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Published in:
Physiotherapy Theory and Practice
DOI:
10.3109/09593985.2012.700388
Publication date:
2013
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ABSTRACT
Background: An important aspect of physiotherapy professional autonomy is the ethical code of the profession,
both collectively and for the individual member of the profession. The aim of this study is to explore and add
additional insight into the nature and scope of ethical issues as they are understood and experienced by
Danish physiotherapists in outpatient, private practice. Methods: A qualitative approach was chosen and semi-
structured interviews with 21 physiotherapists were carried out twice and analyzed, using a phenomenological
hermeneutic framework. Results: One main theme emerged: The ideal of being beneficent toward the patient.
Here, the ethical issues uncovered in the interviews were embedded in three code-groups: 1) ethical issues
For personal use only.
related to equality; 2) feeling obligated to do one's best; and 3) transgression of boundaries. Conclusions: In
an ethical perspective, physiotherapy in private practice is on a trajectory toward increased professionalism.
Physiotherapists in private practice have many reflections on ethics and these reflections are primarily based
on individual common sense arguments and on deontological understandings. As physiotherapy by condition
is characterized by asymmetrical power encounters where the parties are in close physical and emotional con-
tact, practiced physiotherapy has many ethical issues embedded. Some physiotherapists meet these issues in a
professional manner, but others meet them in unconscious or unprofessional ways. An explicit ethical conscious-
ness among Danish physiotherapists in private practice seems to be needed. A debate of how to understand and
respect the individual physiotherapist's moral versus the ethics of the profession needs to be addressed.
1
2 Praestegaard and Gard
guidelines for professional morality: The World progressive illness are offered treatment in private prac-
Confederation of Physical Therapy has had a Code tice physiotherapy free of cost through a physician's re-
of Ethics since 1995 (WCPT, 2007) and in 2002 ferral. Furthermore, some private clinics offer home
The Association of Danish Physiotherapists compiled treatment to people who are too ill to go to the clinic
their Code of Ethics (Association of Danish Phy- or palliative patients. The nature of the physiotherapy
siotherapists, 2002); on the other hand, it is reflected process includes examination, diagnostic assessment,
in the increased amount of articles on the subject evaluation, prognosis, plan of treatment, and re-exam-
(Carpenter and Richardson, 2008; Swisher, 2002). ination in close interaction with the patient. From this
However, most of the published articles deal with follows that physiotherapy is relational (Schriver,
ethical issues and dilemmas as they are understood 2004).
and valued in other Western countries than
Denmark (Carpenter and Richardson, 2008; Cross
and Sim, 2000; Delaney, 2005; Finch, Geddes, and The ethical frame of understanding of
the study
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Ethical issues can entail ethical dilemmas which we interviews, we assumed that time would provide
define as relational situations, filled with doubt and deeper and more reflected answers.
ambivalence; where the physiotherapist has to choose To gain access to the physiotherapists' ethical aware-
between action alternatives that will have negative ness, we were inspired by Lindseth, Marhaug, Norberg,
consequences for the patient (Aadland, 2000). In and Udén (1994) and Udén, Norberg, Lindseth, and
Denmark, the health care offers are administrated Marhaug (1992) method of asking doctors and nurses
and managed within a neoliberal ideology where the to tell stories about ethically regrettable situations and
fundamental idea is to minimize the government issues they either had done, participated in or witnessed
spending by privatizing as many welfare services as as these questions led to exciting stories. But of course
possible. One of the purposes of the government is their morals or ethical thinking are not expressed in
to control and manage the services that are not priva- the stories, but remain for the researcher to analyze
tized, or only partly privatized (e.g., physiotherapy in and interpret (Lindseth and Norberg, 2004). First, we
outpatient, private practice) to ensure efficiency and asked the interviewees to narrate about good situations
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financial profitability (Harvey, 2005). In the neoliberal they themselves had experienced. Situations where
logic, this means that there is an inherent, evident they would say: “Yes, here I really did the best. Here I
ethical dilemma in relation to physiotherapy in met the patient both professionally and humanly”. By
private practice: How can the patient be certain that telling the good story first, the physiotherapists were
his/her treatment is finished? And that he/she has able to present their most positive understanding of
been offered the optimal treatment and is not just a themselves and we assumed that this would make it
safe source of revenue where another couple of treat- feel less provocative and more legitimate to talk about
ments would be needed? – a dilemma also discussed difficult and regrettable stories. When the story was
by Poulis (2007a, 2007b). told, the first author asked if the interviewee could ident-
ify an ethical issue within the story. What was important
for us was to find out if the interviewee was able to ident-
For personal use only.
METHODS ify an ethical situation in the first place; it was less impor-
tant whether the interviewee was able to define the
Based on the purpose of this study, we choose to use a situation as an ethical issue or dilemma. The first
qualitative research approach based on phenomenolo- author then asked the interviewee to reflect about the
gical hermeneutics (Malterud, 2003). Phenomenology constitution of “the best” physiotherapy both profes-
is a philosophical approach to the study of experience. sionally and ethically and about situation(s) from
Hermeneutics is the theory of interpretation. As a phe- private practice which the interviewee experienced as
nomenologist one seeks patterns of experience in order ethical issues. In the second interview, the first author
to grasp the meaning of the phenomena in question focused on: in-depth reflections and/or adjustments to
(Malterud, 2001a). When having described the the first interview, further reflections and narratives
meaning of the phenomena in question, as faithfully about “the best” and/or regrettable situations and/or
as possible to the interviewees' understandings and professional conduct related to the process of phy-
experiences, one is as analyst implicated in facilitating, siotherapy (see Appendix for elaboration). To strength-
making sense of, and interpreting this appearance en the validity of internal meaning, the second interview
(Dahlberg, Drew, and Nyström, 2001). was furthermore regarded as a triangulation tool
(Malterud, 2003).
Study design
Sampling
Studying lived ethics can be difficult because human
The purpose of our sampling strategy was to obtain a
beings live and act out their morals (i.e., internalized
habits and customs, values and attitudes) without sample of physiotherapists in private practice with a
wide range of experiences, due to our assumption
necessarily knowing about them as they mostly are
that ethical issues can emerge in any clinical meeting.
tacit knowledge for the individual. For this reason,
you cannot just ask people what morals they have
(Lindseth and Norberg, 2004), and as previous Procedure
research has shown that physiotherapists in Denmark
generally have a vague ethical awareness (Praestegaard, An invitation letter introducing the subject of the study
2001), we have chosen to carry out two interviews with and asking for interested participants was sent out to 31
each interviewee. By giving our interviewees time to clinics across all regions in Denmark. Then, the clinics
reflect upon the subject of the study between the two were contacted by telephone and asked if they wanted
TABLE 1 Characteristics of participants (N = 21). the first author. Emerging themes from the first inter-
views were explored in the second interviews in order
Characteristics No. (%) to stimulate the participants' ethical awareness and in
this way stimulate thickened descriptions of reflected
Sex
Female 12 (57)
and deeper understandings. At the second interview,
Male 9 (43) it was possible further to explore, verify, refine, and
Years of service in private practice add reflections and acts to earlier descriptions. The
1–5 3 (14) majority of the interviews were carried out in the
5–10 6 (29) clinic which gave a solid frame of reference for under-
10–15 4 (19) standing and validating the comprehension of the
15–20 4 (19)
interviewees' life world and example. A few were
20–25 3 (14)
25–30 1 (5)
carried out in private homes or in a neutral office
Type of conditions of service according to the participant's preference. The first
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Owner 11 (52) interview lasted 45–60 minutes, and the second 30–
Renter 6 (29) 45 minutes. The time span between the two interviews
Employed 2 (9.5) varied between 1 and 2 months to allow time for
Self-employed 2 (9.5) settling the understanding of ethical issues within the
Individual or working together with in a clinic
initial encounter. One interview had a 5 month span
Individual 3 (14)
Working in a clinic 18 (86)
between the two interviews due to the interviewee's
Having continuing education 20 (95) business. Notes about the interview situation, the
Having further education (academic) 2 (10) process and other impressions were written down
immediately after both interviews with each partici-
pant and were used to contextualize the accounts
and to help with orientation and understanding
For personal use only.
units from the themes from step one that would (3) This step Malterud (2003) calls Condensation.
represent statements made by the interviewees When condensing the content of the units of
that contained a single idea about the phenom- meaning, code-groups, and various subgroups
enon in question. All the units were labeled emerged.
with a code. This is a modification from The text was hereby interpreted from the first
Giorgi's original description where significant author's professional perspective and standpoint.
statements are identified from all the text (Mal- To strengthen internal validity, the first author dis-
terud, 2001b, 2003). By coding the units of cussed the emergence of each code-group and sub-
meaning, it became possible to start classifying groups with the second author to make room for
the units. As Malterud (2003) describes, this alternative interpretations and possible approaches.
process opens the possibility that the intuitive The discussions resulted in one main theme with
classification of themes from step one may have three code-groups and their subgroups (Table 2).
to be altered or reversed as one theme may rep- The theme, the code-groups, and the subgroups
resent two themes of different underlying under- were validated for each interviewee along both inter-
standings, or two themes may represent different views and across all interviews in discussions with
sides of the same understanding. the second author.
Step two entailed a systematic de-contextualiza- (4) In the fourth step, the theme, code-groups, and
tion. We composed a matrix of organization to subgroups were synthesized into a consistent de-
secure a survey of the process. The matrix showed scription of content for each. From the matrix,
each interviewee horizontally and the emerging quotes from each code-group and subgroup
code-groups vertically. At each cross-section of the were selected together with the second author in
two columns, the units of meaning where placed. order to document and root the descriptions.
Hereby, it was visualized how each interviewee con- Quotes were translated from Danish to English
tributed to develop the coming code-groups. by the first author and then retranslated and
patient. This main theme expressed how looking out involved, … we have to involve them, and also
for the best interests of the patient was the central because research shows that the patients' under-
focus of ethical care in private practice. The theme standing, insight and activity contribute to the
expressed itself in various ways and to a varied healing process. In my experience this also helps
degree of depth by all interviewees and represents all to avoid basic ethical conflicts.
forms of reflections and actions intended to benefit
the patient.
The ethical issues uncovered in the interviews were Patient advocacy
embedded in the following code-groups and their Patient advocacy was an important part of ethically
appertaining subgroups: 1) ethical issues related to sound professionalism for most interviewees. Advo-
For personal use only.
equality; 2) feeling obligated to do one's best; and 3) cating implied recognizing that for some patients it
transgression of boundaries, please see Table 2 for was difficult to obtain a fair and equitable healthcare
illustration. on their own and in these cases the interviewees told
that they felt ethically obligated to take action. They
related using their professional power to push the
Ethical issues related to equality way for the patient:
Sometimes I act on behalf of the patient (e.g. I
This code-group contains the interviewees reflections phone the physician for a quicker service for the
on how the understanding of ethical issues was related patient).
to equality in the physiotherapist–patient relationship
and on how the interviewees acted upon these from a Some considered themselves as experts who had to
perspective of beneficence. The code-group encom- take special care of their (vulnerable) patients and
passed three appertaining subgroups: 1) being equal they found it crucial to do so despite other demands
partners in the relationship; 2) patient advocacy; and on their time.
3) relating unreflectedly toward one's role. I see it is as a professional duty to reflect holisti-
cally on the child's situation; attending meetings,
Being equal partners in the relationship being active when the family has to choose insti-
Some interviewees argued for an interactive role in tutions or assistive technologies, when there
professional practice from an ethical perspective. needs to be taken action on grant application for
They considered themselves and their patients as lost earnings, … I act as an advocate for the indi-
morally equal partners. They took pride in identifying vidual patient – no matter how much time it
the needs of the patient through dialogue and had requires.
many examples of how they struggled to ask the right
Their actions varied: making contact with the phys-
questions in order to improve patient resources and
ician; ensuring referral to medical specialists; or
autonomy.
writing letters to insurance companies. Some further
I see the patient as an equal partner; he knows told about doing personal favors like shopping or visit-
about his symptoms and life and I know about ing former patients to ensure their well-being.
physiotherapy. If I don't have the patient bring A particular ethical call to advocate for patients
forward his resources, thoughts and expectations, with learning disabilities or cognitive deficits was
how can I succeed? Physiotherapy must be expressed:
I cannot live with myself if I don't act upon the Christianity? I don't know – but I have to do my
troublesome and tiresome issues these patients best.
and their families are subjected to. I have to act.
It is a personal moral drive. I sometimes act Some favored systematic tools and they mentioned
even before the family becomes aware of the McKenzie's examination manual as an applicable
issues. In this way I try to prevent them from guide to do one's best and to minimize ethical issues
more pain and distress than absolutely necessary. of occurring. Some, who used the manual systemati-
cally, addressed the ethical issue a systematic tool
Another ethical aspect of patient advocacy revealed could encompass; physiotherapy by habit without
itself; some private clinics offered home treatment to having the unique patient in focus:
patients who were too sick to get to the clinic and, in
this setting, these interviewees had several reflections Well, I can see one ethical issue in this;
on ethics. They felt that the power balance was physiotherapy by habit … due to business.
altered when the therapy took place in the patient's Maybe forgetting the patient as a person …
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private home where the patient defined the setting. Maybe primarily focus on diagnosis …
They expressed difficulty coping with this. They
further expressed the feeling of being alone, insecure, Some expressed a daily ethical dilemma; not knowing
and in lack of tools when dealing with very sick and/or how to do one's best for the patient and not really
palliative patients: knowing how to cooperate with the patient due to
lack of experience. They felt that they did not live up
Then it turns out that the patient has a severe to their professional obligation. In these cases, they
cancer. And three weeks later I take her as a term- turned to more experienced colleagues but as the
inal patient, and treat her in her home. She colleagues often were busy, they described it as an
specifically asks for me. It turns out she has ethical dilemma and a personal frustration:
only weeks to live – it can only go in one direction,
For personal use only.
and here I must transgress myself into some of her Of course, I often experience situations where
territory of death and sickness, … and this disre- I don't know what to do. Then I ask my colleague
garding the fact that I usually help patients. Now I – he always knows … But often he hasn't the time
cannot do this. I can't heal her. And the patient … he is treating patients so then I have to wait.
clings to me as a hope, as the miracle. It is so dif- Sometimes until after the patient has left. The
ficult. I find it very difficult. I lack the tools for day ends … I don't know. I don't feel well.
handling such a process. … How to do the best I don't know if I have benefitted the patient …
for the patient? it's frustrating.
I find it an ethical issue not to be able to deliver Obligatory participation in supervision groups was
successful treatment to all the patients that mentioned as a method by which personal or pro-
enter my clinic. I mean what is that? … I see it fessional difficulties, successes, or new knowledge
as my professional duty to provide beneficence could be shared among the employees in a clinic in
to all. order to promote consciousness in a daily practice:
I tell my physiotherapists that if they want to work
Postgraduate education is the road to achieving and here they have to undergo supervision. We touch
maintaining professionalism people and we are touched by people. That is very
Some interviewees sought to become capable of acting important to be aware of in order to truly benefit
out their obligation to beneficence through further the patients.
education. They found it essential that physiothera-
One told about having contracted a psychologist to
pists were able to respond to patients' and society's
work with his team monthly to ensure the personal,
demands for evidence-based treatments and benefi-
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Especially when I have eager patients I can feel governmental subsidies for documentation. They
trapped. They want so much to have all the further explained that they felt able to remember
answers, but sometimes there just are no their treatments and successes. Only a few of these
answers to when this symptom will end or how interviewees regarded their lack of documentation as
the prognosis will turn out. I don't know what entailing ethical aspects.
to say, and I feel inferior. I feel I am not being
honest with the patient – I can't say that I don't The dilemma of being beneficent versus doing business
know because it sounds unprofessional and I
Some interviewees narrated about the interface
can't invent an answer. But since the patient
between beneficence toward the patient versus doing
expects an answer I sometimes make one up.
good business, and were aware of their personal and
To their benefit. But, … This, I assume, is an
professional honesty and role:
ethical dilemma?
If I don't deliver real and honest therapy then I
Being in special situations – insurance claims
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have no business.
Some interviewees identified ethical issues relating to They found that if the professional argument for
one special situation (i.e., insurance claims). These physiotherapy was missing, it gave bad, bad business.
situations were especially difficult to handle since Others did not have much to say on this issue and
they appeared so rarely and it would thus be difficult became quiet when pushed.
to obtain routine and hard to keep up with the latest Some commented on an ethical issue that the rest
knowledge in the area. The interviewees felt alone of the interviewees did not address. They expressed
and under pressure while having important decisions great responsibility toward their patients and worried
to make concerning patients' life and future economi- about whether the patients got good value for their
cal situation and they expressed great vulnerability money. They felt that their patients were not getting
For personal use only.
toward patients' wishes and pushy demands. better as quickly as if they had been treated by more
I reflect when a patient comes to me and says “my experienced colleagues and therefore felt it difficult
job is too hard, it makes me sick, please help me”. to ask for payment for their service. They described
It is always a weighing between the person not this as a difficult ethical issue to handle:
getting sick from his job, and the fact that all The patient does not know if they “buy a pig in a
jobs wear people out. We cannot manage the poke”.
same at age 55 as at age 25. This I find is an
ethical dilemma; when is it fair to put one's foot
down, and when is it not? … Or how long is it Transgressing boundaries
acceptable to wait when the patient needs his
pension today? How can we best support the This code-group contains the following three sub-
patient? groups: 1) transgressing bodily boundaries; 2) trans-
gressing cultural boundaries; and 3) transgressing
They acted by cooperating with the referring physician privacy.
and/or performing extensive, time-consuming exam-
inations, and often it would take years to reach a
Transgressing bodily boundaries
final conclusion:
The interviewees had numerous reflections on the risk
it can take years to reach a decision and this I of humiliation and violation due to the necessity for
believe is another ethical issue, because how patients to uncover parts of their body for the phy-
long time is appropriate when the patient is in siotherapy examination and treatment. Some were
pain and distress? able to recall actual situations at first but when given
time all were able to identify many examples. They
To be or not to be obliged to document the process described several strategies to prevent affront, humilia-
Some documented their interventions, and argued on tion, violation, or abuse toward either the patient or
basis of beneficence toward the patient and pro- themselves. Their main strategy was information:
fessional duty. They primarily documented successful information about the setting; the need for examin-
functional measures, treatments and/or process ation and examination positions; treatment and treat-
descriptions. One explained that, for the last 25 ment positions; the professional rationale for closeness
years, she had written journals on every patient. to the skin, muscles, and joints to optimizing the
Others never documented their examinations or therapy; offering explanation to findings; and ensuring
treatments, giving as reasons lack of time and lack of the patients' understanding of this.
I inform all the time about what I am doing and order to appear less attractive). One told that she
possibly also why I am doing what I do … We coped by dressing in a uniform to radiate professional-
both need to know what is happening and why, ism. Some interviewees' did not address these cultural
especially since the patient is partly undressed … issues.
Some further expressed the need of a firm hand, eye
contact and a matter of fact approach as main strat-
egies to avoid transgression of bodily boundaries. Transgressing privacy
All interviewees reported that they occasionally acci-
Transgressing cultural boundaries dentally had violated patients' privacy and were
aware about the ethical issues and dilemmas this
The most difficult situations of protecting patients'
could entail. They described it as a feeling of unplea-
boundaries were described as situations with patients
santness more than an active conscious reflection. The
from other cultures than Western, where the under-
violation was often caused by asking questions which
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A few interviewees had actively chosen to work in (Bellner, 1999; Carpenter and Richardson, 2008;
clinics with enough closed rooms where they felt Praestegaard, 2001; Swisher, 2002; Trienzenberg,
able to establish the necessary privacy. They described 1996). This result uncovers what Kappel (1996) calls
this as a professional means of minimizing the occur- an intuitive feeling of ethics; that we act from en-
rence of the ethical issues that are bound to appear in trenched habits of what is ethically right. The habits
clinical practice. show themselves as feelings of what is right and what
Another ethical issue considered important con- is wrong, and often we feel ill at ease or even physically
cerned the personal attachment of patients to the in- uncomfortable if we act against our intuitive feeling of
terviewee. Most interviewees had felt their personal ethically right actions. As healthcare professionals,
boundaries violated when patients have declared Kappel (1996) argues, we ought to be able to express
their friendship or love. Mostly, they acted by immedi- the habits, customs, values, principles, and attitudes
ately stopping the treatment and/or by referring the on which we base our intuitive ethical sense of
patient to a colleague: what feels right and wrong. As professionals, we
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interviewees had experienced inappropriate patient duties in this given situation, and how is it my duty
behavior from all kind of patients, which they all saw to act, regardless of the consequences for myself or
as ethical issues. These experiences were: sexually for the other(s). It is the reflection or the motive
abusive or degrading language; seductive behavior; behind the action that is vital for whether something
deliberate sexual exposure; and personal sexually is ethically right or not; such reflections were often
affronting questions from the patients. Some solved presented in the results.
the issues by directly telling the patient to stop or by The design and the interview questions showed the
reassigning the patient to a colleague. Some regarded physiotherapists' ability to discursively construct
it as an ethical dilemma they had difficulty in hand- reflections and discussions upon ethical issues when
ling. Some interviewees told of becoming friends asked and given time. Some of the described issues
and about having sexual closeness with patients in can only be understood as ethical in a very broad
the professional setting. One of these interviewees sense of the concept. Some do fall into the category
found this being normal behavior. of implicit novice issues (Dreyfus and Dreyfus,
1980; Jensen, Gwyer, Hack, and Shepard, 1999),
where time, knowledge and experiences eventually
DISCUSSION will lead to more reflected and adequate solutions.
Many of the described ethical issues relate to Seed-
The results show a clear picture of physiotherapists in house's (2009) description of everyday ethics. The
private practice as a whole have many reflections on issues are generally described as how to do, how to
ethics and that these reflections are primarily based reflect, how to handle; and the issues arise when the
on individual common sense arguments or on deonto- physiotherapists strive to act in the best interest of
logical understandings. Common sense we define as, the patient but are hesitant about how to do so
“sound and prudent judgment based on a simple per- without harming, offending, or violating the patient.
ception of the situation or facts” (Merriam-Webster's This is in line with other results from Western research
Online Dictionary, 2012). Thus, “common sense” about ethics in physiotherapy (Barnitt, 1994;
(in this view) equates to the knowledge and experience Barnitt and Patridge, 1997; Carpenter and Richard-
which most people already have, or which the person son, 2008; Cross and Sim, 2000; Delaney, 2005;
using the term believes that they have or should have. Finch, Geddes, and Larin, 2005; Geddes, Wessel,
Only rarely do the physiotherapists consciously use ar- and Williams, 2004; Greenfield, 2006; Guccione,
guments from ethical theories or principles or refer to 1980; Purtillo, 2000; Swisher, 2002; Trienzenberg,
codes of ethics. This is in line with previous research 1996).
Furthermore, the results seem to indicate that the who struggle to ask the right questions to improve
physiotherapists feel a need for a correct way of reflect- patient autonomy. Furthermore, the striving for equal-
ing and acting; an implicit search for a correct ethical ity in the physiotherapy–patient relationship can also
standard. This search may be understood on the basis be argued from a deontological perspective as some
of the historical development of physiotherapy from a physiotherapists express that they feel obligated to
medical discipline where standards are seen as the care for the patient as an equal human being. This
ideal and where physiotherapists in the pursuance of striving is legally bound to the rights of patients
professional confirmation, unknowingly, copy this (Sundhedsloven, 2008). In a deontological perspec-
ideal. However, copying another profession's under- tive, focus is on how one behaves professionally, and
standing of an ideal, whose explanations, examin- not on the consequences the actions may imply; it is
ations, diagnosis, and treatments are put into words, the intention that counts (Birkler, 2006). Therefore,
does not imply that physiotherapy can claim pro- in these perspectives, we can argue that discussions
fessional autonomy on this basis. Carr (2000) states on the professional role can be valued as ethical
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ficulty in satisfying the above criteria (#2). being more at ease with talking about their pro-
It may be argued that some of the reported ethical fessional weaknesses, by a personal instinct to care
reflections arise because of varying understanding or for the weaker or as a statement of moral obligation
consciousness of the concept of equality. To under- to act for the benefit for others, where the later
stand one's professional role as interactive or as relates to the moral principle of beneficence (Beau-
being the patient's advocate does not in itself consti- champ and Childress, 2009). If some physiotherapists
tute an ethical consideration. However, it can be see advocating for patients as a moral obligation for
seen as an ethical issue if one's attitude is rigid and beneficence, attentiveness to one's professional role
impossible to alter according to the patient's needs seems needed. When actions like shopping for
or if one is unreflected on how one manages the patients or visiting former patients are elements of
given professional power asymmetry within the pro- professional advocacy, it becomes difficult to dis-
fessional setting. The ambition of equality in the phy- tinguish between professional and personal morals,
siotherapy–patient relationship can be understood as hereby two ethical issues constitute themselves: 1)
awareness of the existing power asymmetry and of balancing improvements on patient autonomy with
the principle of autonomy (Beauchamp and Childress, the professional obligation for beneficence; and 2)
2009) and can be argued from several ethical perspec- balancing professional and personal morals in the pro-
tives. In a critical theory perspective, focus is on both fessional setting. When advocacy loses its professional
parties being humans, with roles as mutual moral dis- argument and enters into the personal sphere of argu-
cussion partners, which relates to some of the phy- mentation, it becomes smothering paternalism/mate-
siotherapists' descriptions of being equal moral rialism. We find that this kind of advocacy dilutes
partners. A critical theory approach does not try to professional standards and weakens the striving for
set out the conditions of what makes an act ethical professional autonomy.
but sets out a procedure for arriving at ethical con- The results uncovered several differences in how
clusions based on reasoned agreement among the beneficence was practiced. Patient education or per-
concerned participants (Habermas, 1998). Discourse sonal and professional insight seemed as strategies to
ethics is about people learning from one another. avoid or minimize the risk of ethical issues to occur,
Such conversations have obvious characteristics: par- a strategy also supported by Solomon and Miller
ticipants must be sincere; respect each other's views; (2005), and which has similarity to the virtues dimen-
be fair in examining each other's positions; and be ac- sion of expert practice described by Jensen, Gwyer,
countable in seeking to question and be questioned Hack, and Shepard (1999). Patient education is a
(Birkler, 2006); as described by the physiotherapists strategy that can be related to the moral principle of
autonomy. The notion of autonomy originally refers about existing guidelines and laws and also an uncer-
to self-rule or self-governance of independent tainty about the interface between ethics and law as the
city-states but has been extended to individuals (Beau- current findings exposed the circumvention of govern-
champ and Childress, 2009). To ensure his/her auton- mental subsidizing rules. This can be considered an
omy, the patient should be provided with sufficient, immoral as well as an illegal practice. Beauchamp
understandable information to make a decision and and Childress (2009) state that moral integrity can
to understand the consequences that the actual be understood as the soundness, reliability, whole-
decision may have. The element of information ness, and integration of moral character. In this
seems to a great extent to be met within private prac- light, the act of circumventing rules can be understood
tice, whereas the element of consent is met to a as a problem in maintaining professional integrity, not
lesser extent. Both the fact that the two elements, from lack of moral integrity or from a conflict of moral
information and consent, are both included in the norms, but from moral demands that require the phy-
concept of autonomy, and the consciousness that siotherapist to sacrifice beyond his or her personal
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respect of the patient autonomy is not only a moral understanding of legal actions. The actions can be de-
obligation but also a professional legal obligation fended from an ethics of care perspective. In the actual
(Sundhedsloven, 2008), is only vaguely reflected by encounter with the patient, the professional responsi-
the physiotherapists. This is in line with Delaney's bility for the physiotherapist is not a choice but an
(2005, 2007) results. Without collective and individ- absolute ethical demand of doing good for the
ual awareness about this fact, physiotherapy can patient (Birkler, 2006; Løgstrup, 1991). Sometimes
hardly claim to have a distinct ethical dimension life confronts us with awful choices, and morality
(Carr, 2000). requires us to face them and choose the option that
Another aspect of the professional obligation of will minimize harm (Shafer-Landau, 2007). The first
beneficence is addressed in the participation in post- author encouraged the physiotherapists in question
graduate education as a way to avoid or minimize to report the reasons for their actions to make them
For personal use only.
ethical issues and dilemmas occurring. It is not clear evident, and reported the overall issues to the
from the results, though, in what way or which edu- Danish Association of Physiotherapists. Hereby, the
cation would minimize ethical issues. Will the cultural Association can prepare for future negotiations about
challenges that physiotherapists confront in a globa- codes of practice concerning governmental subsidies.
lized world be reduced by postgraduate education? The results reveal examples of unlawful practice.
The results reveal that some interviewees do not Some of the interviewed physiotherapists do not docu-
bother about on-going education; they solely examine ment their practice. Documentation is a direct legal
and treat on account of their basic education. It has request, which the first author of course informed
been shown earlier by Jamtved, Hagen, and Bjørndal the physiotherapists in question about during the
(2003) that some physiotherapists have this approach interview. We have further reported the overall issue
to professional practice. Since the body of knowledge to The Association of Danish Physiotherapists, its
and skills is developing as we read this, this attitude to Ethical Council and Private Practice Council. Conse-
professionalism seems neither professionally nor ethi- quently, the Association has strongly emphasized the
cally justifiable. We recommend that the Association legal request to document physiotherapy practice to
of Danish Physiotherapists consider recertification as all private clinics in Denmark.
a possible solution to this issue and also that the Associ- Although it is alarming to find inappropriate sexual
ation addresses how the lack of cultural diversity within behavior and sexual harassment occurring in the
the Danish physiotherapy profession can be encoun- process of physiotherapy, it is well documented
tered both in basic as in on-going education. A lack, within medicine and nursing and it has also been re-
addressed by Trienzenberg (1996) in the USA as ported in a few studies within the context of phy-
early as in 1996. siotherapy (Bütow-Dûtoit, Eksteen, Da Waal, and
Owen, 2006; deMayo, 1997; McComas, Kaplan,
and Giacomin, 1995; McComas et al, 1993;
Violation of fundamental ethical guidelines O'Sullivan and Weerakoon, 1999; Trienzenberg,
and legal requirements 1996; Weerakoon and O'Sullivan, 1998). The findings
seem to imply negative consequences on both the pro-
The results show several sound moral actions but also fessional level (e.g., work performance) and on the
examples of violations of fundamental ethical guide- personal level (e.g., psychological effects) (deMayo,
lines and laws which threaten to endanger the 1997; McComas et al, 1993; O'Sullivan and Weera-
growing professional autonomy of physiotherapy in koon, 1999). Therefore, the problem needs to be
Denmark. There seems to be a lack of knowledge taken seriously within private practice.
Having sexual closeness to patients in the clinical Sandstrom (2007) defines professional autonomy as a
setting is a provocative and shocking result. When social contract based on public trust in an occupation
receiving the statement, the first author re-asked for to meet a significant social need. In order to maintain
informed consent and addressed the illegality to the and increase professional autonomy, it is crucial for
physiotherapists in question. Even though they felt the physiotherapy profession to accommodate legal re-
shameful about it they argued their actions from an quirements, requirements from politicians, patient
ethics of care approach (i.e., an ethics of care ap- organizations, and researchers for ethical and evi-
proach interpreted from a personal view) (Birkler, dence-based practice (Amtsrådsforeningen, 2003;
2006; Løgstrup, 1991). The physiotherapists in ques- May, 2001; Potter, Gordon, and Hamer, 2003a,
tion realized that they had overstepped the mark 2003b; Scott, 2000; Solomon and Miller, 2005). To
some time after the actual session. They wanted us live up to this, a wide range of professional compe-
to forward the issue that physiotherapy is relational tences are needed, and among these are ethical compe-
and that being in professional relations requires rec- tence. Gabard and Martin (2003) argue that living up
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ognition of the physiotherapist's emotions as well as to professional moral responsibilities requires having in-
the patient's. They recommended supervision, tegrity, self-discipline, and commitment, as well as
formal forums for discussion of daily practice and avoiding weakness of will and selfishness. It is essential
knowledge, and discussions of different aspects of for Danish physiotherapists to be aware about the dis-
professional competence as a means to keep the tinction between professional and personal boundaries
process of physiotherapy ethically sound, which we in physiotherapy practice in order to maintain society's
recommend also. trust and respect, in line with Amtsrådsforeningen
One physiotherapist did not find the issue profes- (2003), Rothstein (2003), Sandstrom (2007), and
sionally or ethically important, a result we find worry- Swisher (2002).
ing. Having sexual closeness with patients in the In summary, the results show that physiotherapy in
professional setting is appalling and illegal. The rare Danish private practice, in an ethical perspective, is on
For personal use only.
physiotherapist who might argue the action from an a trajectory toward increased professionalism. The
ethics of care or utilitarian perspective; where the results reveal that physiotherapy, as a profession, is
end justifies the means (Birkler, 2006; Shafer- rooted in both humanistic and scientific paradigms
Landau, 2007), but this violates the patient's trust in of understanding. Numerous ethical issues are em-
the provision of quality health care and harms the bedded in situations characterized by encounters
patient at a time of emotional and physical vulner- with power asymmetries or in which the parties are
ability. The trust of the colleagues is also violated as in close physical and emotional contact.
the abuse is exposed, and negative publicity can Some physiotherapists meet ethical issues in a pro-
harm the specific private practice and the entire pro- fessional manner, but some meet them in unconscious
fession. As it thus becomes a serious professional or unprofessional ways. Without a constant awareness
ethical issue, and not merely a personal issue, there that physiotherapy is characterized by power asymme-
seems to be a need for addressing it in educational try and that beneficence toward the patient should be
programs, professional practices, and organizations. in focus, the individual physiotherapist may not be
Accordingly, we have reported the issue, without able to recognize whether she is using her given pro-
naming the physiotherapist, to The Danish Associ- fessional power to accommodate the patient or to
ation of Physiotherapy. offence or violate the patient.
The overall results in this study are in line with pre- Increasingly, an explicit ethical consciousness
vious Western research even though a few circum- among Danish physiotherapists in private practice
stances are worth noting. Danish physiotherapists seems needed. A debate of how to understand and
express themselves both professionally and personally respect the individual physiotherapist's moral versus
about their ethical reflections in private practice, and the ethics of the profession must be addressed. Fur-
this involves some very personal exposures of phy- thermore, the profession's responsibility for pro-
siotherapeutic practice. It seems to indicate that the fessional development within the field of ethics calls
cut between being professional and being personal for discussions and decisions. Finally, the results
ought to be made more conscious for Danish phy- give rise to further investigations of ethical issues in
siotherapy in its strive for increased professional other contexts of physiotherapy and of how phy-
autonomy. siotherapy as a profession can deal with ethical issues
There is a growing focus on professional autonomy appropriately and professionally and also to determine
and ethical competence within both the general whether the ethical themes identified in Danish phy-
health care sector and the physiotherapy profession siotherapy practice are common to other cultures
(Rothstein, 2003; Sandstrom, 2007; Swisher, 2002). and national settings.
and The Danish Rheumatism Association. The Gabard DL, Martin MW 2003 Physical Therapy Ethics. Philadel-
authors report no declaration of interests. phia PA, FA Davies Company
Geddes EL, Wessel J, Williams RM 2004 Ethical issues identified by
physical therapy students during clinical placements. Physiother-
apy Theory and Practice 20: 17–29
Giorgi A (ed) 1985 Phenomenology and Psychological Research.
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Interview themes for the second interview Please reflect on whether this is a new or a returning
situation and/or conduct.
Do you assess the situation and/or conduct as an
Introduction
ethical issue/dilemma? Why – why not?
Presentation of the study, the purpose, myself, the Please reflect on the core of an ethical issue for you.
subjects, and situations we talked about last time. Please reflect on the values in problem/conflict
within the ethical issue/dilemma.
Reflections and/or adjustments to the first interview
Please reflect on the way you resolved the issue/dilemma.
Do you have reflections/adjustments about the first in- Please reflect on whether the ethical issue/dilemma
terview/your earlier narratives? was resolved satisfactorily.
Please reflect on how it could have been resolved in
Further reflections and narratives about optimal and/ an ideal world.
or regrettable situations and/or professional conduct Can you describe the values you strive to protect in
related to the process of physiotherapy in private
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