from the wet season to dry season, One seasonal factor is repeated “cold starts” in cold climates. Another cold season factor is the use of ether as a starting acid. Both will increase wear of the piston, rings and cylinder linders. In conditions such as these, the expertise and experience of the Cat Dealer's SOS interpretation plays a major role in the success of Project. Operating Procedures ~ Engine operating extremes over long periods will increase the rate of oil degradation, Such extremes include lugging, long idling periods, rapid acceleration and varying load factors. Severe/Improper Operation — Severe operation causes higher than normal loading on critical engine components. Excessive heat can build up, contributing to oil degradation (oxidation). Heat spikes add to the thermal stressing of critical engine components. ‘This inereases the chances of cracks, resulting in coolant leaks into the oil. High Operating Temperatures — High temperatures cause both the oil and the oil additives to oxidize. The end result is a loss in lubricating properties and an increase in viscosity. Performance can be affected by resins and lacquer that form as a result of oxidation on pistons, ring grooves, connecting rods, and turbocharger shaft. The rate and degree of oxidation depends on engine operating temperature, cooling system performance and the length of time the oil is in use, Oil Condition Asa crankcase oil experiences the various Maintenance and Application aspects discussed above, it eventually begins to lose it ability to adequately lubricate and protect engine parts from wear and damage e SeOeS program quantifies this oil deterioration by comparing certain qualities of the used oil sample to the level of those same qualities the oil possessed when new. As a general term, we call these declines a reduction in “Oil Condition.” In particular, SOeS oil analysis quantifies:"Oxidation "Sulfation and TBN * Soot * Viscosity 1, Oxidation — Oil oxidation occurs when oxygen molecules in the crankcase air combine with the oil and certain additives in the oil. Most people understand rusting, which is what happens when iron and oxygen are in contact. Oil oxidation is similar, resulting in a chemical change in the s formulation. As oil oxidizes, it loses its lubricating qualities due to reduction of additive strength, increases in viscosity and the formation of resins which adhere to engine parts. The longer an oil is in use, the more the anti-oxidant additive package is depleted. Oxidation is accelerated by high temperatures. Ethylene glycol and water contamination, copper from oil cooler tubes or other components, and acids from fuel sulfur will also increase the oxidation rate and reduce the oil’s lubricity. The end result of oil oxidation is oil thickening, resin formation, piston deposits, a loss of lubricating properties and accelerated wear. Once the anti-oxidant additives are depleted, oxidation progresses at a rapid pace. For this reason it is important to sample the oil at 50 hour intervals once past the 250 hour recommended change period. While all contaminants are harmful to engines, the chemical action of oxidation is one of the most harmful. Tthas been observed that as any diesel oil’s oxidation level approaches .15 ABS/em. (absorbance unites per cm) (50% allowable) as determined by infrared analysis procedures consistent with Caterpillar guidelines, the rate of wear metal generation (particularly iron) increases. A significant inctease in wear metal generation in conjunction with oxidation levels at -15 ABS/cm and above should be initially interpreted as the break point of the oil. The oil should be changed and closely monitored two additional intervals to determine if the trend repeats. If it does (and no other factors have changed), the break point relative to oxidation level has been identified. The oil change period should be reduced by 50 hours from the time (in hours on oil) where the oxidation level inerease caused a corresponding increase in the wear level rate. Please remember than in any case, there is an absolute limitation for oxidation. For all Caterpillar engines, in any application, using any brand of oil, oxidation should not be allowed to g0 above .30 ABS/cm (100% allowable) as determined by infrared analysis. Oil oxidation occurs in all diesel engines, as well as natural gal engines, transmissions and hydraulic systems Effects of Oxidation = Reduction of oil’s lubricating properties «Piston deposit formation, sticking rings, broken rings "Increase in oil viscosity Oil filter deposits and blockage Benefits of Determining Oxidation+ Helps determine an oil’s anti-oxidation capability/capacity + Indicates high temperature operation and/or extended oil change periods + Enables good management of oil change intervals when used in conjunction with wear metal analysis and other infrared tests "May indicate a cooling system problem Probable Causes of Oxidation * Oil drain intervals exceed the oil’s ability to control oxidation + High temperature operation caused by defective or incorrectly maintained cooling systems and/or excessive load (lugging) conditions * Contamination such as ethylene glycol, water, copper and acids caused by fuel sulfur * Shutting down a hot engine rather than allowing it to cool down first 2. Soot ~ Soot is a by-product of the combustion process. It is made up of carbon from partially bumed fuel and inorganic ash left from the burning of additives in the oil. Soot is produced by all diesel engines, but engine design is a factor in determining how much soot is produced, how much is eliminated through exhaust and how much is collected in the oil. The relationship of volume of fuel burned to sump capacity, the oil’s dispensancy ability and the oil make-up rate determines an engine’s capacity for handling soot. In fact, the rate of soot production in an engine is a function of engine design, oil consumption, fuel quality and fuel consumption, However, the lubricating oil API classification and the quality of the oil (base stock and additive package) provided by the producer are the most significant factors in determining how much soot, can collect in an engine’s sump before damage occurs. All engine oils contain dispersants that keep soot particles in suspension and keep them from sticking together. But when the additives are depleted, soot particles start to stick together and form larger particles. When this occur, wear accelerates. Engineers are not certain how soot causes wear. ‘Whatever the reason, excess soot contributes to w Oil classification and performance characteristics play a key role in controlling soot. Current CH-4 or CG-4 oils have higher dispersant additive packages to meet the higher levels of oil sooting resulting from very strict U.S. and worldwide exhaust emission regulations. This is not to say that current engine designs produce more soot than those of the past. On the contrary, today’s engines are designed to minimize soot. Environmental regulations prevent all of the soot from being exhausted into the atmosphere. As a result, the ratio of soot being collected in the oil rather than exhausted out the stack has increased, However, higher soot readings may not necessarily point to increased engine wear. Soot kept in suspension by superior lubricant additives does not cause accelerated wear. The problem occurs when the oil’s dispersant additives degrade over time, allowing soot particles to agglomerate. Today's oil formulations, notably the CG-4 and CH-4 classifications, have significantly increased the capacity to keep soot particles in suspension. However, there are different quality levels of oil available within a classification. When top quality CG-4 or CH-4 oils are used, it is not uncommon to see soot levels in the 150% allowable (and above) range with no corresponding increase in wear metal, Any oil should be evaluated on a -case basis because of potential performance differences within these oil classifications. Also keep in mind that an oil's classification is a minimum performance ratingclassification, Premium grade oils, like Cat Diesel Engine Oil, exceed these minimum standards. In fact, Cat DEO has the most superior oil additive package of any CG-4 or CH oil. It is important for customers to understand that a superior lubricant, such as Cat CH-4 or CG-4 does not reduce the amount of soot produced by the engine, but keeps the soot particles dispersed thereby reducing engine wear, sludge deposits and oil filter plugging. In fact, a higher quality oil will indicate a higher level of soot in oil analysis samples than a lesser quality oil with lesser quality soot dispensancy package. Effects of Soot * Agglomerated soot can absorb and diminish a portion of the oil’s additive package * Wear accelerates when soot particles agglomerate (stick together) * Contribute to oil viscosity increase * Decrease the lubricating properties of the oil Contributes to piston deposits and ring sticking + Plugs filters after dispersant depletion Benefits of Determining Soot * Contributes to management of oil change periods when used in conjunction with other infrared testing (oxidation, sulfation), wear metal results (Iead, aluminum, iron, chromium), and viscosity readings * Provides an indication of engine performance problems "Provides an indirect indication of a change in load factor Causes of Soot + Improper engine operation; i.e, rapid acceleration and deceleration, excessive lugging, long periods of idling + Incorrect air/fuel ratio * Clogged or restricted air filter Turbocharger problems Incorrect fuel setting Incorrect timing Fuel nozzle problems + Crankcase blowby = Restricted exhaust «Fuels with higher distillation end points + High altitude operation 3. Sulfation — Sulfur compounds are by-products of combustion. Sulfur oxides formed when sulfur-containing diesel fuels are burned may combine with water to form acids. A number of factors determine the potential damage from acid formation. * The amount of sulfur in the fuel + ‘The amount of fuel burned during the oil change interval + The acid-neutralizing additive package of the oil+ Sump capacity + Oil consumption rate = Length of oil change interval "Engine operating temperature = Ambient air temperature = Humidity All diese! fuels contain some sulfur. How much depends on the amount of sulfur in the crude oil and/or the refiner’s ability or desire to remove it. One of the functions of lubricating oil is to neutralize sulfur by-products (sulfurous and sulfuric acids), as well as organic acids formed by oxidation. In this way, the oil helps prevent corrosive damage. Additives in the oil contain alkaline compounds formulated to neutralize these acids. The measure of reserve alkalinity in the oil is known as the Total Base Number (TBN). Generally, the higher the TBN value, the more reserve alkalinity capacity the oil contains. Sulfuric and other acids signal danger to metal engine parts, causing corrosive wear to the surfaces of valve guides, piston rings and liners. The type of corrosive wear attributed to high sulfur content fuel can also accelerate oil consumption, Because the level of sulfur oxides in a used oil increases with a longer oil change interval, checking the TBN of oil is important. The TBN of the oil should be checked for each oil sample. Engine jacket water outlet temperature influences the formation of corrosive acids. Even when using a fuel with less than 0.5% sulfur coolant temperatures below 79°C (175°F) can cause acid vapors to condense in the engine oil system and corrosive attack occurs. Low temperatures also increase the amount of water condensation which otherwise might have evaporated out of the oil at normal operating, temperature. This residual water depletes certain oil additives and reduces the oil’s ability to protect engine parts. This can cause deposits, sludge formation, lacquering, varnish and carboning. In applications where humidity is high, acids are more likely to form because of the additional water in the air. So, both low coolant temperature and high humidity can result in increased corrosive attack Ithas been observed that as an oil approaches a sulfation level of .24 ABS/em (80% allowable), as determined by infrared analysis procedures consistent with Caterpillar guidelines, there is a corresponding significant increase in wear metals, especially iron. Initially, this should be interpreted as the break point of the oil. The oil should be changed and closely monitored for two additional intervals to determine if the trend repeats. If it does, the break point relative to sulfation level has been identified. The oil change period should be reduced by $0 hours from the time (in hours on oil) where the sulfation level inetease caused a corresponding increase in the wear level rate. Oil should be changed as the sulfation level causes a significant trend increase, when sulfation reaches 100% allowable and/or when the TBN value of the oil reaches half the TBN value of the oil when new. Reference “Oil and Your Engine”, SEBD0640 for more detailed information, Effects of Sulfation * Corrosive attacks on the metal surfaces of valve guides, piston rings and liners * Contributes to ring stickingBenefits of Determining Sulfation Monitors the effect of sulfation on the engine Indirectly monitors the fuel quality (sulfur content) Indicates fuel consumption and engine load Indirectly indicates cooling system problems (running too cool) Causes of Sulfur Product Formation Low TBN relative to fuel sulfur level High sulfur content of the fuel Cool operating temperatures High humidity Water in the crankease (condensation and other sources) Excessive crankcase blowby Nitration — Nitration is a by-product of combustion. It occurs when nitrogen and oxygen in the air combine at high temperatures and pressures in an engine’s combustion chamber, forming nitrogen oxides (NO2). As the nitrogen is oxidized to NO», nitrous and nitric acids are formed. As ol is thrown onto the cylinder walls and then wiped down by the rings, NO2 compounds are washed into the crankcase. These acids react with the oil's TBN, oxidizing the oil and its additives. While Nitration occurs in all type of engines, it is of particular concem for natural gas and other spark ignited engines. Effects of Nitration Reduction of oil’s lubricating properties Increase in oil viscosity Deposit formation Corrosive wear Oil filter plugging Benefits of Determining Nitration Helps determine an oil’s anti-nitration capability/capacity Provides an indication of low (or high) temperature operation, and/or extended oil change periods. Enables good management of natural gas engine oil change intervals when used in conjuction with ‘wear metal analysis and other infrared tests May indicate a cooling system problem Probable Causes of Nitration Oil drain intervals extended beyond the oil’s ability to control nitration Low temperature operation caused by defective or incorrectly maintained cooling systems and/or light load conditions Incorrect spark timing (natural gas engines)= Improper air/fuel ratio High humidity Crankcase blowby 5. Viscosity — Viscosity is defined as a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. The standard ‘measure of this property for crankcase oils is termed “kinematic viscosity.” Kinematic viscosity is based on the ability of an oil to flow under the influence of gravity through a capillary tube, The test for kinematic viscosity is defined by ASTM D445. The Stoke is the unit of measurement for kinematic viscosity. For purposes of engine oil classification the Stoke is an inconveniently large unit of measurement. Therefore, a smaller unit, the centistoke (cSt), is used to define the viscosity of crankcase oils. To qualify multigrade crankcase oils, the ISO has specified that ASTM D445 be performed on miultigrade crankcase oils at 40°C and 100°C. ‘The ISO Grade determined by performing ASTM D445 at 40°C is given a suffix “W", The ISO Grade determine at 100°C has no suffix. Crankease oils used in modem direct injection diesel engines are multigrade, injection diesel engines are multigrade, meaning they meet a specific centistoke requirement at both 40°C and another requirement at 100°C. Therefore, the resultant ISO ratings for crankcase oils appear in a format as follows: 10W-30, 1SW-40, or even 20W-20. Multigrade mineral oils are created by starting with a light grade base stock oil (one which meets the “W” requirement) and blending into it certain long chain polymers called ‘viscosity improvers” which ccause the oil to perform at the required viscosity grade specification at the higher (100°C) temperature test, as well A three centistoke viscosity increase or decrease from the new oil’s viscosity is the condemning limit for crankease oils during use. Crankease oil may begin to lose its lubricating properties after experiencing a 3 eSt. Change. An oil which has experienced a viscosity change of the magnitude should not be continued in use because damage to the engine may occur. There are two most frequent causes for an increase in crankcase oil viscosity. The first is an accumulation of combustion by-products (mainly soot) which can thicken the oil. The second is heat, which can cause oxidation. Also, oxidation, with resultant oil thickening, can occur if engine coolant (glycol) enters the crankcase, Water from condensation or contamination can also contribute to oxidation. Additionally, molecular coppet which can leach from oil cooler cores, can act as a catalyst causing accelerated oxidation. There are two primary reasons an oil might experience a decrease in viscosity. The first is fuel dilution, which is not a failure of the oil but a contamination problem which must be promptly resolved. Another possible reason for a viscosity decreases is shearing of the long-chain polymer molecules which comprise the viscosity improver additives. In such an instance, the oil can no longer maintain performance at higher temperatures and migrates towards the lower viscosity of the base stock mineral oil. The time it takes for an oil to lose viscosity due to “shearing” is dependent upon the quality of the oil’s base stock and additive package, and the severity of the engine application. In either case, fueldilution or shearing, the oil can “thin down” to the point it can no longer maintain good performance at operating temperatures. ‘When investigating a change in oil viscosity be alert to the possibility that the wrong oil was used during an oil change or as make-up oil. Careful analysis of FT-IR test results can help determine this, possibility. An oil which has experienced a three centistoke change has been used beyond its useful life. An increase in wear metal debris will probably be detected in samples of oil which have experienced this amount of viscosity change. Oil Condition Summary In general, the effects of oil degradation are carboning of piston crown areas, ring grove packing with resultant ring stocking, liner bore polishing, and lacquering of connecting rod pin areas and piston undererown, The oil degradation results may first be noticed as an increase in iron ppm accompanied by aan increase in oil consumption. If wear metal concentrations are not adjusted to consider the increasing quantity of make-up oil break point of the oil can easily be missed. External Contamination External contamination is any undesirable matter that gets into the engine, Following is a list of external contaminants and their potential impact on engine wear and performance, 1. Milling and Repair Debris — Every engine manufacturer takes steps to assure that engines are clean when they leave the factory. However, some minute factory machining debris might get caught in internal crevices and later work their way loose. If an engine has recently undergone an overhaul or other major repair, changes are that repair debris has been introduced into the lubrication system, Baseline oil samples are important in controlling damage from debris, introduced during manufacturing or repair. A baseline oil sample should be taken after the first 15 minutes of operation to determine initial wear elements. 2. Solvents/Sealants/Greases ~ Some remnants of solvents, sealants or greases may remain inside the engine. Many times these external contaminants will show up in the oil sample test results as high readings for molybdenum (grease), lead (grease), silicon (solvent, sealant) or copper (anti- seize or sealant) Depending on the amount of foreign substance left in the engine, these may or may not be harmful to the engine components. In any case, once a foreign substance has been detected, it is important to change the oil and filter immediately to rid the system of the contamination, Taking a baseline sample approximately 15 minutes after the change will provide a determination of how much this contamination was reduced. 3. Lacquering - Lacquering is an end product of the oil oxidation process caused by heat and other oxidizing catalysts. Lacquering causes ring sticking, connecting rod pin sticking, under-crown deposits and accelerated piston, ring and liner wear. No oil analysis test is available to directly measure the amount of lacquering that has occurred in an engine. However, an engine’soxidation trend is an indirect indicator. If oxidation has repeatedly been high, it’s likely that, increased lacquering has occurred, Agglomerated Soot — Soot becomes a contaminant when the oil’s dispersant additive can no longer hold soot particles in suspension, allowing them to stick together (agglomerate) and form larger particles. As some degree in engines. Keep in mind that soot only increase wear when it is not longer controlled by the dispersant additives. Water and Coolant — Corroded liners, leaky had gaskets, head cracks and water pump leaks can allow water into the engine crankcase. This coolant contamination can vary from minute amounts to large quantities. An oil sample may or may not test positive for water, depending on the volume that entered the engine. If the leak is small, the heat of engine operation may evaporate the water, leaving traces of sodium (ELC or DEAC) and potassium (ELC). In more severe cases (more than .5%), water can cause the oil to emulsify and greatly reduce its lubricating and protection properties. Ultimately, it can form sludge, block oil passages and clog filters. In the worst cases, water can puddle on to pof a piston after shutdown, causing a hydraulic lock and catastrophic failure upon the next start-up. No oil can combat a significant internal coolant leak. ‘Water, as a by-product of combustion, can also find its way into the crankcase past the piston rings. This is normal and high equality engine oils, such as Caterpillar DEO, have additives to hold small amounts of water in suspension, But just as with soot, oxidation, nitration and sulfation, the ability of the oil to fight the effects of water is limited Water condensation in the crankcase is accelerated by cool jacket water temperatures caused by malfunctioning thermostats, short operating times, frequent starting, cold/moist climatic conditions, extended idling during cold weather and/or operating conditions resulting in low operating temperatures. Glycol - Ethylene glycol, which can enter the engine from the cooling system, forms a thick, tar= like substance that greatly reduces the oil’s lubricating properties and acts as an oxidation catalyst. Minute amounts of glycol may not show up on tests because small amounts can be destroyed by the operating heat of the engine. The classic signature of a significant coolant leak in engines using Cat Diesel Engine Antifreeze Coolant (DEAC) is a positive reading for water and glycol, plus an inereas ein copper, silicon and sodium. The copper leaches from the cooler core tubes into the oil as a result of chemeial reaction between the copper tubes and ethylene glycol. Silicon and sodium are carried in with the coolant. For engines using Cat Extended Life Coolant (ELC), a coolant leak is indicated by a positive test for water and glycol, accompanied by an inerease in copper, potassium and, possibly, sodium. ELC contains approximately one-third of the sodium found in DEAC. The copper is from the cooler core, while potassium and sodium are in the ELC formulation,In some cases, wear elements may increase along with symptoms of a coolant leak. Increases in ead and aluminum signal coolant entry into the sump, causing bearing damage. An increase in iron and a slight increase in chromium indicates coolant entry into a cylinder, causing ring and liner wear. In either case, the situation is serious and must be corrected immediately. After the repair, be sure to take a new baseline sample for the engine after approximately 15 minutes of operation, Even after the coolant leak has been repaired, it may take on or two oil changes before all elements return to normal trend levels. ‘This is because carry-over contaminants/debris are left on internal engine surfaces Fuel — Fuel can enter the combustion chamber as a result of faulty fuel injectors or frequent starting, especially in cold weather. Most severe cases of fuel dilution are a result of leaking fuel transfer pump seals. This unburned fuel washes the oil film from the liners and pistons, resulting in an increase of iron and chrome. In extreme cases, the fuel dilution causes piston skirt scuffing and increase aluminum readings. Raw fel that works its way directly in to the crankcase will dilute the oil, reducing its viscosity and lubricating properties. In oil analysis reports this show sup as an increase in lead and aluminum (and for some engine models, copper and/or nickel) from main and rod bearings. In severe cases, fuel dilution will result in oil analysis detecting iron from crankshaft wear. The amount of fuel dilution an engine can tolerate varies among engines of various designs. ‘The fuel dilution limit for oil in Caterpillar engines is 4% Dirt — Abrasive dirt particles usually enter the engine through the air induction system and/or through indiscriminate or sloppy maintenance practices. Dirt entry through the air induction system is usually the result of damaged air filter elements, loose or broken plumbing clamps and gaskets, or cracked plumbing lines and fittings. Changing the air filter too often can result in dirt entry. Some dirt is introduced directly into the induction system each time the filter housing is opened and the filter removed. ‘The correct procedure is to only change the primary air filter when the air filter restriction indicator remains red after the engine is shut down. The secondary air filter should be changed every third time the primary filter is changed. Take special care when changing the secondary element to prevent dirt entry. Dirt entry thought he air induction system is usually indicated by an inere: chrome and aluminum in the oil. Silicon and aluminum silicates are present in soils. Interpreters should know the ratio of aluminum to silicon in local soils within their region and use this information to verify dirt entry. se in silicon, iron, Dirt can also be introduce into an engine through routine maintenance procedures. It is not uncommon for dirt to enter with new oil if dirty containers, funnels or spouts are used. Dirt that gets into the crankcase can damage bearings, and in extreme cases, crankshaft journal surfaces, Bottom end dirt entry is indicated by an increase in silicon, lead, aluminum, and in extreme cases, ironThere will always be low levels of silicon in engine oil samples. However, the silicon trend line should be watched closely for any significant increases. If silicon increases along with other ‘wear metal elements (chrome and iron from pistons and liners, and/or lead, aluminum and iron from bearings and crankshaft) then it is almost certain that dirt has entered the engine. If silicon appears relatively high all by itself, it could be in the formulation of the new oil since some oils have relatively high concentrations of silicon compounds in their additive package (usually ant foaming additives), For this reason it is important to test each shipment of new oil to determine the silicon level. 9. Oil Transfer — Oil can transfer into the engine from another compartment through a defective seal. On eof the most common sources of transfer is a failed rear crankshaft seal. Oil from the transmission can transfer into the engine, causing a sudden, dramatic increase in such elements as iron, copper and aluminum. Gear driven hydraulic pumps can transfer oil into the engine if they experience a shaft seal failure. Internal Contamination Internally generated debris can be divided into two categories: normally generated and abnormally generated, Normally Generated — All components having two or more mating parts and relative motion between them will create friction, heat and some degree of wear debris. Internal debris is generated by the break- in process, day-toxlay operation and design factors such as the finish on mating surfaces, torque values, clearances and tolerances. How much debris is normally generated also depends on maintenance procedures, application, oil condition and the presence or absence of external contaminants. As aspects of these variables change, so will the normal levels of debris change. If the three variables affecting internal debris generation (maintenance/application, oil condition, external contamination) are stabilized, the levels of normally generated internal debris should also stabilize and a normal operation trend line can be established. This trend line will illustrate what wear metal levels a normally running engine will generate for a particular set of operating, maintenance and lubrication quality conditions. One of two things can change the established, normally generated debris trend line: either one or more of the three internal debris generation variables change, or the internal parts of the engine start to generate debris because of some internal problem. Normally generated wear is controlled and minimized by managing the three factors that directly impact itt maintenance/application, oil condition and external contamination, Abnormally Generated When Internal debris increase without a corresponding change in any of the three variables that affect debris generation, the debris being generated is probably a result of a mechanical and/or parts material defect. Abnormally generated wear is best described through the use of examples. An example of a mechanical defect is the loss of torque on a connecting rod bolt. This causes a chain reaction of events thateventually ends in failure. Application/maintenance, oil condition and external contamination would have played no part in this type of failure. ‘An example of a parts material defect failure might be a part that was not heat treated to the proper depth. After hours of normal wear, the hardened surface could be worn through to the soft metal, causing a dramatic increase in metallic debris generation, Again, this would happen regardless of lubricant quality, oil change frequency, external contamination or application (the more severe the application, the more rapid the debris generation). Another source of debris is an attachment such as a failing air compressor. In most cases the air compressor shares the same oil as the engine and will transfer debris into the engine through the circulating oil. Some water pumps also use engine oil for bearing lubrication. A significant increase in iron, tin, and chromium may indicate a failing water pump bearing. Itis also possible for maintenance/support equipment to transfer debris. If a transfer pump used to pump new oil into the engine is in a failure mode it can pump failure debris (iron, lead, chrome and other elements) in with the new oil. This is not a common occurrence, but it does happen. Most of the time the problem can be spotted by the same debris pattern shwoing up in all the machines serviced by that particular pump. Abnormally generated wear can be managed by adhering to good repair and overhaul practices. However, abnormal wear caused by material defects, factory assembly and/or dealer repair practices is out of the customer’s control. Manufacturers and dealers offer warranty protection to reduce the customer's risk in such cases. Summary * The break point of an oil can be observed by monitoring wear metal levels. The oil has lost its lubricating properties when one or more significant wear metals (iron, chromium, lead, aluminum) shows an increase. This could be the result of soot agglomeration, oil oxidation, sulfation or any combination of these factors. * The oil change interval must be reduced by at least 50 hours from the oil’s break point to allow for the various factors which contribute to wear + Itis important that all other variables (application, maintenance procedures, external contaminants, etc.) are controlled in order to limit oil degradation and wear. * Oil change intervals should be managed by monitoring the combination of all test result trends (wear metals, infrared readings, and TBN). The infrared readings (soot, oxidation, nitration, sulfur) observed approximately 50 hour sprior to the oil’s break point should be used as the leading indicators to determine the oil change interval. Do not use the increase in wear metals as the primary oil change interval indicator. Doing so repeatedly will shorten the lift cycle of the engine. However, if a rise in wear metals is observed prior to the established infrared leading indicators, change the oil and investigate the cause of this out-of-trend occurrence. * Oil condition degradation can cause both short-term and long-term effects. Monitor all oil sample test results, especially oxidation, Just because infared levels may not cause corresponding increase in wear metal levels during a particular oil change interval does riot mean that longer-term damage (such as sulfur attack) is not occurring,Because of their cumulative nature, the long-term effects of oil degradation are difficult, if not impossible, to discern on a sample-by-sample basis. Therefore, the oil change interval must be reduced by at least 50 hours from the determined oil break point. This should allow some margin of safety for oxidation, a critical factor that directly impacts long-term deposit buildup, If external or internal contamination is detected during the Project correct the problem, change the oil, and take a baseline sample, Once the problem has been corrected, the engine may be continued in the Project unless the engine has suffered significant damage.