Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Book Geometry PDF
Book Geometry PDF
.- - .
.- ..
. - - . - - . --. -. ...
.. , . .< -
, -.-,.
. - :-. .
. .
.,
.:
- . -. - .-
, ..:, I..
School Mathematics Study Group
Geometry
Unit 16
Geometry
Teacher's Commentary, Part I1
Page
A GUIDE TO THE SELECTION OF PROBLEMS ......... ix
Chapter 11 AREAS OF POLYGONAL REQIONS . . . . . . . 255
Chapter 12 SIMILARITY . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . 293
Chapter 13 CIRCLES AHD SPHERES .......... 329
Chapter 14 CHARACTERIZATION OF SETS. CONSTRUCTIONS 371
Chapter 15 AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SECTORS ...... 411
Chapter 16 VOLUMESOFSOLIDS . + + . . 433
Chapter 17 PLANE COORDINATE QEOMETRY ....... 459
TALKS TO TEACHRRS
Facta and Theories .................
Equality. Congrmence. and Equivalence . . . . . . .
The Concept of Congruence .............
Introduction to Non-Euclidean Oeometrg . . . . . . .
................
Miniature Oeometries
h a . * ......................
A GUIDE TO THE SELtECTION OF PROBLEMS
S e t 13-4a
Chapter 1 4
14-1
Chapter 15
15-1
15-2
15-3
15-4
15-5
Chapter 16
Set 16-1
16-2
16-3
16-4
16-5
Chapter 17
17-3
17-4
17- 5
17-6
17-7
17-8
17-9
17-10
17-12
17-13
17-14
C h a p t e r 11
AREAS OF POLYGONAL REGIONS
[pages 320-3221
Since we are introducing a block of postulates concern-
i n g area, t h i s may be a good time t o remind your atudents o f
the s i ~ i f i c a n c eand purpose of postulates. They are precise
formulations of the basic intuitive Judgments suggested by
experience, from which we derive more complex p r i n c i p l e s by
deductive reasoning.
To make P o s t u l a t e s 17, 18 and 19 s f g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e
students, discuss the measuring process f o r area concretely,
using sfmple figures lfke rectangles o r right t r i a n g l e s w i t h
integral o r rational dimensions. Have them subdivide regions
i n t o congruent unit squarea, so that the student gets the
idea that every "figure" has a uniquely determined area
number. Then present the postulates as simple properties
of the area number which are verifiable concretely i n
diagrams.
--
Problem Set 11-1
Problem S e t 11-2
15. 12.
16. A =
1
4 d 1 = 150 = bh = 12b; therefore 1
b = 12T. The
2
area is 150; the l e n g t h o f a s i d e is l*
*17, Yes, The proof would be the same as f o r Problem 1 3
w i t h each + replaced by "-" .
[pages 335-3361
All t h r e e triangles have
the same altitude. Hence,
s i n c e BD = DC, the two
smaller t r i a n g l e s have
e q u a l a r e a , by Theorem 11-6,
and each I s one-half the
area of the b i g t r i a n g i e ,
by Theorem 11-5.
-
c o n s t a n t , by Theorem 11-6.
-
C,
Call the l e n g t h of t h e altitude, from P t o AB, h.
Then in plane E, P may be any p o i n t on either o f t h e
two llnes p a r a l l e l t o AB at a d i s t a n c e h from AB.
In s p a c e , P may be any p o i n t on a cylindrical s u r f a c e
e
having AB as its axla and h as its r a d i u s .
[pages 337-3381
338 *22. If the line i n t e r s e c t s adjacent s i d e s , the area of the
triangle formed will be less t h a n one-half the area of
the rectangle, s o t h e line must intersect o p p o s i t e
sides.
Area ARSD = +(a + c)
1
Area CSRB = $(b + d) .
But a + b = c + d, so by s u b t r a c t i o n ,
-
Let be t h e p o l n t a t which
M i n t e r s e c t s RS.
-.
Then h ARM E h CSM by A . S . A . , so AM = CM. Therefore
M is the mid-point o f diagonal AC
Problem --
S e t ll-3a
AC = Jm.
He is miles from
h i s starting p o i n t .
( ~ e t w e e n 10.4 and
10.5 miles . )
[pages 3 38- 3 41 1
341 2. The single r i g h t triangle
AACB serves our p u r p o s e C
here .
(A%)
AB
2
= (11)
= m.
2
He is approximately 1 2 . 5
+
m i l e s from h i s s t a r t i n g
2
( 6 ) = 157.
4[(7+
7
point. A
3. (612 + (6)' = x2 .
7 2 = x2 .
1_
6 f i = X,
He is approximately 8.5 5 X
/
'
miles f r o m h i s s t a r t i n g /
1
point.
2 2 2
342 6. a. It is sufficient t o show t h a t ( m - n )
+ (2m)2 = (rn 2 +4n2 ) 2 . (m2 - n 2 ) 2 + (-l2
4
= m4 - 2 m2n 2 + n + 4 m2n 2 = m + 2m2n2 + n
m = 4, n = 3 gives ( 7 , 24, 2 5 ) .
There are two other r i g h t triangles w i t h hypotenuse
less than o r equal 25, ( 9 , 1 2 , 15) and (15, 2 0 ,
25), b u t they can n o t be obtained by this method.
[pages 341-3421
b. AC = &. Next segment has l e n g t h =
14.12 = 15ha
1
l l y = ha .
C ) @
*lo. Let CD meet AB at D. Let BD = x.
hc 2 = 1 4 ~- x2 = 196 - x2,
also 2
h c 2 = 18 - ( 6 + x12 = 324 - 36 - 12x - x2 .
Eliminating hc 2. .
196 - x 2 = 288 - 12x - x2 .
X =
2
7-3.
h = (approximately 11.71.)
c 3
[pages 342-3431
pzJ
343 11. The shorter diagonal divides
the rhombus i n t o two e q u i l a t e r a l
t r i a n g l m . Hence i t a length is
8. Since the diagonals are
perpendicular b i s e c t o r s of
each o t h e r we can use the 60°
8
Pythagorean Theorem t o get
the length of the longer
diagonal equal to 8JT.
12. Since the s i d e s are all
D C
congruent, and the area
of the rhombus I s the
product of the measurea
of any side and its
correapondfng altitude,
then all the altitudes
A E B F
are congruent. Hence,
it is s u f f i c i e n t to f i n d
one altitude. The
diagonals bfsect each other at right anglea. Hence,
each aide has length 4 13. Then,
Area of A ABD = $ a 4 4 3 = 6 = +E Jl3,
1
and
13. By the Pythagorean Theorem, AB = 13.
1
The area of A ABC = $.13h = 2*5-12.
Hence 13h = 5.12 and h =
60
m =4.
344 14. By the Pythagorean Theorem, AB = 17.
1 1
The area of A ABC = =-lh = 2*15*8.
4-
= 2n
2
2
A A3C
A AS&)
. A
- 2nfi
0
then mi A = 30 and
rnL B = 60.
[pages 345-346 I
Proof: We begin in t h e same way for both parts. On
+
the ray opposite t o CB t a k e 5' such that B 1C = BC = a .
A B C A % A B!CA by S . A . S . Then
(1) rnL B' = 60 and m L BAB1 = 60. Hence BAB' is
equilateral so t h a t BBt = c = 2a, which was t o
be proved.
( 2 ) AB' = AB = c . By hypothesis, c = 2a. S i n c e
I331 = 2a, then BBt = c, and A B A B ' is e q u i -
l a t e r a l . Therefore A BABt I s equiangular and
m L B = 60. S i n c e rnL BCA = 90, then m L BAC = 30,
which was to be proved.
N o t e that we can now conclude that E,opposite the
30 angle is t h e s h o r t e r l e g , s i n c e mL A < mL B. B u t
0
Theref o r e , AC = a 6 or A C = B C ~
/;;;;;;;;
BC = a.
(1) If c = a f i , then
A A3C is i s o s c e l e s .
(2) t h e nA ABC
If c = a I s ias o s c e l e s , A C B
Proof: (1) Using the Pythagorean Theorem,
2 2
(AC)*= e - a ,
(AC)~= ( a 2 a2, -
2
(AC ) = a
2,
2. Draw CD 1 E.
Then AD = DB = 3 6
AB = 6 6
A D B
x = 5.
[pages 346-347 1
The length of the hypotenuse i a
8
By Theorem 11-9, AC =
since (AC)~ + (BC)* = (AB)2,
2
we have, ($1 + h2 = s 2
from which s2
h2 = s 2 - T m
3 f i
a 2 = h 2 + y* = 4 + ( n 1 ~ = 7 .
a = fl.
NO, since (412 + ( fi12 + (3nlP.
[pages 348-3491
*13. Let CD
be the perpendicular
from
*
C to AB. L e t CD = h,
BD = r, BC = a.
I n 45' - 45' - go0 A ACD,
h = AD = I n - 1 0= 5 G , I
2
r = AD - 3 = 5 f i - 3. 45O -L-1
I
In right A BDC, A 3 0 0
2
as = r c h2 = ( 5 f i - 312 + (5fi)2.
= 50 - 3 0 a + 9 + 50
= 109 - 3 0 n .
a BC is approximately 8 -2.
14. By Pythagorean Theorem, the altitude equals 24.
The area is 240 square lnchea .
1. Aright
DFB and CFA
triangles.
are 1. Given.
2. FD = FC. 2. Given.
DB = CA.
3. ARDBZAFCA. 3. Bypotenwe-Leg Theorem.
4. FB = FA. 4. Corresponding parts.
5. A FA3 I s isosceles . 5. Definition of isosceles
triangle.
1. AE=BF. 1. Given.
2. EF = FE. 2 Identity.
3. AF = BE. 3. Addition of Steps 1
and 2.
4. DF = CE. 4. Given.
5. A A P D and A BEC 5. Olven.
are right triangles.
6. AAFDZABEC. 6, Hypotenuse-Leg Theorem.
7. Corresponding parts.
8. Theorem4-5.
350 17. Area A ABC = +h.
But by t h e Pythagorean Theorem, h = A,
?2
Substituting, Area B ABC = g(5~5)= &-.
351 18. a. JT. c. $0.
b, 16a.
19. Let s be the length of a s i d e .
2
4JT = 9 n *
[pages 350-3511
0 4 C
351 23. Make CE 11 K, making
e q u i l a t e r a l A EBC wlth
s i d e of 8, The altitude
is 4 A. Since AB = 12,
AE-4 and D C = 4 .
Hence, area of trapezoid
ABCD = $ ( h a ) ( 1 6 ) = snn.
-
24. Draw a l t i t u d e s DE and
-
CF. Since C B = 4 , F B = 2
and CF = 2 a, then b/D
-/b
-
45-
i 66
D E = 2& and A E = 2 f i , 2 5 E 5 F 2
s o AB = 7 + 2 6
Therefore, Area of AECD = $(26)(12 + 2 f i )
= 6 + 12JX
-
352 "25. Since 1 plane E, then @X and CG I&.
4 CAG = 45, s o ' A CAG is an i s o s c e l e s right triangle,
and CG = AG = 6 . Also, AC = 6&. In A ACD,
AC 6&
= AD = 2&, so by Pythagorean Theorem,
DC = 4 f i In A AGD, AG = 6 , AD = 2 6 , s o
1
DO = 2 n . Therefore DG = FC, so mL DCG = 30,
and 4 CDG = 60. Hence, rnL F-AB-E = 60.
+26. a. In right P A D M , DM=%, so A M = q e . In
right A AMN,
Pythagoras ,
AN = s. By the Theorem of
(NPl12 = - (Zl2.Hence,
($a)* NM = f i e.
[pages 351-3521
Hence BH = , But BM = AM = f9
i e.
so BH = fl
-5 e . Finally, in A ABH,
2
AH)^ = (m12- ( B H ) =~ e - e =$e2.
Hence, fi
AH =
- 3
353 27. YA 1 and FA1 because of the given square and
rectangle. By d e f i n i t i o n YAD is the p l a n e angle of
and'hence 4 YAD = 6 0 . By definition of
X-AB-E
projection YD
-I
E and hence 4 ADY = 90. Then
AYD = 30 and AD = $ 4 ~ . Therefore area ABCD
12 ayes mn = 18.
+28. Find the p o i n t of i n t e r -
s e c t i o n of the diagonals
of each rectangle. A
line containing these
intemection p o i n t s separates
each rectangle i n t o two
t~apezoidalregions of equal
area ( o r in special cases
the line may contain a
diagonal and the regions
will be congruent t r i a n g l e s ) .
The proof that the trapezoids
are equal in area involves
showing the pairs of shaded
triangles congruent by A .S . A .
353 Here is a problem t h a t m i g h t be interesting to the class.
It has t o do w i t h c u t t i n g up a square i n t o a certain number
of smaller squares, not necessarily equal in area. We will
talk of an integer k, as being "acceptablet' if a square
can be subdivided i n t o k squares. For example, given any
square we can divide it i n t o 4 squares, b u t n o t i n t o 2,
3, or 5. T r y it. Below are some diagrams showing how a
square may be d i v i d e d i n t o 6 , 7 , and 8 smaller squares:
Review Problems
four.
12. This may be found by f i r s t showing that the area
of t h e triangle is 36.
10 miles.
[pages 353-3541
10. Separate the figure i n t o
a rectangular and a
trf angular region. The b-a
area of the rectangle
is a c . The area of the
triangle is g(b
I a) -
2
. G
The t o t a l area is
1. =I 1LB'C,
TA and
1. Definition of pro-
j e c t i o n . D e f i n i t i o n of
a line perpendicular to
55 1Em a plane.
2. AABtBEACBrB. 2. Hypotenuse-Leg Theorem.
3. CB1 AB4 and
= 3, Corresponding p a r t s and
Definition of I s o s c e l e s .
A AB1C is i s o s c e l e s .
-
4. BX is an altitude of 4. The median to the base
A ABC; of an i s o s c e l e s t r i -
-
B t X is an a l t i t u d e of
angle is an altitude.
A AB'G.
5. mLBXB1 = 6 0 , 5. Given, and Definition
of plane angle of a
dihedral angle.
6 Corollary 9-13-2.
7. B'X = $ 3 ~ . 7. 30-60 Triangle Theorem.
8. Area bABtC 8. Theorem 11-2.
=
1 Area A ABC.
356 *16. On E, t h e longer of t h e
two parallel sides, l o c a t e
E\
a p o i n t X so that
AX = T(AB + CD) . Then
1
separates t h e trapezoid
into two regions of equal
area. A Y B
-
AX = $(AB + CD).
-.-
1 . A.S.A.
I
2. Corresponding parts .
3. Given area of the
square.
4. Given and Statement 2.
5. Pythagorean Theorem.
The area of RSPQ Ls
51 that of ABCD as can
be seen by rearranging
the triangular regions
as shown.
I l l u s t r a t i v e T e a t Item f o r Chapter -
--7
11
A. -
Area Formulas ,
1. The perimeter of a square is 20. Find I t s area.
2. The area of a square is n. Find I t s s i d e .
Find the area o f t h e figure
in terms of the lengths
indicated.
7. RSTV is a parallelogram.
Tf the small l e t t e r s in V o T
the drawing represent
lengths, give the area of:
d
a. Parallelogram RSTV.
b. ASTU. c r
R U S
c, Quadrilateral VRUT.
8. Show how a formula for the
area of a trapezoid may be
obtalned from the formula
1
A = $h for t h e area of a
triangle,
9. In surveying field ABCD
shown h e r e a surveyor laid
off north and south line
-
C,
NS through 3 and then
located the east and w e s t
++
l i n e s CE, DF and W .
He found that CE = 5 rods,
AG = 10 rods, BG = 6 rods,
BF = 9 rods and FE = 4 rods
Find the area of the f i e l d .
B. Comparison --
of Areas.
1. Given:
Diagonals
ABCD
- is a trapezoid.
AC and
i n t e r s e c t at 0.
Prove: A r e a A AOD = Area b BOC . D
2. In t h i s figure
PQRS is a
parallelogram with PT = TQ
and MS = SR. In - a through
-
e below compare the areas
of the two figures listed.
a. Parallelogram SRQP and P T Q
Parallelogram
A MTR.
A PNS and A MTR .
A STR and A SPR.
A A
15 0
2, The diagonal of a square is n. Find its side.
3. The l o n g e s t and shortest s i d e s of a r i g h t triangle a r e
10 and 20. What is the measure of the smallest
angle of the t r i a n g l e ?
4. The measures of each of two angles of a triangle is 45,
What is the ratio of the longest s i d e to either o f t h e
other s i d e s ?
E. Miscellaneous Problems.
. 1. ABCD is a t r a p e z o i d .
CD = 1 and AB = 5.
What I s the area of
the trapezoid? A 6
3, ABCD is a rhombus wl th
AC = 24 and AB = 20. A B
a. Compute its a r e a .
b. Compute t h e length
of the a l t i t u d e to
-
DC .
D C
/mc
4. Find t h e area of a triangle whose sides are g", 12",
and 15".
5 ABCD is a pa~allelogram
with altitude E. Find
the area of the parallelo-
gram if:
a. AB=+ and D E = % . A
r
L
B
b. A B = 10, A D = 4, and
m L A = 30.
6 Find the area of an iaosceles triangle which has
congruent sides of length 8 and base angles o f 30'.
Answers
c. +(a+c).
1 1 1
two areas is $lh + $*h s $(bl + b2).
9. Area ABCD = Area AGFD + Area DFEC - Area AGB - Area CEB.
Area ABCD = 165 + 34 - 30 - 34.
Area ABCD = 13%.
The area of t h e field is 13% 1 square rods.
B. 1. Area A kDC = Area A BCD because the triangles have the
-
same base and equal altitudes.
DC
Area A DOC = Area A DOC.
Therefore, by subtracting, we have Area A AOD
= Area A BOC .
2. a. Area parallelogram SRW
= 2 Area A SW.
b. Area parallelogram SRW
= Area A MTR.
c . Area A PNS =
1
Area A MTR .
d. Area A STR = Area A SPR.
e. Area A MTR - 4 Area h RQT.
C. 1. 20 feet.
2. 10 miles.
(see ffgure at r l g h t ) .
AC = 20.
EC = 25.
AB = 25 and CB = 7.
a. 6 n . b. 12.
1.
30.
7a = 3b. b. 4x = 3. c. 6g=20.
-32 - C . 65 .
T
33
?* dm T .
a 2 and T
?;;='5 a =T
x.
4 m 5
m
a
6 =
7 and b
= =
4
7.
x
5 = 9 and
5 5 6
= T.
6bc c. a==.
21bd
22bd 12cd
d. a = ~ .
a + b 4 and a - b
-==. 2
b = T
+ 2 x + 3 x - 3
=
and +y = -*
a
c=4
4
and -
a - c = -3
C T*
b -+ a
-
a -
8
'5 and -
b - a = -2
a -5'
1,
7' 4 - /
3
The t h r e e new sequences
7 4.
1, T are i d e n t i c a l , s o each p a i r
of the orlginal three
1,
7 4.
g? sequences are proportional.
[pages 361-363 3
363 7. a and d.
a and i.
d and 1.
b and f.
b and h.
f and h.
c and e,
c and g.
e and g.
[pages 363-3641
365 Notice that the i d e a of a correspondence which matches
v e r t i c e s is employed f o r similar triangles as f o r congruent
triangles: the s i m i l a r i t y Indicates, without recourse t o a
fL@;ure, the corresponding s i d e s and angles,
--
Problem Set 12-2
366 1. a. AB=r.
AC .DE a. A B DE-BC
= r .
b. AB EF
B C = r * e. BC=-. AC EF
c. AC=
BC DF DF .AB
EF' f. AC=-.
367 2. a, b; 3 = 48 = 6f ; 2 .
~
a, d; 3 = r42 = ,6.
g
b, d; =,
8 g6 =
12
m.
3. -2 1.6
7.5 = T*
h = mqA*
6.
h =
The height of the o b j e c t i n the enlargement is 6 inches.
4. Yes. If A ABC o A A'BI C t , the conditions necessary
for a similarity a r e met. That is,
(1) L A = L A ~ L, B E L B I , L c P I L C I and
(2)
A'B'
-, =
A'C*
= -.BICt
[pages 365-367 1
367 5. Given: A ABC; D, E, F
t h e mid-points of the sides
- - -
AB, BC, C A respectively.
P r o v e : A EFD - A ABC.
Proof: By Theorem 9-22,
ED =
1
FE = +,
1 A D
FD 1
= $B, and ED I ( E ,
FDEC, DBEF a r e
ADEF,
parallelograms. By Theorem 9-16, L FDE 3 BCA , 1
L DEF ZL CAB, 1 EFD % L ABC; s i n c e we have also
proved above that ED = FE = m,
FD A EFD A ABC by .
I
d e f i n i t i o n of similarity.
-
Proof: S i n c e Ll 1 I L2, then t h e segment A A ' cannot
i n t e r s e c t L2 and hence A and A' are on t h e same side
-
of La. Likewise, s i n c e L3 11 L2, then the segment C C T
cannot i n t e r s e c t L2 and C and C f are on the same s i d e
of L2. S u c e B is between A and C by hypothesis,
-
segment AC i n t e r s e c t s L2 a t B; hence, A and C are
on opposfte s i d e s o f L2, Since A t and A are in the
same half-plane determined by L2 and C' and C a r e in
the same half-plane and A and C a r e in o p p o s i t e h a l f -
planes then it follows that A ' and C' a r e in o p p o s i t e
-
half-planes determined by Lp. Hence A'Cf meets L2 In
a p o i n t which must be B 1 , s i n c e B1, is the Intersection
of A ' C 1 and L2. Therefore, B t is between A t and C q .
370 We have assumed t h a t A # A ' and C / Cl. The argument
above is e a s i l y modified to apply to t h e cases where A = A '
[pages 369-3701
Problem --
Set 12-3a
5. No. g #%.
372 7. a. By Theorem 12-1, CA = CB m.
Then
CA - l = CCBp - 1 .
m
or
CA - CD CB - CF
C D =CF
The refore
[pages 370-3721
372 b. Taking the reciprocals of b o t h fractions of (a)
we get
Then
' or
CD+DA CF-tFB
DA =r-
Theref ore,
CA CB
m = m*
c . By Theorem 12-1, CA _- z
CB .
9. x m u s t be 8 or 11.
1. Given.
2. Theorem 12-1 .
3. F r o m S t e p 2.
4. Theorem 12-2.
G.
-
1 . Proof: Draw transversal
In b CAD we have by
H
DC i n t e r s e c t i n g BE in
Theorem 12-1, -
AC
BC =
CD
AB DG 0
from which = z.
Similarly, in A DCF, we
Hence, u
=
UL
E. -7
(An
-
alternate method of
proof might u s e an auxiliary
l i n e CW as shown at t h e
C*
right, or a line DR 11 AC
@
PI --+--/- \IF
\
as shown here .)
2 , b t I:
13. Since --
80 feet.
AB 1 1 ~
#
Lot 11:
0 .A = OB
~ i5jl
H
m.
160 f e e t . h t 111: 120 f e e t .
Similarly, BC 11 YZ mplles
03 OC
rn nz*
=
Hence,
by Theorem 12-2.
z=3 and x 2 = 1 8 .
The width of the card should be a or 3 fi inches.
374-378 In the proofs of Theorems 12-3, 12-4, and 12-5 we have
drawn t h e figure w i t h AB > DE and used t h f a in each p r o o f ,
except that in Theorem 12-3 the case AB = DE was discussed.
( ~ o t i c ehere if AB = DE, A A E i F 1 and A ABC coincide,
t h a t is A AEtF' = A ABC.) In the case AB < DE a similar
4
proof would be g i v e n with El on DE and DEI = AB.
It m i g h t be advisable t o point o u t to the s t u d e n t s t h e
general plan of t h e proof of Theorem 12-5. F i r s t prove
AABC - A AEIF1 by the A.A. Corollary, then prove
AABC -
A AEIFT A DEF by the S . S . S . Theorem, and finally prove
A DEF by the A.A. Corollary.
--
Problem S e t 12-3b
Similar. S.S.S.
[pages 374-3801
380 5. a. LAXC or LBXC.
b. LACX.
c. A AXC, or A CXB.
6. X C = F , or XG=T. No.
-
-
8. A ABC A CDL s i n c e the v e r t i c a l angles at L are
congruent as w e l l as the given angles B and D. From
the given information = T. Since the triangles have
been proved similar DL = =.
4 Then -.
DL+BL = 4 + 1
e. Part b.
f. Part a.
g. No.
[pages 380-3823
382 10. Of the five equal p a i r s of parts three mwt be angles,
f o r if three were sldea the t r i a n g l e s would be congruent.
Hence the triangles a r e similar. Neither of the two
pairs of equal s i d e s can be corresponding sides or the
triangles would be congruent by A . S . A . The remaining
possibility can b e a t be shown by an example.
OB OX
Theref ore O,B, = rm'
OD
Therefore O~ = m.
OX
Definition of simllar
triangles.
Clearing of fractions .
14. a . and b. L e t a, 2a, ha
stand f o r the lengths
aa shown in the figure.
Then it can e a s i l y be
shown f o r each pair of
triangles mentioned that
.
t h e S .A .S Similarity
Theorem applies.
38 3 c . L ADQ and L QAD are complementary angles.
LQADrL&DC, since they are corresponding
angles of slmilar triangle8 . Therefore L ADQ
and L QDC are complementary and 4 ADC = 90.
C, H C,
15. Let be papallel to AD, meeting AC in E.
BE
LABE= L DAB ( a l t . i n t . L a ) and A AEB n L CAD
(corr. L s) Alao, . L
DAB fY L CAD (given). Therefore
AEB L ABE. Therefore AE = AB. Since
CD = =,
CA
then CD =
CA by substitution.
*17. a. Let E be t h e p o i n t
on the ray opposite to
-3
AB such that AE = y.
Then A AEC ia equl-
-
l a t e r a l , EC
the e lmilar triangles
y. In
f =l+S.
Dividing by y, we get
-1Z = -Y1 + -,
1
X
b. Yes, place the straight-edge against R1 on the
middle s c a l e and R2 on one of the o u t e r acales.
Then read o f f R on the o t h e r outer scale.
[pages 383-3841
1 Given.
1. 1y is the comple- 1.
-
RA 1 E , and defin-
ment of L x. ition of complementary
2. L y is the comple- 2.
angles
Given RH
.- -
AF, and
ment of R. Corollary $-13-2.
3. Complements of the same
angle are congruent.
4. LB=LRHA* 4.
- ~ mlz.
R H L and
5. A HRA * A BAF. 5. A.A. Corollary.
6, = - HA
-KR 6. Definition of similar
3A BF' triangles .
7. HRoBF =BA*HA. Clearing of fractions
an step 6,
386 20. a. No.
b.
-
B i s e c t XI,PB1, etc., and connect the resulting
mid-points .
PA2 L AIPBl
"' m q = YPBp
B; because both equal 2. is
( pages 385-386 ]
386 d. Not only and AIBI, but o t h e r corresponding
s i d e s of triangles A2B2D2 and AIBIDl are in
the r a t i o 2: 1 by a proof like that in part c .
A A2B?*
Theorem.
- A AIBIDI- by the S .S .S . Similarity
RX = QX
m e Therefore = m,
TX (a)' = (TX)*, and
2.
3,
LABQgLWELMFR.
3.
D e f i n i t i o n s of per-
pendicular and square.
Angle Measurement
rnL M = m. Postulate .
4. Thus, mL FRM = a 4. Corollary 9-13-2.
and mL AQB = m.
5. Also, 4 WQR = a 5. The sum of the measures
and dWR& =
m. of the angles at Q is
180 and the sum of the
meaaures of t h e angles
at R is 180.
6. A m p - A RFMcAQWR.16. A.A.A.
7. AB
= AB
and = BQ D e I i n l l i o n a f slmllar
triangles .
8. A B - W R = Q W * B Q and Clearfng of fractions
A B d F M = RFmBQ.
.
S .A .S Similarity Theorem.
Therefore L ECD =1
EAB and % 11 by corresponding
angles.
389 27. False. L e t A ABIC and A AB2C be such that AC = AC,
m
i\B
= BCm since m~ B + m~ FDA.
b. False. The diagram shows a counter-example. The
hypothesis is true if X is e i t h e r E or F.
The conclusion is f a l s e I f X is F.
= E.
X
390 * 2 9 . In similar ABC and EDC, 3 From the s irnilar
ACG and AEF, - =+ b
a 7
a 3'
[pages 388-390 )
390 *30, A C E B - A AEF since A x YL y ( a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r
angle8 of parallel lines BC and AD) and
H *
L PEA EF = -
BEC ( v e r t i c a l a n g l e s ) ; therefore - FA
EB BC
=
AE
m. A l s o , A CEG - A A E 9 s i n c e L ABE L CGE
(alternate i n t e r i o r angles) and L CEG 2 L AEB (vertical
angles); we g e t BA = AE = E.EB S i n c e in each case we
-
Similarly, s i n c e CZ CEZ =
Since BE = FE + BF
P r o o f : L e t CD be t h e altitude from C t o E, as in
Theorem 12-6. L e t x = AD and l e t y = DB, as in t h e
figure. The scheme o f t h e proof is s i m p l e . (1) First we
c a l c u l a t e x i n terms o f b and c , usFng similar tri-
angles. ( 2 ) Then w e calculate y i n terns of a and c,
using similar triangles. ( 3 ) Then we add x and y, and
simplify the resulting equatl.on, using the fact that
c = x + y.
x b
(1) S i n c e A ACD - A ABC, we have = -
c'
b2
Therefore x = - .
(2) S i n c e b CBD - C
A ABC,
-2
a
we have = 5c '
Therefore y = 7 .
L;
Rut c = x + y .
2
Therefore c = a* + b
C '
and a2 + b2 = c 2 , which was to be proved.
395 Note to the teacher: A t t h i s point in the t e x t you
-
may wish to proceed directly to Chapter 17, Plane Coordinate
Geometry, and l a t e r r e t u r n to the remaining chapters.
[pages 393-395 1
c. Let DB = x, then x(x + 10) = 144.
x2 + lox = 144.
DB = 8.
CA= J18'0=66
CD = a=
4 f i
d. Let AD=x, then x ( x + 1 2 ) = 6 4 .
x2 + 1 & - 6 4 = O .
(x - 4)(x + 16)= 0.
x = 4.
Problem -
S e t $2-5
is G C 0 .Then, n
dZ
Area of t h e trianEle mn 4
F
Area o f the square =d2=
[pages 396-3971
1
397 12. The area of A ABC = -0140-120 = 8400.
2
The area of the required l o t must t h e n be 4200. By the
Pythagorean Theorem, AD = 90, and area of
1
AADC = -.g0.120 = 5400. Then, by Theorem 12-7,
2
(6l=2m,
4200
and x = 3 0 ~ required distance
The
is approximately 79.4 f e e t .
13. Given: R i g h t A ABC, C a right angle, and M the
mid-point of a.
Prove: MA = PIB = MC.
Proof: Let be the perpendicular f r o m M to E,
meeting BC in K. Then IIE, so CK = KB.
-
Therefore %? is the perpendicular b l s e c t o r of CB.
Hence MC = MB. Since MB = MA ( g i v e n ) , then
MA = MB = MC.
C
398 14. By Problem 13, KC = 2, where A 3 = c. Therefore
4 KCB = 4 KBC = 60, so m L BKC = 60. Therefore
BC = KI3 =
i A
15. Since ARs RC, 4 A = d A C R .
,
A l s o , since RC = RB,
m L B = mL BCR. L e t
mL A
mL B = rnL acR X .
Then in A ACB,
-
rnL ACR = y and
2x + 2y = 180,
C
and x + y = 90.
-
.Y
x = bk.
Theref ore
x = bk.
Therefore
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 +2bck.
ma = b2
a 2
+ (H) - 2b($)k,
2 2 2
(11 "'a = b + $ - abk.
='c
2 = ;a2 + ;b2 - +**
Adding and collecting like terms,
2 2
ma2 + m b 2 + r n c2 = $ a 2 + b + o 1.
Review Problems
g1 = r, 6
'
b. FQ hence FQ = 5.
C' T =FQ
T , hence I?&=%.
d. 6
9 z,
= QB hence QB = 8.
a. Yes. b. AF = 8.
b = 8 6
10. AABC-ADEF, hence m
AB
= AC
m =BCm .
AB AC
SZnce, above, the last r a t i o s are the same, m=m
and hence AB = A C .
11. a. A A F Q - A W A X (A.A.). Hence -AF
WA= - AQ
WX and
therefore AF-XW = AW-QA.
w &A
-
b. A AXW - A FQA (A.A.) and so AX = --
XW'
hence QFmXW = AX-QA.
c. Since A AXW - A FQA, E = W , hence
AW-FQ = FA-AX.
13. 3 = = ,9
g hence y = 24.
3
=
x hence x = 6@.
hence A Since
-
YZ IIE, A RYZ -A RBC,
YZ. Hence
RY = E
hence
XY
15. No.
=
YZ
x.
li$
Hence A XYZ
We can be s u r e t h a t
- B
A ABC (S.A.S .)
C
.'. A A OAB,
ODE ru
A. 1. a. In A A B C , if A D Z ~ ,
1
AB = 7 , AE = 72,
EC = 3 , is DE )I=?
Explain.
b. In A ABC, if A D = 15,
AB = 25, AC = 3 3 , and B C
AE = 21, is DE IJBG?
Explain.
2. a. Given two slmilar t r i a n g l e s in which t h e r a t i o of
2
a pair of corresponding sides is 3, what is t h e
ratio of the areas?
b. If the r a t i o of the areas of two sirnllar triangles
1
is T , what is t h e ratio of a p a i r of correspond-
i n g altitudes?
3. If 2, 5 , 6 are the lengths of the s i d e s o f one tri-
1
angle and TT, 9 , 3 are the lengths of the sides o f
another triangle, a r e the triangles similar? If so,
w r i t e ratios t o show the correspondence of the sides.
4. If ABCD is a trapezoid
with I
(1 DC and lengths
of segnents as shown, give
numerical answers below:
a.
AB m=? A
Area A AEB = ? 3
b* A r e a * CED
c Area A ACD = ?
Area A BEC
5. I n t h e fimre. ABCD is a
parallelogram with FG 11 DC.
DF = 4, DE = 6 , AB = 12,
KB = 2.m. Find AF, BC,
pvL 1 \
6. In quadrilateral in
KQRS
the figure, segments have
KS in t e r n of n.
Q
K 5
B. 1. Inthefigure, ABLE,
-
BH 1z, and the lengths
A
of the segments are as
shown. Find x, y, and 3
X
2.
C
B Y
2 With and
-
1
D\*
CH and with lengths
as indicated in the
figure, f i n d x, y, and
Y
2.
C Z 8
3. In t h i s figure A ACB is
a right triangle- with
altitude drawn t o the A
-
hypotenuse AB. Find
X, y, and z.
-
AF and B& are medians
of A ABH, as shown in
the figure. Prove
AABK .v A FQK. Write
three equal r i t i o a show- A B
i n g the proportionality
of t h e sides of these
t r i a n g l e s , and glve the
numerical value of the
ratios. H
m t h i s figure, BF = $KB
and BQ = $4B, Prove
the two t r i a n g l e s are
similar and wrlte three
equal r a t i o s showing
the proportionality of
t h e aides .
E 11 AB as shown in
the f i g u r e . Prove
AB*FQ = AQ-FH.
Answers
Yes, since
Yes. $ = 3 = 9.
6
73
B. 1. -
x -
- 5' hence x = 2 6 . y4 = qz , hence z = 6.
2
Y
= 2, hence y = 3 6
3.
4
=
6
hence x = 5. 5 =9, hence y = 2 6 .
Y
5 = 99 hence z = 3 6
2. Since
BF = 2
m = and L HBF ' L I\BP, h HBF r A ABQ
--
Problem S e t 13-1
[pages 412-4153
Thus i n t h e f i r s t part of the proof we show:
If a point is common to L and C its distance from
F Is. Since r 1s a definite positive
number, we see that there are only two possible p o s i t i o n s
on L f o r a pofnt common to L and C, namely the two
points on L whose distance to R is &.-
415 In the second part we show a converse: If a p o i n t is
on L and i t s distance from F then it 1s
common to L and C. To show t h i s we merely ahow t h a t
-
at point S . Draw the radius
PS. Let Q be the foot of the
perpendicular from P to L.
If Q # S, then L intersects
C l m exactly 2 points and
t h f s c o n t r a d i c t s t h e hypothesis
that L is tangent t o C a t
S . Therefore the p o i n t Q must
be the point S, hence the
tangent L is perpendicular to
the radius drawn to the point
of c o n t a c t .
416 Corollary 13-2-2. Any line in E perpendicular t o a
radius at its outer end, is tangent to the c i r c l e .
a l i n e i n E, per-
Given
pendicular t o a radius a t its
outer end, which is a point on
c l r c l e C.
This point is Q,
the foot of the perpendicular
from center P to L. Then,
by Theorem 13-2, the line
intersects the c i r c l e In Q
alone and is therefore tangent
to the circle.
[page 4161
Corollary 13-2-3, Any perpendicular f r o m the c e n t e r
of C to a chord b i s e c t s t h e chord.
Consider a chord
of c i r c l e C -and the l i n e L
containing AB. The 1Fne L
intersects C in t w o p o i n t s
A and B. Let Q be the
foot of the perpendicular from
P t o L, The intersection
cannot be Q alone. Hence,
by Theorem 13-2, A and B
are equidistant from Q.
Therefore the perpendicular
from P t o the chord biaects
the chord.
Corollary 13-2-4. The segment joining t h e center cf
a c i r c l e to the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the
chord.
416 Given chord of c i r c l e
C and segment PS where P
is the center of c l r c l e C and
S is the mid-point of' chord
-
AB. ~ e t ZJ
1 B w i t h foot
Q. By C o r o l l a r y 13-2-3, Q is
i i
-
the mid-point of AB. Since
-
the mid-point of
(Q = S) , PS is perpendicular
is unique
to the chord z. -
A l t e r n a t e Proof:
L e t F be the mid-point of AB.
Then P and F are e q u i d i s t a n t f r o m A and 3 in plane
w -
E and PF is the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of AB in plane
E by Theorem 6-2.
T h i s a l s o can be done independently of Theorem 13-2 by
us fng congruent t r i a n g l e s .
[page 4161
C o r o l l a r y 13-2-5. In the plane of a c i r c l e , the per-
pendicular b i s e c t o r of a chord passes through the c e n t e r of
the c i r c l e .
By Corollary 13-2-4 the segment joining the center of a
c i r c l e to the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the
chord, hence the line containing the c e n t e r of a c i r c l e and
the mid-point of the chord i s - a perpendicular biaector of
the chord. Since there l a only - one perpendicular to the
chord at i t s mid-polnt, the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of a
chord must pass through t h e center of the c i r c l e .
416 Alternate Proof: The perpendicular b i s e c t o r of the
chord in the plane of the c i r c l e contains a l l p o i n t s of this
plane which are equidistant from the end-points of the chord
.
h he or em 6-2) Therefore the perpendicular b i s e c t o r contain8
the c e n t e r .
Corollary 13-2-6. If a line in the plane of a circle
intersects the Interior of the c i r c l e , then it intersects
the c i r c l e In exactly two p o i n t s .
Consider line L in the
plane E of c i r c l e C which
containa a p o i n t S i n s i d e
C. L e t F be the foot of
the perpendicular from P to
L. By Theorem 7-6, PF - < PS. P
Slnce S is in the i n t e r i o r
of C, PS < r. Hence,
PF < r, and so F is in
the I n t e r i o r of C and
Condition (3) h o l d s .
Note on Corollary 13-2-6. This corollary d i f f e r s from
Case (3) of Theorem 13-2 in t h a t the point In the i n t e r i o r
of C does n o t have to be F, the foot of the perpendicular
to the line. Probably most students will consider this
difference quite unimportant, and a proof of an obvious fact
as very superfluous. While you may not care to b r i n g it up,
a significance of this corollary is that it indicates the
p r e c l a i o n of o u r treatment of c i r c l e s using Theorem 13-2
which allows us to glve a formal proof of such an I n t u i t i v e l y
obvioua r e s u l t .
417 The idea of congruent c i r c l e s gives you an excellent
opportunity to discuas the general Idea of congruence.
Point out that to say two figures are congruent means that
they can be made to "fit" or that one is an exact copy of
the o t h e r . B u t It is very d i f f i c u l t to give the student a
precise mathematical definition of the Idea until he knows
a f a i r amount of geometry ( s e e Appendix on Rigid ~otion).
Therefore we d e f i n e congruence piecemeal f o r segments,
angles, t r i a n g l e s , c i r c l e s , arca of c i r c l e s and so on. B u t
in each c a s e we frame the d e f i n i t i o n to ensure that the
figures are congruent, that i s , "can be made to fit". So
in the present case, we define c i r c l e s to be congruent if
they have congruent radii n o t because we consider t h i s
condition to be the basic idea, but because we are
intuitively c e r t a i n that I t guarantees that the circle can
be made to fit.
417 It might be well to remind the studenta o f what is
involved i n the concept of the distance between a point and
a line, including the case where the distance is z e r o ,
Note that In t h e proof of Theorem 1 3 - 3 we have assumed
t h a t t h e distance from each chord to the center I s n o t zero.
If it is z e r o , each chord is a diameter and the theorem
still holds.
Proofs of Thearema 13-3 and 13-4
Theorem 13-3. In the same c i r c l e or congruent c i r c l e s ,
chords e q u i d i s t a n t from the center are congruent.
- Let PE 1 AB
and
PF 1 as in the figure.
Draw r a d i i PE and PD.
Then in r i g h t triangles
PEB and PFD we have:
-
Draw radii PB and
( 5 ) EB = m. (5) S t e p s 3 and 4.
(6) A PEB % A PFD. (6) Hypotenuse -Leg Theorem.
=
( 7 ) PE PF or PE = PF (7) Corresponding p a r t s .
--
Problem Set 13-2
[pages 418-419 1
e. C. j. D.
420 8. Let PT intemect
a t F. Then FB = 6.
A BFP is a 30 60 -
right triangle. Hence
PB = 4 fi.
420 9. S l n c e a tangent t o a c i r c l e is perpendicular to the
radius drawn to the p o i n t of c o n t a c t , the two tangents
will be perpendicular t o the same line and are, there-
fore, parallel.
"10.
CD is tangent
Corresponding angles of
parallels.
3. OC=OA=OB. Definition of c i r c l e .
4. L A fuL ACO. Theorem 5-2.
5. LACOGLCOD. Alternate i n t e r i o r angles.
6. L COD E L B O D . Steps 2, 4, and 5 .
7. OD=OD. Identity.
8. b OCD~AOBD. S . A . S . and Steps 3 , 6, and
7
Definition of congruent
triangles.
Corollary 13-2-1.
OBD = 90. Steps 9 and 10.
12. is tangent Corollary 13-2-2.
at B.
[pages 419-420 1
0 11. Draw OR. %LAB, by Corollary 13-2-1. AR = BR,
by C o r o l l a r y 13-2-3.
421 12. Here are three arrangements.
*13. Let
- L be the common tangent.Then in both cases,
1
PT l and 1
L by Corollary 13-2-1. But there
exists only one perpendicular to a line at a p o i n t on
the line. Hence and &T are collinear. T h i s
means t h a t P, &, and T are collinear.
[pages 420-4211
422 "15. ( S e e TeacherTs Commentary f o r proof of Theorem 13-3 .)
16. Glven: AEP Y L DEP .
Prove:
- -
AB h! CD.
Draw
- - 1 and
PK 1CD.Then A PGE
and A PKE: are right
triangles with
rnLGEP = rnL HEP, and
EP = EP. Hence,
A PGE A PHE, making
PC = PH. By Theorem
-
13-3, AB S Z .
17. Since RD = RE, AB = BC by Theorem 13-3. But
DA =
1B and
F EC = 91 C by Corollary 13-2-3. Hence,
DA = EC.
18. By Corollary 13-2-4 t h e sewent joining a mid-point o f
a chord to the c e n t e r is perpendicular to the chord.
By Theorem 13-3 these segments a l l have equal lengths.
By t h e definition of a circle, all points equidistant
from a p o i n t lie on the circle having the p o i n t as
center and f t a radius equal to the distance. By
Corollary 13-2-2 the chords are all tangent to the
inner c i r c l e .
Definition of a circle.
w1m Corollary 13-2-1.
C
AC 1 CD,
- , * -
BDLCD. Given.
- 11 w llW*
- Theorem 9-2. .
CT Q TD. Theorem 9-26.
mL CTO = mL DTO Perpendicular lines form
= 90. right angles.
-
OT OT. Identl ty .
A CTO DTO. S .A.S.
-
CO a DO. Corresponding parts .
423 Notice how c l o s e l y the basic theorem on secant and
tangent planes, Theorem 13-5, follows the pattern of Theorem
13-2, the basic theorem on s e c a n t and tangent l i n e s of a
c i r c l e . As in the case of ~hgorern13-2, the point Q plays
a major r o l e in Theorem 13-5 and Its c o r o l l a r i e s .
425 Note that to prove (3) we show that two aets are
identical; that is, the inters,ection of E and S is the
same s e t as the c i r c l e w i t h center P and radius
Jn.
Q ia
If the
T h i s 18 why there a r e two parts to prove:
in
(1)
intersection then Q is in the c i r c l e ;
and conversely, ( 2 ) if Q is In the c i r c l e then Q is In
the i n t e r s e c t i o n . (Compare the discussfon of the alleged
identity of t h e Yale Mathematics Department and the Olympic
Hockey Team of the Commentary, Chapter 10.)
Observe that we establlah (1) and ( 2 ) by showing:
( I + ) If a p o i n t is common to E and S its distance
fmm P is Jn.
(2') If a p o i n t is in E and its distance f r o m F
la then it La common to E and S.
Compare w i t h Case ( 3 ) of Theorem 13-2.
Proofs of the Corollaries
426 Corollary 13-5-1. Everg plane tangent t o S i a per-
pendicular to the radLus drawn to the p o i n t of contact.
Given: Plane E tangent
t o S at p o i n t R.
To prove: Plane E perpendicular
to the radius drawn to the point
of contact.
[pages 423-1261
We will use the same method as in C o r o l l a r y 13-2-1.
L e t F be the foot of the perpendicular from P to E.
Slnce E is tangent to S and meets it in only one point,
Cases (1) and (3) of Theorem 13-5 do n o t apply. Therefore
(2) a p p l i e s so t h a t F 1s on S and E is tangent to S
at F. Therefore PF is the radius drawn to the p o i n t of
contact and E 1 PF.
426 C o r o l l a r y 13-5-2. Any plane perpendicular t o a radius
at its o u t e r end is tangent to S.
Given: Plane E is
p e r p e n d i c u l a r to radius
-
PR a t X.
To prove: Plane E is
tangent t o S .
Then R
is the f o o t of the per-
pendicular to plane E
f r o m P. By Theorem 13-5,
plane E intersects S
only at R, hence, E
is tangent to S .
C o r o l l a r i e s 13-5-3 and 13-54 are a c t u a l l y n o t
corollaries t o Theorem 13-5 s h c e t h e i r proofs do n o t require
the theorem. They are easily proved and are placed here
simply f o r convenience.
Corollary 13-5-3. A p e r p e n d i c u l a r from P t o a chord
of S, b i s e c t s the chord.
By Theorem 13-1, the plane determined by F and AB
i n t e r s e c t s S in a g r e a t circle. Then a p p l y i n g Corollary
13-2-3 we g e t A& = BQ.
A proof using congruent triangles is also p o s s i b l e .
C o r o l l a r y 13-5-4. The segment joining the center to
the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
Given: Sphere S with
D the mid-point of chord E.
P is the center of S .
TO prove: PD 1AB.
in Corollary 13-5-3,
As
the plane PAB intersects
S in a great c i r c l e . Then
-
PD 1 by C o r o l l a r y 13-2-4.
Other proofs are p o s s i b l e .
--
Problem S e t 13-3
-
4. OQ and % are perpendicular
to the planes .
- of the c i r c l e s
Theref ore OQ 1
- and
OP 1%. OA = OB, by the
d e f i n i t i o n of sphere, and
0Q = OP , by hypothesis.
Then, by the Pythagorean
Theorem, QA = PB. Hence
c i r c l e Q S c i r c l e P,.
by definition.
[pages 426-4271
427 ' 5 . AF = B F s i n c e they a r e ' r a d i i o f the c i r c l e of inter-
- -
s e c t i o n , and OF = AF by hypothesis. A l s o ,
-
1 OF AF,
OF LG, and I=. Hence, A A F B Z A AFO E A BFO,
and A AOB I s e q u i l a t e r a l . Therefore A 0 = 5 ,
mL A O B = 60, and OG, t h e altitude of' A AOB,
equals JT.
*6. Call the t h r e e p o i n t s A , B, C. To f i n d t h e center o f
t h e c i r c l e , in the plane ABC c o n s t r u c t t h e perpendicu-
- -
l a r b i s e c t o r s o f any two of t h e t h r e e segments AB, BC,
-
AC, The b i s e c t o r s i n t e r s e c t a t t h e c e n t e r , Q, o f t h e
- - -
c i r c l e . QA, QJ3, o r QC is a radius o f the c i r c l e .
Construct t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r to plane ABC at Q. T h i s
p e r p e n d i c u l a r meets the sphere in two p o i n t s , X and
Y. Determine t h e mid-point, P, of XY. P is t h e
- - -
center of the sphere. PA, PB, or PC is a r a d i u s
o f the s p h e r e .
428 *7. By Theorem 13-5 we know t h a t plane F i n t e r s e c t s S in
a c i r c l e . By P o s t u l a t e 8, the two planes i n t e r s e c t i n a
l i n e . S i n c e both i n t e r s e c t i o n s contain T, t h e c i r c l e
and l i n e i n t e r s e c t at T. If they are n o t tangent a t
T , t h e n they would i n t e r s e c t in some o t h e r p o i n t , R ,
a l s o . Point R would then lie in p l a n e E and in
sphere S . B u t t h i s i s i m p o s s i b l e , since E and S
are t a n g e n t a t T. Hence, t h e c i r c l e and the line a r e
t a n g e n t , by definition,
8. By d e f i n i t i o n , a g r e a t c i r c l e lies i n a plane through
t h e c e n t e r o f t h e sphere. The i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e two
p l a n e s must contain t h e c e n t e r of t h e sphere, s o that
t h e segment of the i n t e r s e c t i o n which is a chord of the
sphere is a diameter o f t h e sphere, and a l s o o f each
circle.
[pages 420-4321
432 In the definition of an angle inscribed in an -' -- a r c it is
important to g e t across to t h e student that we are talking
about angles Inscribed in -- arcs of circles. Two p o i n t s
separate the c i r c l e into two arcs. The student should see
that if an angle 1s inscribed in one of the arcs, the vertex
is on that arc and the angle Intercepts the o t h e r a r c . In
many geometry t e x t s t h i s is abbreviated to "an angle inscribed
in a circle", but t h i s can only mean "inscribed in an arc of
a circle", since t h l s is the way it has been defined in the
text.
433 Condition (2) f o r an intercepted a r c says, "each a i d e
of the angle contains an end-point of the arc". Notice that
in the 4th example, in the preceding figurea if one s i d e is
tangent t o the c i r c l e , the o t h e r s i d e or the angle contains
both end-points of the intercepted arc and the tangent
contains one end-point. For a discussion of Theorem 13-7
see S t u d i e s 11.
435 The "Why?" in the first case is t h e Angle Addition
P o s t u l a t e ; in t h e second case I t Is Theorem 13-6.
437-440 In Problem S e t 13-4a, Problem 1 and 6 define two terms
which you may want students to be f a m i l i a r w i t h . A l s o ,
Problems 5 , 6, 10, 11 and 12 point up interesting facts.
--
Problem Set 13-4a
-
b i s e c t o r of each segment.
Sfnce the segments AB
and BC are not parallel
or collinear, the per-
pendicular bisectors are A
not parallel and therefore I
I n t e r s e c t in a p o i n t P.
This can be seen by using Theorem 9-12, Theorem 9 - 2 ,
and the P a r a l l e l P o s t u l a t e , in t h a t order. AP = BP,
and BP = CP by Theorem 6-2. Hence AP = BP = CP.
By definition of c i r c l e , A,B,C must lie on a c i r c l e
with c e n t e r P.
-
and BD, by Corollary 12-6-1.
11. By Theorem 13-7, 4 .
A = pBD Since 4A = 90, then
mBDC = 180, and
n
a is a semi-circle. Hence, by
d e f i n i t i o n , BAC is a semi-circle.
440*12. By Problem 5 we know there is a c i r c l e through A ,B,C
C*
.
Let CD Intersect t h i s c l r c l e In Dl. Then ABCD' is
inscribed in the c i r c l e , and, by Problem 6 , 1
BAD1 is
supplementary to L C . But L BAD is supplementary to
L C by hypothesis. Therefore, L BAD'S L BAD, s i n c e
supplements of the same angle are congruent. Hence,
%?=st and D = D t .
*13. Since AC and a r e tangent at the end-points of a
-
diameter, then AC 11 E. A l s o , AC and are
segments of chords In the larger c i r c l e which a r e
congruent by Theorem 13-3. By Corollary 13-2-3, the
-
radii
- and bisect these chords, so that
AC CS BD. Therefore quadrilateral ADBG I s a parallelo-
gram, by Theorem 9-20. But the diagonals of a parallelo-
gram b i s e c t each other, so t h a t and 5 bisect
each o t h e r at some p o i n t , P. Now 0 I s the mid-point
of E, so P = 0, and C , 0, D are collinear,
making CD a diameter.
[pages 439- 4401
Other proofs are p o s s i b l e .
-
text.
2. Supplement Postulate.
3. x - 180 - TQYR.
1 1 3. Steps l a n d * .
I 5. D e f i n i t i o n of measure of a
major a r c .
[pages 441-4421
443 In Problem S e t 13-4b, Problems 8, 9, 10, 14 and 16 are
i n t e r e s t i n g theorems in t h e i r own r i g h t and are applicable
to many numerical probleme. They a r e e a s i l y grasped and
proved. However, they am n o t essential to l a t e r deductive
proof in the t e x t .
In the theorems on these pages we w i l l be e s t a b l i s h i n g
relationships about the products of the l e n g t h s o f segments
by f i r s t establishing a p r o p o r t i o n Involving t h e s e segments
using s irnllar triangles .
Problem --
S e t 13-4b
d. L DAF. 1. LEAL
e. LDCB. $. L DBC.
444 5. Since
-
PQ 1E ,
-
mFB = 120, mL BPC = 60
so t h a t rnL BPQ
by Theorem 13-10.
= 30. A APQ 1s a 30 - 60
right triangle. Hence, AP = 4 n .
*7. Draw
13-10,
E.
= r n l 5PT.
BPT =
i&mind
-
By Theorem 13-7, mL BPR = p B R .
1-
by d r f i n l t i u n of
d i s t a n c e from a p o i n t t o a l i n e . PB = PB, so
.
d PBE S h PBF by A . A . S Theref o r e , BE = BF, which
was to be proved.
445 8. Draw E, forming A BCE. Then, mL DEB = mL C + mi B
[pages 444-4451
446 12. ~DT = 88 and I&? = 122.
mL EDC = m L DBC = 31.
4 CMD = mL AMB = 4 ABC = 75.
mLDMA = 4 CM3 = 105.
m L FDB = 4 DCB = 88.
4 ACB = rnL ACD = 4 DBA = 44.
mLCAB = 4 CDB = 61.
~ D C E~ B D =
= E 92.
DEC = 57.
mL DFA = 48.
4 CAP = 119.
4 CDF
4 ACE -
= 149.
136.
13. a. By Corollary 13-7-2, ADP = 4 BCP and
m i DAP = cBP. Hence A APD - A BPC by A . A .
b. Since similar triangles have corresponding sides
proportional, = F.
PD Clearing of f r a c t i o n s we
have AP PC = PB PD.
4 . a. By Theorem 13-10, 4 DAC = h?,
and by Theorem
=
i(m$
1 -
,{muc
+ 116=9 ) + m@ +
+(m@
+ &) + ;(mG + a)
+ m?~)
-
Draw t h e diameter from P. Since the diameter
is perpendicular to the tangent it is per-
pendicular t o AB, By Theorem 9 - 1 2 . There-
fore,
n
= mBP.
-
and 13-14 is kept consistent as illustrated below
A SQU A TQR in each case,
A SQU -
Theorem 13-12
A TQR
W - Q S= QU0QT
A SQU * A TW
Notice that we used U as
t h e name of the p o i n t of
C,
contact of the tangent QT
in A SQU and used T as
the name in A TQR. Theorem
but since T = U
Q R q Q S = Q U 2 = W2 .
{pages 450-451j
A SQU A T&R-
Theorem 13-14
Q R m W= QUO QT
&R-QS = QU-QT
Since R = S and -
T U
we g e t QR QR = QT W
m 2 = &2T .
Since &R and QT are
p o s i t i v e numbers we have
Theorem 13-11, &R = m.
QR =QU- QT.
S i n c e Q = R = U then
QR = 0 and QU = 0 , hence
0-Q3 = o*&T
o = o
and t h i s is a t r i v i a l
result, but the pattern
W ' Q S = Q U * W still
holds.
--
Problem S e t 13-5
452 1.
t, u M
I. AC, CE EH and 1. Given.
are tangents at
3, D, and F
respectively.
2. CB = CD. 2 Theorem 13-11.
EF = ED.
3. CB+EF=GD+DE 3. Addition.
= CE.
d2 = @I(-) + h 2
.
2
Now since h is very small compared to 5280, [=I h
is exceedingly small, and is n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . So
ap>roximately, d = d m = 1.23 f i .
Hence, d is roughly 2 A.
[pages 455-4563
Review Problems
a, chord. f. minor a r c .
b. diameter. ( a l s o chord.)
C. secant. g. major arc.
d. radius. h. inscribed angle.
e. tangent. i. c e n t r a l angle.
55 and 70.
mL AXB = 90, because it is inscribed in a semi-circle.
n
4 AXY = 45. mAY = 90 s I n c e L AXY I s inscribed.
Hence the measure of central angle ACY is 90 making
E 1 E.
a. True. f. True.
b. True. g. False.
c. False. h. True.
d. True. i. True.
e. False. j. True.
6 Given: Chord BP
bisects
t,
chord ACat
H. DE is a tangent.
FH = 3 , BH = 12 and
C
A
2. Given:
- =a.
Prove: AB 11 CD.
True . 6. False.
True. 7. True.
False. 8. False.
False. 9. False.
False. 10. False.
4 BAC =
4 0 = mA3. h
Hence mL BAC = +l 0.
Draw AD. Then rnL BAD = mL CDA since they i n t e r c e p t
-
congruent a r c s . AB )I m, because of the congruent
a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r angles formed,
Given: ABCD is a
parallelogram i n s c r i b e d
in c i r c l e 0 .
Prove: ABCD is a
rectangle.
3. Opposite angles o f a
parallelogram are congruent.
n n
ADC Z ABC, and 2. A r c s intercepted by con-
gruent inscribed angles.
@ I s a semi-circle.
LD is a right angle. 3. An angle i n s c r i b e d i n a
semi-circle is a right
angle.
ABCD is a rectangle. 4 D e f i n i t i o n of rectangle
and Theorem 9-23.
4. Since tangents to a c i r c l e from an external p o i n t are
congruent, we have AB = BC and DE = DC, By addition,
AB + DE = BD.
5. Let AX b e a chordof
c i r c l e 0 which i n t e r -
sects c i r c l e P at Y.
X
Prove: AY = XY.
Consider z. L AYO
18 a right angle, because
it is inscribed in a semi- A
c i r c l e . AY = XY because a line perpendicular t o a
-
chord and containing the center of the c i r c l e b i s e c t s
the chord. (Since OA and PA are perpendicular to a
common tangent at A , P must lie on x.)
6. since N b l ~at P,
-
NO 1F,and A OPY
l a a right triangle.
Since F at 0,
rnLNOX = 90, and
F r o m properties of a
30 - 60 r i g h t triangle
PY = 1 p. But OY = OX.
merefore, PY = +OX.
Chapter 14
CHAWCTEBIZATION OF SETS. CONSTRUCTIONS.
--
Problem S e t 14-1
Solution Set
4 >
Given L i n e P
- - -
L; CD 11 L; AD ( 1 M; BC 1 1 M. The
11
required s e t consists of the p o l n t s of the
parallelogram A3CD together with all i n t e r i o r
points.
6 a.
-
The s e t c o n s i s t s of t w o p o i n t s , the t h i r d v e r t i c e s
of the two equilateral triangles which have AB
a s one sfde.
--
Problem Set 14-2a
[pages 463- 4 4 4 )
e. The intersection of the two spheres having the
given p o i n t s as centers and the given distances as
radii. T h i s i n t e r s e c t i o n may be a c i r c l e , one
p o i n t , o r the empty s e t .
f. A cylindrical s u r f a c e ( s e e b above) capped by
two hemispheres .
2. a. The l i n e which is the perpendicular bisector of' the
segment jolning the two given p o i n t s .
b. The I l n e p a r a l l e l t o the given l i n e s and midway
between them.
c. The two lines which bisect t h e angles made by the
given l i n e s .
d. One p o i n t - the i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e perpendicular
b i s e c t o r s of t w o of the s i d e s of the triangle
determined by the given p o i n t s .
k55 3. a. The perpendicular b i s e c t i n g plane of t h e segment
joining the given p o i n t s .
N o t e that p o i n t s A
and B a r e n o t i n the
set.
-
The set c o n s i s t s of a l l p o i n t s on a c i r c l e with diameter AB
-
and also a11 points on the l i n e s perpendicular t o t h i s
diameter at A and B excluding t h e p o i n t s A and B .
469 In Theorem 14-2 we are referring, of course, to the
perpendicular bisectom of the sides in the plane o f the
triangle.
Theorem 14-2 wlll be used later to circumscribe a c i r c l e
about a triangle. The construction is a d i r e c t consequence
of the theorem. Since the p o i n t of concurrency is the center
of the circumscribed circle, it is called the clrcumcenter
o f the triangle.
In the proof of Theorem 14-2 we can answer the questfon
" ~ h y ? " , as f o l l o w s . Suppose L~ 1 1 L*. we h o w L~
and AC
M
1
L2. Hence
C+
AB 1 Lp. Thus the t w o lines v, %?
are perpendicular t o L2, and m u s t be parallel.
Proofs of the Corollaries
470 Corollary 14-2-1. There is one and only one c i r c l e
through three non-collinear p o i n t s .
Since the existence and uniqueness of a point equidistant
from the three vertices of a t r i a n g l e 1s proved in Theorem
14-2, the center and radius of a c i r c l e containing m y three
non-collinear p o i n t s are uniquely detepmined.
C o r o l l a r y 14-2-1. Two d i s t i n c t c i r c l e s can intersect in
at most two p o i n t s .
Theorem 13-2 rules out the possibility of more than t w o
c o l l l n e a r p o i n t s and Corollary 14-2-1 rules out the possibility
of three, or more, non-colllnear points.
of the transversal
* s.) t, @
Thus BE and AD Intersect.
L e t BE1 and be the rays
+
opposite to BE and AD. Then
-+
one of the f o u r cases must hold:
(1) i n t e r s e c t s A D This
is impossible s i n c e if their
E'
-2-
p o i n t of Intersection were T,
the t r i a n g l e TAB would have
-
two angles the sum of whose
measures was more than 180.
-
( 2 ) BE' I n t e r s e c t s AD.
l i e onopposite s i d e s of AB.
+
b' "
This is impossible, s i n c e the rays
.
( 3 ) BE i n t e r s e c t s This l a impossible for the same
reason as ( 2) .
[page a 470-471 1
--* -+
(4) BE i n t e r s e c t s AD. Being the only possibility left,
t h i s must be true.
Notice that we have used no special property of b i s e c t o r s ,
4 +
merely the fact that BE and AD (excluding B and A )
are in the i n t e r i o r s of B and L A .
Theorem 14-4 will be used to inscribe a c i r c l e in a
t r i a n g l e . We can see that the p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t f o n is
equidistant from the sides of the t r i a n g l e , and a c i r c l e
with t h i s p o i n t as center and the distance from t h i s p o i n t
to a s i d e as radiua, will have the sides of the triangle as
tangents. T h i s p o i n t of concurrency is called the i n c e n t e r
of the t r i a n g l e .
472 1.
of L B .
Problem --
Set 14-2b
The p o i n t is the i n t e r s e c t i o n o f
-
PQ and the b i s e c t o r
-
and L DBC meet at P,
P is equidistant from
frorn%8and%?
C,
AB and A C , and a l s o
A
But ==%?, hence,
P is equidistant from
C e
CE and BC and lies
on the b i s e c t o r of L BCE .
472 4. This follows by applying Theorem 14-4 and Problem 3 to
the bisectors of the i n t e r i o r and exterior angles of
the triangle as shown.
p4
[pages 472-4731
473 8. The required s e t is the c i r c l e w i t h the segment as
dlameler, but with the end-points of the segment omitted.
If P is in t h i s s e t , then L APB is a right
triangle by Corollary 13-7-1.
If L APB is a right
angle, l e t 3 i n t e r s e c t
t h e c i r c l e in Q. Then
L A Q B is a r i g h t angle by
Corollary 13-7-1, and hence,
Q = P by Theorem 6-3,
Therefore P lies on the
A
c i r c l e , but P # A and
P #B.
--
Problem S e t 14-3
of t h e perpendicular
AB
b i s e c t o r of and
the c i r c l e whose center C
d. One p o i n t , the
intersection
- of
BC and the c i r c l e
with center B and
radius 2, and t h e
circle with c e n t e r
C and radius 4.
P~oblem--
Set 14-5a
--
Problem Set 14-5b
A
C* -
483 1. Construct B C L A C .
Make % B: E.
A ABC is t h e requf red
triangle,
I
N
J
Construct t h e perpendicu-
lar blsector- of
\
z,
-
meeting AC in M. Mark
-
o f f MB, MD on 1 ,
-
each congruent to AM.
ABCD is the required
[pages 480-4831
- -
483 3. Make F H S A B . Construct
the perpendicular bisect d ~ *
of E. w e Z SEE.
Bisect E&. Make
XR=XW=PQ. 1 FWHR is F H
the required rhombus .
@
4.
-
On
QW
AF as a "working line", make XW = d and XQ = e .
is the base of our triangle. C o n s t r u c t +
XR w
1AF
and on it make XP = h.
I F
PQ=AB, QR=CD.
of E.
+ -
+
QT L
y-
-
M is the mid-point
----
I PR.
QT meets semi-circle /
at S. QS is the
geometric mean of P
1
d Q
I,
R
AB and CD.
48 4 Other ways to construct a line parallel to a given line
through an external p o i n t are (1) c o n s t r u c t corresponding
angles congruent and (2) construct a line perpendicular to
a line through the given p o i n t perpendicular to the given
line.
48 5 On the basis of a c o n a t m c t i o n very aimilar to 14-11 it
is possible to divide the length of a given segment in a
-
given ratfo. Given a sement AB, we want to divide AB
i n t o two segments such that the lengths of these segments
will be in some given ratio, say . The construction is
-- follow:
as -
3,
-
S t a r t i n g at A drew any rag and a ray not
+ + ----*
-
collinear with ray AD. On AD mark off AB and on AC
mark off? AE = a and EF = b. Draw BF, and through E
+
construct a l i n e L parallel to BF intersecting AD at
Then
M t*
Proof: Since we have in A ABF, EG parallel t o BF and
-
Intersecting AF and E, then I t follows from Theorem 12-1
AG
that; i?;~=
AE
hence, AG = a
m,
-
Probley Set
of KE f r o m D. D E E is t h e required parallelogram.
(1f both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are
congruent, it is a parallelogram.)
486 2. UsIng OA as radius and 0 as center, construct an
arc as shown. Count the number of small arcs ( 9 in
this example) and draw a radius from 0 to the fnter-
section of t h e a r c and the (n + 11th line (10th in
t h i s c a s e ) . The radius OB congruent to the original
segment, will be divided by the lines o f t h e paper i n t o
CI
[pages 485-4861
486 3. Corresponding segments on
e qua 1 length.
--
BD, AC are parallel and of
XY = YZ = ZA.
[page 486-4871
487.8. Construct a triangle ARC with AC = b, C R = c,
AR = 2m.
E -- 2'
-
Also A DAX A DCB
and DA =
1
7, so A is
C,
the mid-point. If CA and BX were p a r a l l e l , AX
would have t o equal CB. T h i s we have shown is not
C--*
true, so 3 and BX must i n t e r s e c t .
4
488 *lo, Analysis of problem: The common tangent LN meets m
at L, and LK = LN = Dl, so L is the mid-point of
- - -
KM. PN and PM 1
m. Now proceed as follows:
Bisect m;
let L be the mid-point. With center L
and radius LK construct an arc i n t e r s e c t i n g c i r c l e C
u
at N. Construct %?lm
and f j f f l L N , intersecting
in P. Then PM = PN and the required c i r c l e has
center P and radius PM.
+
We can find Q by drawing a ray A F maklng a con-
+ 4
venient angle with AB, then drawing the ray BG
+
p a r a l l e l to 3 and on the same side of AB. Q is
+
determined as the intersection o f FG and x,
slince
triangles AFQ and BGQ are sfmilar, and
AF
A&
m=m= ,r as desired.
Let c be an a r c of 120'. Then 4 AQC = 120 f o r
n
any p o s i t i o n o f Q on the a r c . S i m i l a r l y , l e t BRC
be an arc of 120'. Hence, if P is t h e p o i n t of
i n t e r s e c t i o n (other than C) of the two a r c s , we have
mL APC = mL BFC = 120. It follows t h a t rnL APB = 120.
( A complete analysis of t h i s problem, including the case
in which one angle has measure > 120, is v e r y
-
complicated. )
*13. By A . A . , A BPM wA DPN and A MPC - A NPA so t h a t
- MP
MB - MP and MC = 5.
ND-m
Hence,
By A . A . , A Q3M
*
- h QAN and h QCM - A QDN
and MC m=m.
MQ
so t h a t
NA = Fiq
Hence,
g. 60°+450, or 90*+15O.
h. 2%' is half of 45', and 6 7 * 0 = 4 5 0 + 2 % lo
.
-
500 c. Construct
- segment
a
RB perpendicular to
a "working l i n e " ,
XW, at any con-
venlent p o i n t and
make RB = %. w
Using B as c e n t e r X A C W
b
and a as radius,
c o n s t r u c t an arc
H
Using C as center and
i n t e r s e c t i n g XW a t C. u
b as radlus construct an arc intersecting - at
A. (Two solutions in general, depending upon where
+
A is taken, on the ray CR o r on the opposite
d. Construct LWAB
congruent to L A .
Construct i t s bi-
-
s e c t o r , AX. F ~ k e
AB = c . Connect
B w i t h X. The
w
goint at which BX
w
meets AW is C.
e.
-
solution, in c a s e
BX I I E.
)
Since we are given
L 3 and s i n c e
m L A X B = 90, we
can construct
XAB. Then con-
s t r u c t A ABX by
- *
constructing AX
(of length ha) I=,
and L XAB. Using
A as center and ma
as radius, f i n d M, then make MC = MB.
[ page 500 I
. -
-
500 f S t a r t by constructing
AX (of length ha) A
perpendicular to a
"working line", BC .
S i n c e we are given
B and since
4 BXA = go,
b
m L B A X can be B X C
.
eas ily cons t r u e t e d
Similarly L CAX
can be constructed.
Construct these two
angles at A .
Construct CX (of
length hc) per-
pendicular t o
U s e C as center
=.
and t, AS radius
the b i s e c t o r of
L C, c o n s t r u c t
on each s i d e of
- A X Y 0
CY and angle
whose measure is
B
idc.
C o n s t r u c t an angle
congruent to L A
and make AC = b.
Using C as center
and tC as r a d i u s , c b A
find X. We now
have A XCA of measure 1 4 C. construct
L XCB 2 L XCA.
500 4. A BPM - A DPA, by A . A . A . , and so
Hence, BP =
1 BD.
3
A similar argument shows W =I 1 DB, so that P and Q
are t h e trisection p o i n t s of BD.
In the right t r i a n g l e ABM, the r a t l o 2. -
If rnL BAM = 30, t h i s r a t i o would have to be , and
hence, BAM # *go0.
Hence the t r l s e c t l o n of the segment BD would -
not lead
t r i s e c t i n g L BAD.
Definltlon of isosceles
triangle.
D and E will be
inslde the c i r c l e ,
because AD and
AE are each less
than the radius. A
This can be shown
by considering a
segment joining A to t h e mid-point M of BC-,
-
AM L E and D and E a r e nearer M than B
and C a r e .
If RE is drawn, area A BRD = area b EDR, hence,
area DRSE > area A BRD, and, by a d d i t i o n ,
6. Let
-area A ARS > area A ARB. But if L BAC were
trisected, we would have area A ARS = area A A R B .
QD meet
-at 0 , anddrop A H I Q P . Then
BA
A Q?IA 2 A QGA A QGB, =
- 4
+
from which the d e s i r e d r e s u l t follows. Notice t h a t &A
+
and QG are t r i s e c t o r s of (L PQR.
Review Problems
-
2. Divide AB into 4 congruent segments. B i s e c t a 90'
angle. Construct the rhombus us i n g a 45' angle and
1 -
AB f o r each s i d e of the rhombus,
Given and p o l n t s
K and Q in vlane E.
A < *B
Tell how t o locate a
p o i n t on W fiifh~ihis
'0
equidistant from K
and Q.
M
Consider all c i r c l e s in one plane tangent to AB at A.
Describe the s e t of p o i n t s which are centers of the
circles.
Describe the s e t of centers of c i r c l e s Fn one plane
w
w i t h radius 3 which are tangent to AB .
Describe the set of points I n the plane which are equi-
distant from the sides of ABC and at distance x
from B.
If t w o parallel planes are d units apart, what will be
the length of the radii of spheres t a n g e n t to both
planes? Describe the a e t of centers of spheres tangent
to both planes.
Describe the s e t of points which are at distance 5
from A and at distance 6 from B.
Given r i g h t A ABC with as hypotenuse. Describe
the s e t of polnts C in the plane of the t r i a n g l e ; in
apace.
Describe the s e t oP mid-points of parallel chords in a
circle.
Under what conditlona will the centers of c i r c l e a
inscribed in and circumscribed about a triangle be the
same point?
d
I t
h
I I
A
3 y construction locate
points which are squi-
4
distant from AB and
4
BC and equidistant
from X and K, as
shown.
3. %3 and W intersect
at some inaccessible
point C *
By con~trmctLondetermine
the bisector of & ACF ,
F H
2. One p o i n t , t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of the b i s e c t o r o f
- 1 ABC
and the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of XK .
4+a C*
3. C o n s t m c t llnes 1 and / parallel to AB and F'H
at the same distance from & e
and FH. If / and
i n t e r s e c t at Q, the bisector of L Q w i l l be
the required b l s e c t o r slnce each of its p o i n t s is
equidistant f r o m
f,
and s.
4. construct parallels to / a t distance x f r o m I t .
With G as center construct the c i r c l e whoae radiua
is r + x . The intersections of t h i s c i r c l e and
either parallel will be centers of c i r c l e s of radius
x tangent to 2
and C .
Chapter 15
AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SECTORS
-
360
4 PleX = -
n '
By the P o i n t P l o t t l n g Theorem,
there is a p o i n t P2 on QX
such that &P2 = &PI. Then
n
the minor a r c P1P2 has measure
-
360
n Now repeat the proceas
replacing F1 by P2 and half-
plane HI by Hz, the half-
plane opposite to P,I , w i t h
f
s
edge QP
- 4
. This yields a minor
arc P2P3 of measure 7 -
360 which i n t e r s e c t s P ~ P * only in
P2. Continuing in t h i s way we g e t a sequence of p o i n t s
..., pn - such that successive minor
P1* P%P3-
arcs PIP2, P2P3, ..., ' n - l nP have measure 360 and
[pages 509-5101
n
have in common only an end-point. Then the maJor arc
PIP,
- n -
has measure T4360
1
1
[pages 510-5123
Problem S e t 15-2
. 3 ? .33, , 3 3 3 , 3
and that the sequence of "doubles" haa double the llmit:
.6, .66, .666, . .. +3' 2
a. The r a d i u z of t h e c i r c l e .
d. T h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e of t h e c i r c l e .
C = 2m,
628 = 6.281.,
100 = r.
The radFus of t h e pond is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 yards.
22
7 is the c l o s e r approxlrnation.
C = 2 ~ =
r 480,000~. The circumference i s approximately
l,5OG,OQO miles.
The formula g i v e s 2m = 6.28 X 93 10b = 58ll . 10' or
584 million miles, approximately.
Our speed is a b o u t 67,000 miles p e r h o u r .
The r a d i u s of t h e i n s c r i b e d c i r c l e is 6 s o t h a t i t s
circumference is 2 The radius o f t h e circumscribed
c i r c l e is 6 f i so t h a t i t s c i r c u m f e r e n c e Ls 1 2 ~ 6 ,
The p e r i m e t e r o f P&RS is greater than t h e circumference
o f the c i r c l e .
AD = 2 and XW = &?. Hence PS = $(2 + &).
T h e perimeter of t h e s q u a r e is 2{2 + f i ).
The circumference of t h e c i r c l e is 2 ~ .But 2 + fi > -rr
F r o b l e m S e t 15-4
A r e a of c i r c l e = -
ioo
Tr
= 32 approx.
P = 4s = 20
s = 5.
Area of square = 25.
The area of the c i r c l e is greater by about 7 square
lr,ches ,
6. ~ ( 5 ~ 2 ) ~ - ~ ( 5 ) ~ = 2 5 7 ~ ,
The area is 2 5 ~square i n c h e s .
Therefore,
'3
rl > r.
524 +13. a. Note that rl=OA=OR=BP and r2=OS = C P .
By successive use of the Pythagorean Theorem we
g e t rl = r f i , r , = r n , r3 = r f i .
Problem --
Set 15-5
3m
-7F in each c a s e .
528 4, The measure of the arc is 90. The length of the arc
5. a. Area of s e c t o r =
1.
-6 2
012 = 2 4 ~ .
Area of t r i a n g l e = = 3 6 6
Hence, A = n ( 9 )*+2,
4s and $ r.
There are several methods
of showing that the four
small triangles are con-
gruent to each other.
For example, each of the
angles marked w i t h an a r c
will have a measure of 60.
In t h i s case the congruence
3.8 by A . S . A . Hence, each
of the four small triangles
has the same area, and then
the circumscribed triangle
has an area four times that
of the inscribed triangle.
-
The woodchuckis burrow will be in the region bounded
by XOY and XPY.
The area of each of the
n
e a u i l a t e r a l trian~les
-
2
1s 6 . The area of
each segment IS h /
\
I
2
im2-$n. Then
t h e area in which t h e
woodchuck can s e t t l e is
any woodchuck b o w s .
18. Let a and p be the apathem and perimeter of the
smaller polygon and a' and p 1 be the apothem and
perimeter of the larger polygon. The ratio of the areas
is . But = s, SO t h a t , the r a t l o of the areas
is 4.
P
Hence,
2
5 =a=q=
.: The s l d e s also
have t h e ratio 3.
False. 8. True.
False. 9. False.
True. 10. False.
since A = rr2 , A = (
C =
c2
1 to 2 in each case.
-
of parallelogram ABCD consists of a l l point8 X whlch
are on the aame side of
H
as C and D, on the same
side of BC as D and A , on the aame side of CD as
w
A and B and on t h e same a i d e of DA as B and C. A n
w
A I' B
537 Theorem 16-3 is easy to grasp intuitively, but tedious
to prove formally. Here is an outline of a proof.
L e t El and E2 be the
planea of the bases, L ~f
be the transversal and I
a s i d e of the base.
We want to show t h a t the
l a t e r a l face F which
1s the union of all s e p e n t s
-
PPt , where P is in 3,
is a parallelogram region.
Remember that by definition
-
of a prism, PP1 ) ( L and
-
P 7 I s in 2.
AA'
E
and BB7 where
Consider
- -
A A I 11 L, BBt 1 1 L and
At, B1 are in E2. Then A3B1A1 is a parallelogram
and the l a t e r a l face F is the corresponding parallelogram
region. To prove t h i s , f i r a t show that every p
- oint PI is
- - -
PPt . -
po-lnt on ABBIAt o r I n its i n t e r l o r lies in some segment
-
Thus, the segments PPf constitute the parallelogrm
region composed of ABBtA1 and its i n t e r i o r .
Problem --
S e t 16-1
-
538 1.
A
FW 11 ( D e f i n i t i o n of prism) .
Hence, FK and 5
determine a plane h he or em 9-11 .
By d e f i n i t i o n the
upper and lower bases of a prism are parallel, hence,
-
FB )I HA h he or em 10-1) Hence, A3FH is a.
parallelogram.
539 2. 30 + 40 + 50 + 70 + 20 = 210.
3. 3 ~ 8 ~ 1 0 + 8 ~ 4 f i = 2 4 0 + 3 2 6
The total surface area is 240 + 3 2 f i square inchea .
4. Since each l a t e r a l face is a rectangle, its area is the
product of base and a l t i t u d e . If e is the length of
a lateral edge and S1, S 2 , S3, . ..
are lengths of
t h e sides of the prism base, then A1 = Sle, A 2 = S2e,
area, A = Sle + S e +
2
... = ( s +~ S2 + Sg + ...) e .
But S1 + S2 + S3 + ... = p, t h e perimeter of the
base. Therefore, A = p e.
-
In (1) of Theorem 16-4, to j u a t l f y
in AP and A I P 1 . Thus, -
Similarly In (2) we show A
H
AP 11 A I P t
I(
)I A 7 P t note
t h a t E [I Eq and that plane V A L i n t e r s e c t s E and Et
w
by Theorem 10-1.
--
Problem S e t 16-2
definition, so
h AVB =
h w c s A CVD = ...
by S.S.S.
Let P , Q, R and S be
-
the mid-pointa of Af3, AC,
-
VB and respectively.
Then and PQ are each
parallel to BC and equal in
-I
length t o
- i
3C. Therefore,
SR and PQ are p a r a l l e l ,
coplanar, and equal In length
making PQRS a parallelogram.
[pages 540-5441
544 5. L e t each edge of the base have l e n g t h s . Each face
is a triangle w i t h base s and altitude a .
Hence, 1 1
A = p a +pa+ .., or
-
-
38. Let
- PK = a and PB = b. Draw altitude PS.
-
PS 1 JKLMN a t R . PB and PS determine a plane
which i n t e r s e c t s JKLMN and ABCDE in KR and
C-,
respectively. S i n c e JKLMN I( ABCDE, KR )I BS.
I n A PBS, by t h e Basic Proportionality Theorem,
PK
w = =.
PR By Theorem 16-5, area JKLMN - PR
area ABCDE- (ETl .
area JKLMN PK =! 2
Hence 9 area ABcDE = = ) .
The t e x t postulates the formulas f o r the volume of a
rectangular parallelepiped and proceeds to prove t h e remain-
i n g formulas far the volumes of prisms, pyramlds, cones,
cylinders and spheres. This is analogous to the procedure
followed in Chapter 11 when the formula f o r the area o f a
rectangle was postulated.
546-547 Cavalieri's Principle Is an extremely powerful p o s t u l a t e .
It can be proved as a theorem by methods resting on the theory
o f l i m i t 8 a s developed in i n t e g r a l c a l c u l u s . It will be used
throughout t h e chapter to prove theorems concerning the
volumes of solids.
A model f o r making Cavalierils Principle seem reasonable
can be made using thin rectangular rods in an approach
slightly d i f f e r e n t from that of the t e x t . Consider the
following statement: Glven a plane containing two regions
and a line. If f o r every line which intersects t h e regions
and is parallel to the given line the two intersections have
equal lengths, then the two regions have the same area.
[pages 546-5471
5 49 You may wish to p o i n t out that while the proof3 of
Theorems 16-7 and 16-8 require t h e s o l i d s to have t h e i r
bases coplanar, in numerical application t h i s is n o t
necessary.
5 50 In the proof of Theorem 16-9, to h e l p the students
v i s u a l l z e how three triangular pyramids a r e formed by
cutting a triangular prism, some v f s u a l a i d should be u s e d .
Dlsected s o l i d s can be purchased from an equipment supply
company; or one could try to make them by cutting up a bar
o f laundry soap. The three pyramids are formed by c u t t i n g
the triangular prism by t h e planes through t h e p o i n t s S ,
P, R and the p o i n t s S, P, U,
551 Theorem 16-10 can be proved without recourse to
Cavalierits P r i n c i p l e by splitting the pyramid into tri-
angular pyramids and applying Theorem 16-9. The proof in
the text was chosen because it applies j u s t as well to
cones as to pyramids, ( s e e Theorem 16-15) .
-
--
Problem Set 16-3
33 f i s h c a n be kept in the
tank.
[pages 549-552 1
552 4. The base can be divided into s i x e q u i l a t e r a l triangles
with sLde 12. Therefore, altitude &F of A ABQ has
l e n g t h 6 6 . Slnce QC = 9 , by Pythagorean Theorem
CF = 4189. Hence the l a t e r a l area is
<
553 Here I s a formal definition of c i r c u l a r cylinder, and
associate terms. I;et El and E2 be two parallel planes,
L a transversal, and K a
circular region in El, which
does not intersect L. For
each point P of K, l e t
-
PP9 be a segment parallel
to L with PI in E2.
The union of a l l such s e m n t s
is called a circular cylinder.
--
K is the lower base, or j u s t
the base, of the cylinder.
The set of a l l points PI,
that -la, t h e p a r t of the
cylinder that l i e s in E2,
-
-
I s called the upper base. Each segment PPt is called an
element of the cylinder. ( ~ o t ewe d l d n o t introduce the term
element in defining p r i s m . ) The distance h between El
and E2 is the altitude of the cylinder. If L is per-
*pendicular to El and E2 the cylinder I s a r1P;ht cylinder.
M.
-
Let M be the bounding c i r c l e of K and C the center of
The union of all the element8 PPr f o r which P belongs
to M is c a l l e d the lateral surface of the cylinder. The
t o t a l surface is the union of the l a t e r a l surface and the
bases. The element CC1 determined by the center of M l a
-
the axis of the cylinder. Cross-sections are defined for
cylinders exactly as f o r prisms .
554 Here is a f o r m a l definition of c i r c u l a r cone, and
associate t e r n . L e t K be a c i r c u l a r region in a plane
E , and V a p o i n t n o t in E.
-
For each p o i n t F in K there
is a segment W . The union of V
a l l such segments is called a
- -
c i r c u l a r cone with base K- and
vertex V. Each segment W
is an element of the cone. - The
union of all elements PV f o r
which P belongs to the bounding
c i r c l e of K is the lateral
surface of the cone. The t o
surface is the union of the
l a t e r a l surface and the base.
The distance h from V to E
is t h e altitude of the cone.
If the center of the base c i r c l e
Is the f o o t of the perpendicular
from V to E, the cone is a
r i g h t c i r c u l a r cone.
555 A formal proof of Theorem 16-11 is somewhat involved -
we present a basis for a formal proof. L e t M be the c i r c l e
which bounds the base of the cylinder. Let C be the center
of M and r its r a d i u s .
L e t E be the sectioning plane,
and C1 i t s i n t e ~ s e c t i o nwith
the element of the
cylinder. Then the intersection
of E with the lateral surface
of t h e cylinder is the c i r c l e
M1 in E w i t h c e n t e r CI and
radius r.
555 To prove t h i s we must show that:
(a) Any point PI comon to E and the lateral surface
lies on MI.
(b) Any point P1 of c i r c l e M1 iB common t o the lateral
surface and E.
Proof of (a): Let PI be comon to the lateral surface
and E. Then PI l i e s on an element E l where P I s on
circle -
- M (by definition of l a t e r a l surface). Then
PP1 1 1 C C 1 , since any two elements of a cylinder are parallel.
-
And PICl 1 1 W by Theorem 10-1. Thus, PPICIC I s a
parallelogram and PICl = PC = r, That is PI lie^ on
c i r c l e MI.
(4)
area of c i r c l e Q =
ape. o r c i r c l e P
% = 2
(#) =
2,
RPW
8 . 1 4 ~ 4 30 -
- 22. 1/) 4 1 & . 3 0
2. The number of gallons is 23 1
=
80 = 265
2
( m e f a c t o r s of 231 are 3 - 7 .11. By
using 722 the computation can be simplified by reducing
fractlons ) .
3. Subtract the volume of t h e inner cylinder f r o m t h a t of
the o u t e r . This gives
16r(2.812 - 16n(2.512
or 16~(2.8*- 2.5 2 ) = 161r(2.8 - 2.5)(2.8 + 2.5)
16~(.3)(5.3) = 80 approximately.
=
Approximately 80 cubic inches of clay will be needed,
4. The ratio of the volumes 1s the cube of the r a t i o of the
altitudes, so
7.
and the volume of t h e cone is
approximately .
-
The radius of the base of the cone is half the diagonal
of the square, or 1 0 f i .
20m*36
2 = 2008,
The area of t h e base of the cone l a r(10fi)
= 2400s = 7,536
+ =64'
x = 16
from which
and x + 8 = 24.
Hence,
4
S i n c e r = 1, the volume of the i c e cream I s TT and
t h e volume of the cone Is 5 .
Therefore, the cone
will not overflow.
a. The volume o f a cube o f edge s is s 3 ; the
volume of a cube of edge 4s Is ( 4 s ) o r 64s 3 .
Hence, t h e r a t i o of the volumes is 64 to 1.
b . If R and 4R are r a d i i of the moon and the e a r t h
[pages 562-563 1
563 8. The altftude of the cone is r plus the hypotenuse of
a 30' - 60' r i g h t triangle w i t h short s i d e r. So
the a l t i t u d e 1s 3r. Uslng a r i g h t triangle determfned
by the altitude of the cone and a radiua of t h e base,
the radius of base of the cone is rfi,
so the area
of the base is 3m 2
.
The volume of the cone is there-
fore 7 1 .3m2 3r = 3m3 .
*9. Let r be the radius of
the tank in feet.
r2 = 18* + (r - 6)*.
r2 = 324+ r2 - 12r + 3 6 .
12r = 360.
r = 30. The radius is
30 feet. Using
4 3
V = y , the volume
of the tank in cubic 18
4~ 303
feet is 7.
Converting this to cubic inches, finding the number of
gallons contained, and d i v i d i n g by 10,000, the number
of hours a tank f'ull will last is 4 27000 1728
231
.
.
.
or about 85 hours.
*lo. L e t V be the original volume and R the o r l g i n a l
radius, v the new volume and r the new radius.
Then
"v = T2= = 43 ' =3 7 *R3
d
Therefore, 3 --
R~ 2 Or
R
r=-.3fi
Hence,
Therefore,
Kv = m a + m.
Since, h-0, ha--+O and E-2.ra.
Hence , S =arm.
Revlew Problems
2. 61 approx. &*$-$-~-$r*l*l*ld
(4 12 - 4 -8-
1) = y- 117 = 9 = 61.26
3. 19 approx. + - 2 5 - h = 5 0 0 .
h = 60-
a = 19 approx.
108. B =
If A is the area of the cross-sectlon,
[pages 563-5643
564 6. 4872 approx.
4000
~ ( 2 8 8 0- -.) - 4
~~144.20-y-1O010.10=
=
4640 rr = 4872 approximately.
565 "8. The volume of the s o l i d equals the volume of the large
cone decreased by t h e sum of the cylinder and the small,
upper cone. L e t h be the a l t i t u d e of the small cone.
Then 15 - h is the altitude of the cylinder. Since the
cones are similar,
and 45 .
h = B
T5=8
Hence, V = y1 6 4 - 1 5 - (@ 75 + '45
.v,
a~ rg.
A. 1. T, 6 T, 11.
2. T, 7. T, 12.
3. F, 8. T, 13.
4. FJ 9. TJ 14.
5. T, 10. F, 15.
B. 1. 32 pupils. 22 x 26 x 12 = 32.3
200
1 1
2. 48 inches. T . g.
3. 3 & z The s o l i d consists of two r i g h t circular cones
with a common base having r = h = 3fi.
Chapter 17
PLANE COORDINATE GEOMETRY
[page 567 1
The idea of translating between algebra and geometry
can be used by the teacher as a means o f organizing a
cumulative summary of the chapter. The students can be
asked t o keep a geometry-algebra dictionary l i k e the
followlng .
Geometry Algebra
A point P in a plane An ordered pair of numbers
(X~Y)
The end-points of a segment (xl,yl) and (x2,y2) .
The slope of PIP2. The number m =
Y2 - Y1
X2
- X1'
+ Y2
The mld-point of P1P2.
X1 X2
.TIY1 +
568
Two n o n - v e r t i c a l lines
are perpendicular. I mlmp = -l*
Notice t h a t we now set up a coordinate system on each
of two perpendicular lines, r a t h e r t h a n on only one l i n e ,
as we did in Chapter 2. T h i s enables us t o find the co-
ordinates of the projections of any p o i n t on the two l i n e s .
We w r l t e these coordinates as an ordered pair (x,y) .
We again have a one-to-one correspondence, this time
between ordered palrs of real nwnbera and points in a plane.
To each ordered p a i r of real numbers there corresponds one
and only one point in the plane, and to each point in the
plane there corresponds one and only one ordered p a i r of
real numbers.
Sections 17-2 and 17-3 cover material t h a t is familiar
to most students, and classes should move on aa quickly as
p o s s i b l e . X f students already know the terms abscissa and
ordinate, there is no reason to o b j e c t to t h e i r use of these
words. The terms are superfluous, however, and need n o t be
introduced by you.
Problem -
Set
3. -3.
4. The o r i g i n , or (0,~).
5. (2,l) and (2,0).
6 a. IV. c. I.
b. 11. d. 111.
7. One of the coordinates m u s t be 0.
c. IV.
d. 111.
[page 5741
i
/ 575 "12. a . y-axis, x-axia, z-axis.
I b. xz-plane, yz-plane, xy-plane.
m = Y2 - although rn = - '*
is a l s o c o r r e c t . n o t i c e
X1 - X 2 X1 - X2
t h a t in finding the s l o p e o f AB
it doesnTt matter which
point is labeled P1 and which one is l a b e l e d P2.
578-579 It Is Important t o note here that RP:, and PIR are
positive numbers and we have to p r e f l x the minus sign t o the
fraction
v RP2 if the s l o p e is negative.
m<O, then m = - 2
RP2 = Yg - y1 and PIR = x1 - x2,
equivalent t o m =
Y2 - Y1
2 - X1'
--
Problem Set 17-4
[pages 580-5811
"11. Flrst assume that
w f,
PA, PB have the
same slope m.
L e t F = (a,b),
R = (a + 1,0).
Let be p e r -
pendicular to the
x-axis. Neither
w C )
PA nor PB is
perpendicular to
the x-axis, hence,
H
n e i t h e r PA nor
H
PB is parallel to
H H M ++
RS. L e t PA, PB i n t e r s e c t RS in Q, Q',
respectively, L e t Q = ( a + l , c ) , Qt (a + 1,~') -
Whence, c = c f and hence Q = Q t .
(by P o s t u l a t e 2) .
Hence, ==
The converse has already been proved h he or em 17-1).
f;r w
Hence, if PA, PB have d i f f e r e n t s l o p e s , then P,
A, B cannot be c o l l i n e a r .
-
12. a. Yes. b. No.
b. 3
-?. C.
a - b .
7
H 100
14. Slope of AB ia 96 = 1. Slope of BC Is = 1.
g-E;
f, H
Point B is common. Therefore AB and BC coincide.
[pages 582-583 I
H w 1 = 1.
583 15. S l o p e of A3 is = 1; slope of CD is
H C*
We are tempted to say t h a t AB 11 CD, b u t we must
make s u r e that they are a c t u a l l y two different lines.
We test by finding the s l o p e o f E, which is
101 = 1. Hence, H 4-w
AB and AC must c o i n c i d e s o that
e
C is on AB and the lines can't be parallel. It
C* C*
f o l l o w s that AB and CD c o i n c i d e .
-
Problern S e t 17-5
- 3 - 3 w *
586 1. Slope AB = 2; slope CD = F; hence, AB II CD or
M=%. slope C - -4
3' hence, A, B, C, are not
collinear. (See Problems 11 and 15 of Problem Set 17-4. )
Hence, a# w
CD, so that )I E .
Similarly, prove fX 1) AD.
2. Slopeof
-
AB= 2
-T, 2
slope of C D - -3.
-
- -
Slope of BC = -3, slope of DA = - 3 .
Therefore oppoafte s i d e s are parallel and the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
3- L1 1 L3 ~ n d L2 1 L4, by Theorem 17-3.
Slope of BC = 3-
Slope of AC = 0.
[ p a g e s 586-5187 1
b. Slope of altitude to = 5.
-
Slope of altitude to BC = - 3.
The altitude to AC has no slope; it is a v e r t i c a l
segment.
-
Both and CD have t h e same a l o p e , -1; AC has
s l o p e 0. Therefore AB 11 E . AD and BC have
d i f f e r e n t slopes. Therefore the figure is a trapezoid.
-
Diagonal AC I s horizontal since I t s slope is 0.
-
Diagonal BD is v e r t i c a l . A vertical and a horizontal
l i n e are perpendicular.
The s l o p e in each case is t h e same, ; 1 the a l o p e of
line joining (3n,0) to (6n,0) la 0. Hence, the
given lines are parallel.
The s l o p e of the first line I s
z. The slope of the
second is - Q. Since the negative reciprocal of b
Problem S e t 17-6
I-
3. a. 5. e, 17.
b. 5. f. fi
c. 13. g. 89.
d. 25. h. 56.
2 2
4. a. ( y 2 - yl) + (xl -x2)
2 2
b. x + y = 25.
591 5. By the distance formula RS = 5, R T = C and S T - 5.
Since ST = RS the triangle I s isosceles.
591 6. A DEF wlll be a right triangle with 1D a right
angle only if D E +
~ D F ~
= E F ~ . This is the case since
DE 2 - 5 , DF 2 = 4 5 and EF 2 = 5 0 .
7. AB = a= 2 f i . BC = 6 2 = 6&. AC = = 8 f i .
Hence, AB + BC = AC, and therefore, from the T r i a n g l e
Inequality, A , B, C, are collinear. It now follows
from t h e d e f i n i t i o n of "between" that B is between
A and C.
Hence, WY = XZ.
distance 1s J x * + y2 + z
2
.
592 The mid-point formula will prove to be very u s e f u l in
the work which f o l l o w s . This w i l l be true, f o r example,
when we are speaking of the medians of a triangle. If we
know the coordinates of the v e r t l c e s of a triangle, and
apply the definition of a median, we can find the coordinates
of the p o i n t In which the median intersects the opposite
side. T h i s will give us t h e coordinates of its end-points
and enable us to f i n d t h e length and s l o p e of t h e median.
The proof of the mid-point formula is e a s i l y modified
to hold f o r horizontal and vertical segments.
s e t 17-7
Problem -
x = -31. y = 41.
The o t h e r end-point is at (-31,41).
- -
4. AC S B D since b o t h have lengths by the distance
formula. 1 -
- since the slope of AC is 4 and
the slope of BD 1s
- -2. These are negative
r e c i p r o c a l s . AC and BD bisect each o t h e r s i n c e
us lng the mid-point formula each has the mid-point ( 3 , 5 ) .
594 5. The mid-point X of' AB
is (3,2).
The mid-point Y of is (-1,3).
The mid-point 2 of CA is (I,o).
By the distance formula CX = fi, AY = fi or
2 m , and BZ = 5.
6. Byfo-la, themid-points o f
-
E, BC, CD
-
and
are w ( o , ~ ) , --6 , ~ ( 4 , 6 ) and ~ ( 5 , 1 ) ,
respectively. WX has length
- a
and s l o p e - 5 .
-
YZ also has length
C-* H
a
and s l o p e -5. XY has
- m.
slope 0, hence, WX # YZ, so that, WX I(
With the aame two aides p a r a l l e l and congruent the
figure la a parallelog~am.
7. By the mid-point formula the o t h e r end-point of one
median is ( a 3a , and the other end of another
-a 3a
median is (T,-F). By the slope formula, the slopes
of these medians are 1 and -1. Since 1 is the
negative reciprocal of -1, the medians are pep-
pendlcular.
8. From the similarity
between A PLPR and
A FlP2S, PIR 3 P 1S.
Since TU = FIR and
TV = P,S, TU = 1 W . I
I
I
I I
In terms of coordinates I
T1 !U IV
x = -
T1 ( ~ a XI) + XI.
This can a l s o be written x = 7.
x2 2X1 By a similar
argument with
-
PIP2
+
1
595+9. a. Replacing 5 by -
r + s in t h e s o l u t i o n of the
previous problem, if x2 > XI, we get
A (opl
Therefore, DB = AC .
Y
2. Locate the axes along A
the legs of the triangle ~ ( 0 , b)
2
as shown.
point PA -
By d e f i n i t i o n of mid-
Therefore P = (a,b)
PB.
.C(OPI
It must be shown that
PA = PC (or that
fB = PC). By the distance formula
Hence PA = PB.
599 4. Place the axes so that
the segnent will have
end-points A(-a,O) I
-
b i s e c t each other.
*3
Since R and S have the same y-coodinates, RS 11 AB.
Since RS is h o r i z o n t a l ,
R S = b- -- tpa= - .d b + a - d
D C = d - b and AB=a.
area A ABC =
a(t - s) + b(r
2
- t) + c(s - r)
XY = a. XR = b.
2
Slnce (b - a)* + cP = (b2 + c ) + a2 - 2ab,
Therefore Z Y ~= X Z +
~ XY2 - 2XY . XR.
Observe that this proof remains valid if R lies
between X and Y.
S e l e c t a coordinate system indicated.
C(2b.2C)
M = ( b , ~ ) , N = ( a +d,e) .
A B = ~ 4a 2 .
BC* = 4 ( a - b ) 2 + 4c 2 .
Problem --
Set 17-9
Y
A
Y
4
A A A
15,O)
*X
I-5 0 ) (5,O)
0 0
t
t t
[pages 600-6031
2a. The half-plane above 2b. A l l p o i n t s between the
the h o r i z o n t a l line l i n e s y = 3 and y = -3.
through (0,3) .
7. A l l p o i n t s w i t h i n Lndicated angle.
[pages 603-6041
A
e etc.
I
4 b
0
8c . The i n t e r s e c t i o n of the
aolutiona for ( 8 a ) and
(8b). 1 . e . , a l l points
Fn the f i r 6 t quadrant
with integral coordinates.
I
9. The Fntersection of the 10. A l l pointa within or on
three half-planes formed the boundary of the in-
by the three given dicated rectangle.
conditions. i.e., a l l
p o i n t s within t h e angle
formed by the p o s i t i v e
part of the y-axis and
the ray from the origin
as shown.
[page 6041
All p o h t s in the i n t e r f o r A l l p o i n t s except the end-points
--
Problem Set 17-10
[pages 604,6101
i The graph is
the y - a x l e .
611 18. a .
b .
The yz-plane.
The xy-plane.
I The graph is the x-axis.
1
[pages 610-6111
611 s l o p e then Rp2 and if i t s s l o p e is negative,
"=P;R " =-v
RP2
Then, given one point on the graph and the s l o p e we can find
a second p o i n t by counting t h e units in t h e legs of the
right t r i a n g l e , Consider the example used by the t e x t ,
y = 3 x - 4. We see immediately that the y-intercept is -4
and that the s l o p e is 3. Since the slope is p o s i t i v e , the
graph w i l l r i s e t o the r i g h t . Hence, we can f i n d a second
p o i n t by s t a r t i n g at (0,-4) and counting 1 unit to the
right and three units up t o t h e point ( 1 - We can check
to s e e t h a t we are c o r r e c t by a p p l y i n g the s l o p e formula to
these coordinates.
L e t us consider one more case, namely, when t h e s l o p e of t h e
given line is negative. Draw the graph of the equation
y = 2
- ~x c 3. We see t h a t the p o i n t (0,3) lies on the
graph, and to locate a second point by this method, we must
r e a l i z e that we w l t l l be working with a slope of - 3. The *
graph, then, wfll r i s e t o t h e left and we can locate a
second polvlt by counting 3 u n i t s to the left from (0,3)
and 2 units up, as in the figure below.
Problem Set 17-12
The emptg a e t .
3. 4000 miles.
619 4. a. The i n t e r s e c t t o n is
point (2,4).
Y
b. The i n t e r s e c t i o n is ?I I
I
I
.
L a
It
c. The intersection l a
the i n t e r i o r of
L ABC.
The slope of AB is
8 - 4 2, so t h e
n=
slope of L is - and --
A (3.4)
i t s equation is L: --
7 - 6 = - $(x -
41,
I l 1
l
--
I
U
l
1
l
l
r
. (
I
"
n . ,
n
1
-
4.
y - 6 = - ~ + 2 , 0 r
x +
2y = 16.
Alternate solution: L is the s e t of points ~(x,y)
for which PA = PB. Thls gives
B:
X* = - w,
and the point of i n t e r s e c t i o n is
{ 9m
Y2 = m*
\
m e line has the equation,
H
620 The i n t e r s e c t i o n T of AB and the x-axis is found by
l e t t f n g y = 0 and solvFng f o r x:
X =
X1y2 - X2Y1
y2 - Yl .
Now
M H
Therefore and EN meet at the point
AM (0,s) on
-
the line containing the altitude from C.
For t h e general triangle,
-
C
slope BC =- b,
slope W = z, 80
b
- a),
-
AM: y = -$x and
the y-intercept is . ,- ba
C
S i m i l a r l y , slope AC =--
a'
slope = , so
w
BN: y - a
$X - b), and
the y-intercept i s -. ,
ab
620 Therefore the three altitudes meet at the point
ab
( 0- ) .
Note that this proof does not depend on the
signs of a, b, and c, but only on the fact that
A , B, lie on the x-axis and C on the y-axis.
w A I x, , YI)
The s l o p e of AR is
If G = (
X 1 f X 2 + X
3 y1 + Y 2 + Y 3 ) then
w
t h e d o p e of AG is
C,
so G is on t h e median AR. Similarly, the slope of
H
BT is
[pages 620-6211
f--*
621 and the slope of BG is
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
rnZ1 = 3 - 72
Xl + X2 9- xX3
= m2,
3- X2 w
so Gis on the median BG. Similarly, we rind that
f,
G is on the median CS. Hence, the three medians
Fntersect in the p o i n t G whose coordinates are t h e
averages of the coordinates of t h e vertices.
Y
Therefore, D =
a + b c2 + a b .
Now
621 From these equations we get,
m = 2MD, HD = 3MD,
HM+MD=HD.
This ahows that H, M, and D are collinear, that M
--
Problem S e t 17-14
627 4 . a. Replacing x
and y In the equation by the given
coordinates s a t i s f i e s the equation.
are tangent to t h e c i r c l e .
If 16 - 33rn2 < 0, there is no p o i n t of inter-
section.
628 9. Put the given equation in standard form
(X - 512 + (y - 3)2 = 22.
The given c l r c l e has center ( 5 , 3 ) , radius 2.
Let the required c i r c l e have center (a,b) and radius
r. Then b = a = r, s l n c e t h e c i r c l e touches t h e x-
and y-axes, and the distance from center (a,b) to
center (5,3) is P + 2. Hence,
PT = 4a -t- a
QU =J-= aJ5;
Therefore PT = QU.
- a - 0 1
Ir
b. Theslopeof PT=-=?.
The slope of
-
QU = 0 - 2a = -2.
1
Since -2 is the negative reciprocal of T,
the segments are perpendicular.
w
628 *c. Using the point-slope form the equation of PT is:
y - 0 = $(x - 0)
or y = p .
1
M
The equation of QU ia:
J(%- 2
0) + ( $ -p e l 2 = 2a = length
of side.
629 lo.
Y
A
X
A
[pagea 628-629)
Equation of %? is y = x - 6.
Equation of %8 I s y 3&.
13. Lengths of parallel Y
sides are: l a l , Ib - dl.
Altltude is l c 1 . t
-
Anplwera t o Review Berciaes
Chaptem 13 to 17
26. 1.
2-7. 0.
28. 1.
29. 1.
30. 0,
31. 0.
32. 1.
33. 1.
34. 1.
35. 1.
36. 1.
37. 0.
38. 0,
39. 1.
40. 0.
41. 1.
42. 0.
43. 0.
44. 0.
45. 1.
46. 0.
47. 1.
48. o.
49. 1.
50. 0.
[pages 630-6331
---
Illustrative Test Items f o r Chapter -
17
3. v e r t i c e s ( 0 , 0 ) , ( m , ~ ), (0,n).
A right t r i a n g l e has
What is t h e equatlon of the median which passes through
the origin?
E. 1. Using coordinate geometry p r o v e that the mid-point of
the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equidistant from
the v e r t i c e s .
2. Show that the p o i n t s A , B, C, D whose coordinates a r e
(2,3), ( 4 , ( 8 , (6,4) are vertices of a
parallelogram. Show that the f i g u r e formed by joining
the mid-points of t h e sides of ABCD is a parallelogram.
3. Prove by coordinate geometry t h e theorem: If a l i n e
parallel to one side of a triangle b i s e c t s a second
s i d e , then it a l s o b i s e c t s t h e t h i r d stde.
Answers
The o r i g i n .
The altitude to E.
b. None.
c. (ljand(3); (1)and(4); (2)and13);
( 2 ) and ( 4 ) ; ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) .
d. ( 3 ) and (4).
Take a coordinate ~ y s t e m Y
as shown, wlth vertices
(o,o), (a,@,(0,2n)
Then mld-point P of
hypotenuse haa coordinates
(m,n) . Distanoe of P
f r o m each vertex l a x
J- IO,OI (em,01
-
2. Slope E = - l = s l o p e CD.
- 1 -
Slope AD = P = slope BC .
Hence, , so that I( 5.
Likewise AD
- 11 -
BC.
The mid-pofnts of t h e sides taken in order are ( 3 , ~ ,)
6 , ( 7 , 3 ) and 4 , Slopes of sides of the
figure formed by joining these mid-points are - 5 1
f o r each of one pair of sides and 3 for each of the
other pairs. Hence, t h i s figure a l s o is a parallelogram.
3. Select a coordinate
system in such a way Y
A
that the vertices are
A(o,o), ~(2a,0),
~ ( 2 b , 2 c ) . Let M be
-
mid-point of AC,
-
MN I I E. Then
K
M = (b,c). Slope
- A ~(20,o)
MN=O. Hence,
w
equatlon MN is y = c.
I
w C
Equation BC is y = =(x - Pa).
In Words In Symbols
Old New Old New
The angles The angles are AA=LB L A ~ L B
a r e equal, congruent. (or m L A = rnL B)
- - * -
The segments The segments AB =m AB = CD
a r e equal. a r e congruent. (or AB = .
CD)
-----
1-1. Congruence in t e r n of s i z e and shape. The term
congruence Immediately c a l l s t o mlnd the famous dictum: Two
figures are congruent if they have the same s i z e and the same
shape. Certainly this statement emphaslzes the basic intuitive
or informal idea t h a t If two f i g u r e s a r e congruent, one is a
"replica" of the other. Also it p o i n t s up the important property
t h a t if we know two figures t o be congruent we can i n f e r t h a t
they have the same area (or volume) and t h a t they are similar.
B u t t h i s Is n o t the essential Issue. It l a : Does our
dictum define congruence? Is it r e a l l y a fomnal d e f i n i t i o n of
the term congruence in terms of more baslc ideas? Clearly the
answer is no. For the notions size and shape a r e more complex
than congruence. In order to measure (or d e f i n e ) size (area or
volume) we try to ffnd out how many congruent replicas of a basic
f lgure ( f o r example, square or cube) "fill out" a given f i g u r e .
So actually it would be more natural and s i m p l e to base the theory
of aize (and shape) on the Idea of congruence rather than t h e
reverse.
---
1-2. Congruence in t e r m of rigid motion. But there are
other " d e f i n l t i o n s " of congruence which we m u s t discuss - c o n s i d e r
t h e famous, "TWO figures are congruent if they can be made to
coincide by a r i g i d motion". Let us analyze t h i s . Conceived
c o n c r e t e l y , say in t e r n of two paper heart-shaped valentines, it
a f f o r d s an excellent i l l u s t r a t i o n of the intuitive idea of con-
gruence and emphasizes again t h a t one 1s a "replica" of the other.
But t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n , like most physical situations, does n o t
have the precision required f o r an abstract mathematical concept.
Surely we would have to pick up t h e f i r s t valentine and move it
w i t h almost Z n f l n i t e gentleness to prevent bending it slightly
when gettfng I t to c o l n c i d e with the second one. And how could
we be certaln of p e r f e c t coincidence of the two valentines?
Wouldn't t h i a require p e r f e c t eyesight? It 1s c l e a r t h a t this
" d e f i n i t i o n " interpreted c o n c r e t e l y gives us a physical approxi-
mation t o t h e abstract idea of congruence but doesn't define it.
Moreover it I s not even a p p l i c a b l e in many physical aituatfons:
you hardly could get two "congruent" b i l l i a r d b a l l s t o coincfde
by a rigid motion.
Should we then conclude t h a t t h e idea of r i g i d motion 1s
essentially physical and can n o t be mathematicized as an abatract
geometrical concept? Definitely not. Mathematicians are
ingenious and c l e v e r people and it might be a mistake t o decide
beforehand that they could n o t c o n s t r u c t a precise a b s t r a c t i o n
from a given phyaical i d e a . M o s t famlliar mathematical
abs trac t i o n a had their origin in concrete physical 5i t u a t i o n s -
c e r t a i n l y geometry had I t s o r i g i n In p r a c t i c a l problems of
surveying t h e heavens and the e a r t h .
L e t us table for the present the question of whether we can
form an abstract geometrical theory of r l g l d motions, It would
seem that a treatment of congruence cased on a l o g i c a l l y satla-
f a c t o r y theory of rigid motion could n o t be elementary and would
hardly be suitable f o r a f i r s t course. In any caee, without
deeper analysis, the second "definition" is not a definition a t
a l l and rnlght more properly be considered a statement of a proper-
ty which rigid motions should have: namely, t h a t any rigid motion
t r a n s f o m a f i g u r e i n t o a congruent one.
1-3. Another S e f i n i t i o n . Consider a n d ' c r i t i c i z e a t h i r d
suggested " d e f i n i t i o n " : Two ( p l a n e ) figures are congruent if a
copy of the f i r s t made on t r a c i n g paper can be made to coincide
with the second.
1-4. Congruence of segments . Since our three "definitions"
do n o t define congruence we must probe more deeply. Here, as s o
o f t e n in solving problems, the i m p e r i a l i s t m a x i m , " ~ i v i d eand
conquer", is very h e l p f u l . Instead of t a c k l i n g t h e concept o f
congruence In its most complex form, that is, f o r arbitrary
figures, l e t us begin by considering a simple special case. A
line segment -- o r as we s h a l l c a l l i t , a segment --I s one of the
simplest and most important geometric figures. We n a t u r a l l y begin
by considering congruence of segnents.
L e t us r e c a l l how this is treated in Euclid o r in the conven-
t i o n a l high school geometry course. Congruent segments, usually
called equal segments, are conceived as "replicas" of each other,
in general w i t h different locations i n space. Congruent segmenta
may coincide or be identical b u t they d o n ' t have t o . If segments
aB
and are congruent we may A
i n t e r p r e t t h i s concretely t o mean
and are " c a l i p e r equivalent"
- that is, if a p a i r of calipers ig
7
uv-
-
W on it repeatedly, s t a r t i n g a t A . Speaking p r e c i s e l y , there
is a point PI in such that
show t h a t t h e r e is a p o i n t P2 in 3 such t h a t ( a ) W 1 PIP2
-
S M l a r l y , we can
that
-
condition ib) as ( A P ~ P ~ )contin;ing,
Ed P2P3
.
.
there is a point P3 such
and ( P ~ P ~ P ~By) t h i s process we develop a
sequence of p o i n t s PI, Pg, . ..
, Pn, ...
on 3 such t h a t
(2) ( A P ~ P ~ ) ,(p1p2p3 , -- P n - lP n1 -
( ' n - ~
Intuitively (1) and ( 2 ) say t h a t W I s laid-off on AB n times
-
in a glven direction but n o t e how very precisely and objectively
( I ) , ( 2 ) say this, avoiding the somewhat vague terns "laying-off"
and "directiun". From another viewpoint we are laying the basis
f o r a coordinate system on the line by l o c a t i n g p r e c i s e l y the
p o i n t s PI, P2, ..., P , ... which are to correspond t o the
integers 1, 2, ..., n, ... .
Now what has this to do w i t h the measure of AB? Clearly we
must learn how B is r e l a t e d to the points PI, P2, P3, .. . .
In the simplest case one of these might coincide with 8, for
example, Pa = B. Then of course we deflne the measure of
to be 3 .
1-7. Refinement of the approximation process. You may ask,
i id we have to go through t h i s elaborate process to explain that
-
if the "unit" segment W exactly covepa AB t h r e e times, then
t h e measure of is 3?" Disregarding the importance of making
the idea "exactly coverat' mathematically precise, observe that t h e
-
process helps us t o define a meaaure f o r AB in the more general
and d i f f i c u l t case when no one of the p o i n t s PI, P2, ...
coincides w i t h B . For suppose B P a l l s between two c o n s e c u t i v e
points of our - sequence, say ( P ~ B P ~ ) Clearly
. then we wlll have
to a s s i a to AB a measure x such t h a t 4 < x < 5 . In other
words we have s e t up a general process which enables us at least
-
to determine an approximation to the measure of AB, t h a t I s t o
find lower and upper bounds for it.
(I) m(E) - -
r n ( ~ )~ 3f~
f and only if that is,
K A'B' -
congruent aewents and only congruent segments have equal meaaures;
(2) If (ABC) then m ( E ) + m ( E ) = m(E) - that is,
measure 1s additive in a natural sense;
(3) m(W) = 1 - that i a , the measure of the unit eegment
l a unity.
-
Theorem. Let the segment W be given. Then there exists
a function which assign8 to each segment AB a unique positive
real number m ( s ) aatisfying (1), ( 2 ) , (3) above.
-
1-10. Uniqueness of meaaure function. We naturally ask if
there 1s just one measure function? Clearly not. For the function
must depend on the choice of the
unit aegnent W . To be s p e c i f i c , U M V
rn
-
suppose we take as a new unit a e p e n t ,
UM, where M l a the mid-point of W
(that is and ((uMv)) .
Then according to o u r theorem
there wlll be a measure f~nc610n;let w call it m1 (since we
have no right to assume it is the same as the o r i g i n a l measure
function) such that m 1 (K)= 1. We see quickly that m f m)
= 2;
-
f u r t h e r it can be shown m 1( E ) = 2m(E) for any segment AB.
T h i s i s a f o r m a l statement of the t r i v i a l seeming fact that
" h a l v i n g the u n i t of measurement doubles t h e measurett. A c o r r e s -
ponding result holds In general :
Theorem. If rn, ml a r e two measure f u n c t i o n s on the s e t
of all segments, then
11. --
Congruence Based on Distance
In t h i s part we discuss t h e treatment of congruence adopted
in the t e x t , contrasting it with the conventional one. The point
of departure is to "reverse1'the conventional treatment and
define congruence in terms of distance. This enables us to use
our knowledge of the real number system early In the discussion -
I t leads to a new treatment o f the Important geometric relation,
betweenness, and a new way of conceiving segments and rays.
-
11-1. The student1$ viewpoint. The conventional treatment,
in b r i e f , begins w i t h an undefined notion of congruence of
segments and deduces the existence of a distance functlon from a
s u f t a b l e s e t of postulates. The h i g h school student - In studying
t h i s treatment - somehow absorbs the idea that segmenta (and
angles) c a n be measured by numbers, and is permitted to apply h i s
knowledge of algebra whenever it is convenient.
11-2. - The Distance Postulate. Since the student thinks of
segments and angles as measurable by numbera and it is hopeless
to prove t h i s a t h i s l e v e l from non-numerical postulates, it
seems most reasonable to make the existence of a measure function
or distance a basic postulate which is used consistently through-
o u t the course. So we adopt
Postulate 2 . h he Distance ~ o s t u l a t e . ) To everyp a i r of
d i f f e r e n t points there corresponds a unique p o s i t i v e number,
If the p o i n t s are P and Q , then the distance between P
and Q La defined to be the positive number of Postulate 2,
denoted by PQ.
Definition. L e t A , B, C be three c o l l i n e a r p o i n t s . If
AB a BC = AC we say B is between A and C, and we w r i t e
( A m .
We now define segment in terns of betweenness.
D e f i n i t i o n . Let A , B be two p o i n t s . Then sewent A 3
I s the s e t consisting of A and B t o g e t h e r with a l l points
that are between A and B. A and B a r e called endpoints -
of E. F u r t h e r re define in(=), the measure or length of AB,
merely to be the number AB.
That is, the length of a segment is merely the number which
i s the distance between its endpoints. The contrast with con-
ventional theory is s t r i k i n g : There congruence of' segments is
basic and a difficult argument is needed to prove the existence
of a measure function - here distance 1s basic and the proof of
the existence of a measure f u n c t i o n is t r i v i a l .
11-5. Congrmence or s,egrnents & D e f i n i t i o n . Now it is
absurdly easy to d e f i n e congruence of segments.
- -
D e f i n i t i o n . AB 2 CD means t h a t the lengths of AB and CD
are equal, t h a t is AB = CD.
Formally what we have done is just t h i s . We took the basic
property relating congruence and measure ((1) of S e c t i o n
m(E) = m(z) If and only if a s m,
which 1s a theorem in the conventional treatment, and adopted it
a s a d e f i n i t i o n In o u r treatment. There, segments which were
congruent were proved to have the same measure - h e r e , segments
which happen to have t h e same measure are c a l l e d congruent.
11-6. Properties of congruent sements. Does congruence of
segments, as we have defined it, have the properties we expect?
We s e e quickly that i s an equivalence r e l a t i o n , that is
(2) If = CD then 5 Z E;
(3) If and CDsEF then
-
ABEEF.
-
These merely say
(1') AB = AB;
(2') If AB = CD then CD = AB;
( 3 t ) If AB = CD and
CD = El? then AB = EF,
whlch are the b a s i c properties of equality of numbers.
F u r t h e r we have
- - - -
( 5 ) Suppose AB A'Bt, BC = BICt, (ABC) and (A'B~c').
Then A C E A'C'.
To prove t h l s we have
A 3 = A'B' ,
BC = BICt ,
so t h a t
<
Then there is exactly one ray 3,
with P in H, such t h a t
PAB L XYZ.
c5), And the Additivity Postulate
c;
Section 1-5 appears in the
form
(5) (~ngle-~dditivity Po8 tulate)
Suppose L 3AD = L B 1A I D t ,
L DAC D r A t C i , D is in the
i n t e r i o r of L BAC and Dt is
in the i n t e r i o r of L B ' A ' C! . A
Then L BAC P L B t A f C 1 . ; :<tA
Essentially on the baais of
theae postulates a measure process
can be s e t up which assigns to each C c'
angle a unique p o s i t i v e real number
called i t s measure In such a way t h a t a f i x e d preassigned angle
("unitn angle) haa measure 1 (aompare Sections 1-6 to 1-9).
Denoting the measure of L XYZ by 4 XKZ, we have as you
would expect from our discussion of measure of segments:
lD
l e a s t upper bound b Stated
precisely: If L ABC and
CBD a r e a linear p a i r , then
m L ABC + m L CBD = b. A B
- --
111-2. Congruence of angles based on angular measure. We
saw in (1) above that the conventional theory of angle congruence
y i e l d s (as for segments) t h a t two angles are congruent i f and
only if they have equal measures. This suggests (as f o r segments)
that we assume the existence of angular measure and define
congruence of angles in terms of i t . Thus the treatment i n the
t e x t assumes
Postulate 11. h he Angle Measurement P o s t u l a t e . ) To every
angle 1ABC there corresponds a real number between 0 and 180,
called the measure of the angle, and w r i t t e n as mL ABC, (compare
.
the Distance POS t u l a t e )
Clearly our postulate has been s e t up so t h a t the u n i t angle
is the degree. In o t h e r words the angle characterized by
mL ABC = 1 is what is usually defined to be a degree and will
have the property that ninety such angles laid " s i d e by side"
will form a r i g h t angle. P r e c i s e l y speaking the measure of a
right angle w i l l turn out t o be 9 0 . Notice t h a t the measure
of no angle can be 0 or 180 since o u r definition of angle
r e s t r i c t s t h e s i d e S to be non-collinear. o or a discussion
of t h f s restriction see Commentary for Teachers, Chapter 4.)
Now f o l l o w i n g a familiar path ( s e c t i o n 11-51 we adopt the
Def i n l t ion. L ABC L PQR meana t h a t 4 ABC = PQR.
Then properties (11, (2), (3) of 111-1 above reduce to familiar
equality p r o p e r t i e s of real numbers. m e Angle M c a t i o n Property
((4) above) must be postulated and is Introduced in the form:
P o s t u l a t e 12. (The Angle Construction Postulate .) L e t
be a ray on the edge of half-plane H. For every number r
between 0 and 180 there is exactly one ray Siif, w i t h P in
H, such that m L P A B = r .
It might be thought now t h a t the additivity property f o r
angles ((5) above)) could be derived as a theorem as was the corres-
ponding property for segmente @ee ( 5 ) , S e c t i o n 11-6). This i s n ' t
80. B u t it is a simple and 5mportant property of angles, and it
Is perfectly natural t o postulate it:
Postulate 13. h he Angle-Addition postulate .) If D I s a
p o i n t in the interior of LBAC, then 4 BAC = 4 BAD + rnL DAC.
F l n a l l y we need a postulate to express the peculiarly
II angular" property of supplementation:
4 4
Postulate 14. h he Supplement Postulate.) If AB and AC
+
are opposite rays and AD is another ray, then 4 DAC + m L DAB
= 180.
-
111-3. Con~ruenceof t r i a n ~ l e s . We are now ready to consider
congruence of triangles. Our definition of' congruent triangles
(Chapter 5 of t e x t ) is essentially the conventional one: One
triangle is a "copy" of the other in the senae that its parts are
II
copies" of t h e corresponding parts of the other. But obaeme
the precision with which it is formulated. The correspondence
doesn't depend on individual i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e vague term
"corresponding" but is based objectively on a p a f r i n g of the
vertices
~ ~ A ' B
-
which induces a pairing of sides and of angles
' BC-B'Cf
, ,
-
CAt--,CtA'
Notice how spelling out the notion r'corresponding" in this way
h e l p s to point up the importance of the notion of a congruence
which is not mentioned i n t h e conventional treatment. Thus o u r
treatment brings t o t h e f o r e the idea of a 1-1 correspondence
between t h e vertices of A ABC and A A I B I C 1 which ensures that
they are congruent because it requires corrbesponding s i d e s and
corresponding angles t o be congruent, t h a t is to have equal
measures. This simple idea is capable of broad genera1:zation.
Do we need postulates on congruence of triangles? We have a
l o t of Information on congruence of segments and congruence o f
angles, separately - b u t nothing t o i n t e r - r e l a t e these ideas.
For example, we can't y e t prove t h e base angles of an isosceles
triangle a r e congruent. Thus we introduce t h e S .A,S , Postulate
t o bind t o g e t h e r our h o w l e d g e of segment congruence and angle
congruence.
Now l e t us exarnfne more closely the notion of congruence of
triangles. Is i t really necessary t o require equality of measure
of six pairs of corresponding parts? If we t h i n k of the s i d e s of
a triangle as its basic determining p a r t s i t seem very n a t u r a l
to define congruent t r i a n g l e s as having corresponding s i d e s which
are congruent. Naturally if we were to adopt t h i s d e f i n i t i o n w e
would postulate that if t h e corresponding s i d e s of t w o t r i a n g l e s
are congruent their corresponding angles also are congruent, in
o r d e r t o ensure t h a t thls d e f i n i t i o n o f congruent triangles is
equivalent t o the familiar one. Notice how much simpler the
d e f i n i t i o n of a congruence between triangles becomes if we adopt
the suggested definition. It i s merely a 1-1 correspondence
between the v e r t i c e s of the triangles,
A U A t , BWBr, C-Cl
which "preserves" distances in the sense t h a t the distance between
any two vertices of one t r i a n g l e equals the d i s t a n c e between t h e i r
corresponding v e r t i c e s in the second t r i a n g l e , t h a t is
AB = A ' B ' , BC = B I C ' , AC = A ' C ' .
1 Congruence pf quadrilaterals. The main objection t o
t h e suggested d e f i n i t i o n is t h a t it doesnlt generalize in the
obvious way f o r polygons - n o t even for quadrilaterals.
T h l s is attested by t h e f a c t t h a t a
square and a rhombus can have s i d e s
o f t h e sane length and n o t be con-
gruent. So to guarantee congruence
of q u a d r i l a t e r a l s i t is not s u f f i c i e n t
to r e q u i r e j u s t that corresponding
s i d e s be congruent, and it Is customary to supplement t h i s by
requiring the congruence o f corresponding a n g l e s . Thus the
conventional d e f i n i t i o n r e q u i r i n g congruence both of sides and
o f angles a p p l i e s equally well t o triangles and quadrilaterals.
However angles, though v e r y important, are r a t h e r strange
creatures compared to segments and it seems d e s i r a b l e , if p o s s l b l e ,
to characterize congruent quadrilaterals in terms o f congruent
segments, or e q u i v a l e n t l y , equal distances. This is not so hard.
Golng back to a t r i a n g l e we observe t h a t its t h r e e v e r t i c e s
taken two at a time y i e l d three segments or three distances and
that t h e f i g u r e is in a sense determined by these t h r e e d i s t a n c e s .
S i m i l a r l y the f o u r vertices of' a q u a d r i l a t e r a l yield n o t four,
but s i x segments ( t h e s i d e s a n d the d i a g o n a l s ) and s i x c o r r e s p o n d -
i n g distances, which s e r v e t o determine the q u a d r i l a t e r a l . This
suggests: If we have a 1-1 correspondence
A-At, B-Bl, C-C4, D-Dl
between t h e v e r t i c e s of t h e quadrilaterals ABCD, A t B t C I D 1 s u c h
t h a t corresponding distances a r e preserved, that is
AB,AC,AD,BC,BD,CD 1 A t B i , A 1 C ' , A ' D 1 , B I C ' ,BID+, C I D f
we call t h e correspondence a congruence and we write
ABCD = A t B I C t D i . It is n o t hard to show t h i s d e f i n i t i o n equivalent
to the more familiar one.
-
111-5. Congruence o f a r b i t r a r y f i g u r e s . We now must face
the problem of formulating a g e n e r a l def'initlon of congruence.
The piecemeai process we have employed, defining congruence
separately f o r segments, angles, t r i a n g l e s , quadrilaterals is
unavoidable in an elementary t r e a t m e n t but is n e i t h e r s a t i s f y i n g
nor complete. For it s t i l l remains t o d e f i n e congruent c i r c l e s
and congruent circular a r c s and congruent e l l i p s e s and congruent
rectangular s o l i d s , e t c , In each case we construct an a p p r o p r i a t e
d e f i n i t i o n , we are s u r e it is c o r r e c t , and are equally sure the
general concept has eluded us.
So let's make a f r e s h start. Suppose F and F' are two
congruent figures. Our basic i n t u i t i o n is t h a t F r is an exact
copy of F . Somehow this entails t h a t each "part" of F' coplea
a corresponding "partt'of F - t h a t each point of F t behaves
llke some corresponding p o i n t of F. If F has a sharp p o i n t
at A then F t must have a s h a r p p o i n t at a corresponding p o i n t
A'; if F has maximum flatness at B then F f haa maxlmwn
flatness a t a corresponding p o i n t B 1; f f F has a largest
chord P& of length 12.3 then F 1 has a corresponding largest
c h o d PI&' of the same length, 12.3; and so on. How can we
t i e together these i l l u a t r a t l o n s in a simple and precise way?
-
111-6. A congruence machlne. Suppose i n s t e a d of conceiving
F1 aa a given copy o f F, we take F and try t o make a copy Fl
of it. As an illustration l e t P be a house key. Then F i can
be produced by a key duplicating machine. The machine has the
secret of the congruence concept - how does it work?
The machine has two moving p a r t s :
a scanning b a r which traces the given
key and a cutting bar which c u t s a
blank I n t o a d u p l i c a t e . As t h e scan-
ning bar traces F s t a r t i n g at I t s
t i p A, the c u t t i n g bar traces t h e
q
P
.,
0
'
we have AB = A t B 1 , BC = B f C t , ,0 4\
.
AC = A I C f We see IntuitIveTy A
' \
A
'
0 -
\
\
t h a t F 1 1s a copy o f F. NOW A C A' C'
s h i f t from t h e p o i n t t r i p l e s to the triangles they determine. The
S.S .S. Theorem t e l l s t h a t A ABC is congruent to A A t B ' C l in
the conventtonal sense.
where p o i n t C o f L is
"fixed" ( t h a t is it corresponds t o itself) and every o t h e r p o l n t
of L IImoves1' on L from one s i d e of C to t h e o t h e r .
motion between
-
it by suitably defining a unique correspondent f o r each p o i n t of
AB n o t in E, so that the final correspondence l a a r i g i d
.
and A 1 Bl So in the study of rigid motions
between lines as wholes, we are automatically covering all possible
rigid motions (and hence all possible relations of congruence)
between "linear" figures; (that is, subsets of lines which contain
.
more than one ~ o i n t ) Similarly any r i g i d motion between "planar"
figures (that is, subsets o f a plane which are not contained in
any line) is uniquely extendable to a rigid motion of t h e i r
containing planes. Finally we observe that any conceivable rigid
motion is encompassed by a rigid motion of space.
111-10. -
Non-rigid motions. As we have indicated, modern
geometry is concerned with t r a n a f o m t i o n s that do n o t preserve
distance, as well as w i t h those which do. In Euclidean Geometry
the most important example is a similarity, which bears the same
relation to s i m i l a r f:gures that a congruence or r i g i d motion
does t o figures which are congruent. Formally suppose X - X 1
is a 1-1 correspondence between figures F and F t such t h a t
P- P' , Q- Q'
always implies P t & I = k.PQ where k is a f i x e d p o s i t i v e number.
Then we c a l l the correspondence a similarity transformation o r a
similarity and we say F is similar t o F'. It easily follows
-
that a similarity transformation although it is n o t in general
a rigid motion - always presemrea angle measures. T h i s definition
of similar figures, when restricted to triangles, can be proved
equivalent t o t h e familiar one. The slmplest general type of
similarity is the dilatation (in a plane or in space) - t h i s 1s a
similarity which leaves a given p o i n t C fixed and radially
"stretches" the distance of any p o i n t f r o m C by a positive
f a c t o r k.
Other important types of transformations are c e n t r a l in
various geometric theories . For example, "parallel p r o j e c t ion"
between planes I n af f ine geometry; ''central projection" between
planes In projective geometry; and topological t r a n s f o m t i o n s ,
which are a t y p e of continuous 1-1 correspondence, in topology.
The theory of map-making is concerned with various "projections"
or other kinds of transformatLons between a sphere and a cone,
cylinder o r plane.
And so we have ended our talk by touching upon a modern
generalization of rigid motion which well m i g h t merit a t a l k f o r
itself.
INTRODUCTION TO NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
-
L e t L be a line and P a point such t h a t there are two
lines through P p a r a l l e l t o L. L e t line PQ be perpendicular
-
to L at Q. Since there are two lines through P parallel to
w
L one of these must make an a c u t e angle with line PQ. Suppose
- - -
-
then a < 90. ( ~ h l n kof a as a small p o s i t i v e number, say .I.)
-
Now l o c a t e RI on L so t h a t QR1 = PQ and R1 is on the same
s i d e of PQ as X and Y. Draw segment PR1. Then d P a 1 1s
i s o s c e l e s so that rnL QPRl = m L QRIP = al. Since the e x t e r i o r
angle of b PQRI at Q is a right angle, the Lemma implles
al + a1 = 2al 2 90
and
b
1 + al = 90,
so that bl = 90 - al
and b1 <4 5
Moreover bl > a.
b2 = b l - a*'
Mopeover b2 > a. b
--
In i n t u i t i v e terms I t is n c t very hard. There are two main points.
+
F i r s t , the ray PX which doesntt meet L acts as a s o r t of
boundary f o r t h e rays PRI,
angles L YFR1, L YPRp, .. .
PR2, ...
which do meet L. Thus the
have measures bl, b2, ...
which
are greater than a. On the other hand (if the sum of the angle
measures of every triangle is a t l e a s t 180) we can pile up
successive angles L QPR1, L R1PR2, ..., starting at ray x,
- 45, 9, ... so
of measures at least a, that the angles
L YPR1, L YPR2, . .. have measures at mast 45, , ,45 .. . .
So we have a c o n t r a d i c t i o n in that the angles L YPR1, L YPR2,
... have measures which approach zero but are a l l greater than a
f b e d p o s i t i v e number a ,
A f i n a l remark. You may o b j e c t that we have n o t r e a l l y
L C C
j u s t i f l e d that PX is a "boundary" f o r PR;, PR;, .. . . To
+ +
t a k e care of t h i s observe that PR1 and PX are on t h e same s i d e
- C,
of lfne PQ. Consequently one of them must
-
+
formed by PQ and the o t h e r
PR1 m u t l l e i n s i d e L QPX
w
.
.
Suppose PX
Then PX would meet lLne &Rl. Since this
+
S i m i l a r l y for
fall i n s i d e the angle
-
fell lnside L QPR1.
is impossible,
PR2, .. . .
11. Neutral Geometry
We are using the term "neutral geometry" in g h l s p a r t t o
indicate t h a t we are assuming neither Euclidls Parallel P o s t u l a t e
nor i t s contradictory. We shall merely deduce consequences of
Euclidta Postulates o t h e r than the Parallel P o s t u l a t e , ( a p e c i f i c a l -
ly our dLscusaions are based on Postulates 1, ...,15 of the text).
O u r r e s u l t s then will hold in Euclidean Geometry and in the non-
Euclidean geometry of Bolyai and Lobachevsky sfnce they a r e
deducible f r o m postulates which are common t o b o t h theories. Our
study is n e u t r a l also in the sense of avoiding controversy over
t h e Parallel Postulate. Actually its study helps us to accept
the idea of non-Euclidean geometry since it points up the f a c t
that mathematically we have a more basic geometrical theory which
can be definitized in either of two w a y s .
We proceed to derive some results in neutral geometsy. Since
you are Familiar with so many s t r i k i n g and Important theorems
-
which do depend on Euclid's Parallel Pbstulate you might t h i n k
that there are no i n t e r e s t i n g theorems in n e u t r a l geometry. How-
ever, t h i s is n o t s o . F i r s t we sketch the proof of a familiar
and important theorem of Euclidean geometry whose proof does n o t
depend on a parallel Postulate (see t e x t , Theorem 7-1).
Theorem 3. A n exterior angle of a t r i a n g l e is larger than
either remote i n t e r i o r angle.
Ell
cut it dorm to fit.
s'
YP x
Q' 0
There is a pqint Qt in such t h a t POr = x . Drop a
perpendicular f r o m Q l to line Ciif with foot R 1 + Ye show
PQ' R' S is a rectangle. ft certainly ha8 rfg h t angles at P, S ,
R' . We show 1 P Q I R f alao is a pight angle. Suppose mL PQf R r
> 90. Then the sum of t h e angle measures of quadrilatergl
PQ'R'S is greater t h a n 360 contrary to the corollary of
Legendre' s Theorem (part 11) . Suppose m L P e t R t < 9 0 . Then
mL QQt R + > 90 and quadrilateral QQ1R' R has an angle measure
-
sum greater than 360. Thus the only posslbllity is m L PQIFtl = 90,
and PQrR 1S is a rectangle.
-
In the same way there is a p o i n t S t in PS such that
PS = y . Drop a perpendicular f r o m S to line Q f R t with foot
R . Than as above PQ' R v IS1 I s a rectangle, and it has s l d e a
-
PQt and PS o f lengths x and y .
Theorem 7. If one particular rectangle exists then e v e r y
r i g h t triangle haa an angle measure sum of 180.
Proof: Our procedure Is to show: (1) any r i g h t triangle Is
congruent to a triangle formed by the splitting of a rectangle by
a diagonal, and ( 2 ) the latter type of triangle must have an
angle measure o f 180. Let A ABC be a right t r i a n g l e w i t h
r i g h t angle a t B. By Theorem 6 there exists a rectangle A l B ' C t D '
-
w i t h A ' B 1 = AB and B I C T = BC. Draw A I C T . Then
A ABC S A A ' B I C 1 and they have the same angle measure sum.
L e t p be t h e angle measure sum of A A t B t C t and q be t h a t
of P A t C ' D 1 . W e have
-
A 0
Now we put two isuch right triangles together to form a rect-
angle. Construct A AEB A BDA with E on the opposite side
of lLne AB from D. Show ADBE is a rectangle.
Corollary 6. If one particular triangle has angle measure
sum 180 then evew triangle has angle measure sum 180.
Proof: By Theorems 10 and 8.
Corollary 7. If one particular triangle has angle measure
awn 180 then Euclldts Parallel Postulate holds.
which is t h e d e f e c t of A ABC.
Are there o t h e r area f'unctions besides t h e d e f e c t ? It is
easy to verif'y t h a t if we multiply the d e f e c t by any p o s i t i v e
constant k, we obtain an area function which s a t i s f i e s Properties
1 , ( 2 (3) . This is not as remarkable as I t m i g h t seem, since
the specific form of o u r definition of d e f e c t depends on our basic
agreement to measure angles in term of degrees. If we adopt a
different unit f o r the measure of angles and define "defect" in
the natural manner, we obtain a constant multiple of the defect
as we defined it. To be s p e c i f i c , suppose we change the u n i t of
angle measurement from degrees to minutes. This would entail two
simple changes in the above theory: (a) each angle measure would
have to be multfplied by 60; (b) the key number 180 would
have to be replaced by 60 times 180. Thus the appropriate
d e f l n l t l o n of "defect" would be 60 t b e s the defect a s we
defined it.
Finally we note t h a t it can be proved that any area f'tmcticn
s a t i s f y i n g (I), ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) must be k times the defect ( o u r
definition) f o r some p o a l t l v e constant k. In view of t h i s it is
natural to define t h e area of a t r i a n g l e to be I t s defect.
Query. Which o f the Properties (I), (21, ( 3 ) h o l d s for the
defect of a triangle in Euclidean geometry?
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that in Euclidean spherfcal geometry
the sum of the angle measures of a triangle is greater than 180
and the area of a triangle is given by i t s ttexceas", that is its
angle measure sum minus 180.
Exercise 1.Given A ABC with p o i n t s , D, E, F in
- - -
AB, BC, AC respectively. Prove that the defect of A ABC is
the sum of the defects of the trfangles ADF, BED, CFE, and
DEF.
Exercise 2. If p o i n t s P, Q, R are i n s i d e A ABC prove
that A ABC has a larger defect than A PQR.
We conclude t h i s part by observing that the familiar Euclld-
ean p r o p e r t y - parallel lines are everywhere equidistant - faila
in Lobachevskian geometry. In fact t h e r e are parallel l i n e s of
two types. If two parallel l i n e s have a common perpendicular
they diverge continuously on both sides of t h i s perpendicular.
If two parallel l h e s don't have a common perpendicular they are
asymptotic - that is If a p o i n t on one recedes endlessly in the
proper directLon, its distance to the other will approach zero.
Conclusion
In I t s f u r t h e r development Lobachevskian geometry is at least
as complex as Euclidean geometry. There is a Lobachevskian s o l i d
geometry, a trigonometry and an analytic geometry - problems i n
mensuration of curves, surfaces and s o l i d s require the use of the
calculus.
You may object that t h e structure is grounded on sand - that
Lobachevskian geometry is inconsistent and eventually w i l l yield
contradictory theorem. This of course was the implicit belief
that led mathematicians f o r 2,000 years to try to prove Euclid's
Parallel Postulate. Actually we have no absolute test f o r the
consistency of any of the familiar branches of mathematics. But
it can be proved that the Euclidean and Lobachevskian geometries
stand or fall together on the question of consistency. That is,
if either is Inconsistent, so is t h e other.
Once t h e I c e had been broken by Bolyal and Lobachevskyls
successful challenge to Euclidfs Parallel Postulate, mathematicians
were stimulated to s e t up o t h e r non-Euclldean geometries - that is,
geometric theories which c o n t r a d i c t one or more of Euclid's
P o s t u l a t e s , or approach geometry i n an e s s e n t i a l l y different way.
The best known of these was proposed in 1854 by t h e German
mathematician Riemann (1826-1866). Riemann! s theory c o n t r a d i c t s
Euclid's Parallel Postulate by assuming there are no parallel -
lfnes. T h i s required the abandonment of o t h e r postulates of
Euclid s i n c e we have proved the exlstence of parallel l i n e s with-
out assuming any p a r a l l e l postulate (Corollary 3) . In Rlemannts
theory, in c o n t r a s t to those of Euclid and Lobachevsky, a l i n e
has f i n i t e length. Actually there are t w o types of non-Euclidean
geometry associated with Rlemannls name, one c a l l e d sfngle
e l l i p t i c geometry i n whlch any two l i n e s meet in j u s t one p o i n t ,
and a second, double e l l l p t l c geometry, In which any two lines
meet in two points. The second type of geometry can be pictured
in Euclidean space as t h e geometry of points and great c i r c l e s
on a sphere.
Riemann a l s o introduced a radically d i f f e r e n t kind of
geometric theory whlch bullds up the p r o p e r t i e s of space in the
l a r g e by studying the behavior of distance between p o l n t s which
are c l o s e together. This theory, called Riemannian Geometry,
is useful in applied mathematics and physics and I s the mathematic-
al basis of Efnsteinfs General Theory of Relativity.
Bolyai and Lobachevsky have opened f o r us a door on a new
and apparently limitless domain.
MINIATURE GEOMETRIES
A
of three non-collinear p o i n t s , but here a l f n e con-
tains only t w o points. The l i n e segments of a more
complete geometry are merely drawn to p o i n t out the
B C
three pairs of p o i n t s . A l i n e is merely a s e t of
t w o p o i n t s . It is easy to observe t h a t Postulates
Pl - P4 are a l l s a t i s f i e d .
(b) A group of' t h r e e boys f o m i n g committees of two fn a11
p o s s i b l e ways. If the boys are c a l l e d A , B, C, the committees
a r e t h e t h r e e p a i r s ( A,B) , (B,c) , (c,A) . If the p o s t u l a t e s are
read with 'boyt replacing 'pointt, tcomrnitteet replacing 'line1
and 'member o f 1 replacing 'on', with possible changes in language
t o preserve t h e meaning, it is easy to see P1, P2, P3 are
o b v i o u s l y s a t i s f i e d by the way the comrnlttees were formed. A
simple observation of the three committees checks P 4 ,
canmit t e *
three
~ 3 '
4. --
A four peometry. Again polnt, l i n e , and on are
undefhed. To d i s t i n g u i s h the poatulatea from those just used we
use the l e t t e r Q.
A
self-explanatory.
.@3
A 0 4 A B C
S
QI, Q2,Q3 QI ' ~ 2 ' 43'
If the model Q2l bothers you, think o f It i n terms of a diagram
drawn on a sphere w i t h N and S being the poles, or if you know
something of chemical bonds, t h i n k of it in terms of a double bond
between N and S , and all t h e r e s t as single bonds.
The flgure f o r Q1, Q2, Q3 could be imagined in ordinary
3-space thus forming a tetrahedron. Indeed we could then add
addi tionax pos tulat e s .
Undefined: plane.
5. - A -
seven p o i n t geometry. As mentioned e a r l i e r t h i s geometry
is one t h a t denies t h e existence of only three p o i n t s b u t s a t i s f i e s
P2, P 3 , P 4 o f the three-point geometry. We pepeat these
p o s t u l a t e s for convenience o f reference. The essential distinction
between t h i s geometry and those already discussed 1s t h a t every
l i n e contains t h r e e and only three p o i n t s . It is necessary to
i n c l u d e a p o s t u l a t e which guarantees there is a t l e a s t one line.
Undefined: point, l i n e , on.
P2. On two d i s t i n c t p o i n t s t h e r e is one and only one line.
P3. Not all p o i n t s a r e on t h e same l l n e ,
P4. On two d i s t i n c t lines there is at least one p o i n t .
P5. There exists at least one l i n e .
~ 6 .Every line is on at least three p o i n t s .
P7. No line is on more than three p o i n t s .
Of course ~6 and P7 could be p u t together t o say: Every
lLne is on three and only t h r e e p o i n t s .
We construct a s p e c i a l model f o r t h i s p o s t u l a t e system by
s e l e c t i n g seven d i s t i n c t p o i n t s , which we c a l l A , B, C, D, E, F,
G. We d e f i n e seven and only seven l i n e s , a, b, c, a, e, f , g,
each beLng a s e t of three p o f n t s , by means of t h e following t a b l e .
A
A B C D E F G
B C E A G D F
F D A G B E C
c a b d e g f
C
It is n o t o u r purpose to d i s c u s s the many theorems that can
be proved from t h i s p o s t u l a t e system, b u t to p o i n t out several
interpretations of it. It may b o t h e r you a b i t to call (D,E,F)
a l i n e , but it is a line by definition j u s t as much as t h e t r i p l e
(A,B,F) is a line. Of course t h i s geometry is n o t l i k e the
Euclidean geometry o f your experience -- it is a f i n i t e projective
.geometry where we have considered only incidence p r o p e r t i e s . How-
ever, its interpretation as a group of seven persons and seven
committees of t h r e e and only three members is also available.
Since we set up the model by d e f l n i t i o n (committee aspect) and
then drew a diagram t o correspond, we must verify all the Postulates
P2 t o P7. This may be long in detail but it is n o t difficult.
There are 21 p a i r s of p o i n t s ( C 7 ' 6 ) and 21 pairs of
=
7 2 -2-
lines, but an examination of the table shows t h a t each row contains -
each letter once and only once, and each l e t t e r is in three and
only three c o l m s , and t h i s will simplify the d e t a i l s . It is
merely time consuming t o v e r i f y all the postulates; t h e s e p o s t u l a t e s
a r e a11 satisfied in the geometric model. To v e r i f y P 4 , for
example, from the table, it Is necessary t o consider 21 p a i r s of
lines, and indeed it is e a s y t o v e r i f y n o t o n l y t h a t each p a i r has
a p o i n t in common ( t h e r e are no pairs of parallel lines) but only
one p o i n t in common,
The r e s u l t s can be t a b u l a t e d as follows
c a b d e g f
b e f a g c d
d c a g b f e
A B C D E F G
Not only may we v e r i f y P2 - P7 in t h i s way, but a l s o t h e dual o f
each of these statements .
The dual is o b t a i n e d by interchanging
the words p o i n t and l i n e wherever they appear. For example,
the dual statement to ~6 and P 7 comblned would read:
~ 6 7, . Every p o i n t is on three and only three l i n e s .
This is easlly verif Led from the defining table.
The algebraic Isomorphism f o r t h i s geometry consists of the
following aas1g;nments of coordinates t o p o i n t s and equations t o
lines :
@
geometry to be a point in t h e i n t e r i o r of'
the c i r c l e ; a "line" is a chord of t h i s
c i r c l e without i t s end-points ; the "plane"
is the i n t e r i o r o f the c i r c l e . It is easy
t o observe that two " l i n e s " may o r may not
i n t e r s e c t . If two chords of the c i r c l e
i n t e r s e c t on the c i r c l e , we say that the corresponding " l i n e s " a r e
"parallel". Note that t h e r e is a d e f i n i t e d i s t i n c t i o n between two
It
lines" being t t p a r a l l e l " and two " l i n e s t t not intersecting, It is
also easy to observe that through a given "point" P, there are
-
exactly two " l i n e s " , PA and
tt
-
z, which are "parallel" to the
l i n e t t AB, and that t h e r e are an i n f i n i t e number of "lines"
-
through P t h a t do not intersect the "line" AB.
In the above model length and angular measure are distorted,
and a study of p r o j e c t i v e geometry is needed t o discuss t h e model.
There is a model, called P o i n c a i r e t s Universe, where length is
distorted but angular measure is n o t (but no proof i s intended).
To understand this model some knowledge of orthogonal c i r c l e s i n
Euclidean ~ e o m e t r yis required, and the corresponding theorems are
n o t usually presented In an introductory c r u r s e In plane geometry.
We state the necessary d e f i n i t i o n s
and theorems ( w i t h o u t proof) ,
Two c i r c l e s are orthogonal If
their angle of intersection is a
right angle. By the angle of i n t e r -
section of two circles we mean the
angle between the tangent lines
drawn at a common p o i n t .
Through two p o i n t s there is one and o n l y one c i r c l e ( o r line)
orthogonal to a given c i r c l e .
In the Poincaire model, a "point" is again a point inside a
gfven circle C, and the "plane1' is the set of all points in the
I n t e r i o r of the circle. A "line" is either a diameter of the
c i r c l e C , without i t s end-points, or that part o f a circle o r t h o -
gonal t o t h e c i r c l e C which lies inslde C. We note, therefore,
that through two "points" there is one and only one "line". Two
It
lines" are said to be "parallel" if their corresponding diameters
o r c i r c l e s i n t e r s e c t on C. It I s again easy to observe that
through a given "point" P, there are t w o " l i n e s " PA and
n
s,
which are "parallel" t o the "line" , and that there are an
infinite number of "lines" through f t h a t do n o t i n t e r s e c t the
"llne" . One more idea may be observed i n t h i s diagram (based
on t h e assumption that angular measure is n o t d i s t o r t e d ) .
tf
The sum of the measures of the "angles" of a " t r i a n g l e n
such as A PQR o r A APB is less than 180.''
A more detailed study o f the geometry of the circle in t h e
Euclidean plane, including a study of the concept of c r o s s - r a t i o
1s needed to carry the discussion Further. Some further results
and suggestions o r indications of ideas that m i g h t be investigated
-
can be found in Eves and Newson, Introduction to FoundatLons and -
-
Fundamental Concepts of Mathematics.
It is p o s s i b l e to develop the t h e o r y of area, as f a r as we
need i t , from a very simple set of p o s t u l a t e s , which a r e intuitive-
l y acceptable. In some r e s p e c t they are more intuitive than thk
ones given in the t e x t , being simpler to state and r e q u i r i n g fewer
preliminary d e f i n i t i o n s . For example, it is not necessary to define
polygonal region in order t o s t a t e the p o s t u l a t e s . It is s a t i s f y i n g
that t h i s is one of t h e many cases In mathematics in which i n t u i t i o n
and r i g o r go hand in hand. We shall sketch t h i s development a t
least up t o t h e point where i t is clear t h a t w e could proceed as in
the text, by deriving as theorems the postulates of the t e x t which
are n o t a l r e a d y included i n our s e t . Some of the early theorems
may appear obvious and hardly worth proving; b u t if we recognize
the f a c t t h a t postulate systems a r e constructed by fallible h m n s
and need to be tested by t h e i r consequences, then we should derive
s a t i s f a c t i o n from the p r o v a b i l i t y of some "obvious" statements by
means a f o u r pos tulate sys tern.
We always speak of the area of something, and t h l s something
fs a region or a figure -- which are slmply names for c e r t a i n sets
of points in a plane. Thus, area is a function of s e t s , an assign-
ment of a unique real number to a s e t . Whenever we speak of a
function, it is important to be quite c l e a r as to the domaln of the
f u n c t i o n , t h a t i s , the s e t of objects f o r whfch the functlon pro-
vides us with an answer. In o u r c a s e , we must ask, what s e t s are
to have an area assigned to them? We could limit ourselves, if we
wished, to simple s e t s , like polygonal regions. This has the d i s -
advantage t h a t it elminates regions bounded by circles, e l l i p s e s ,
hyperbolas, and other smooth curves, regions whlch (our i n t u i t i o n
t e l l s us) should have a r e a s . O f course, we do n o t want huge sets
like the whole plane, or half-planes, or the interiors of angles,
t o have area. These all have the property of being unbounded.
Fortunately, it can be proved that it is possible to assign a
reasonable area t o every reasonable s e t in the p l a n e . The f i r s t
II
reasonablet1 means that t h e area f u n c t i o n will not v i o l a t e o u r
I n t u i t i o n . The second "reasonable" we s h a l l i n t e r p r e t in the
widest p o s s i b l e sense, namely, as "bounded". A bounded s e t is one
that can b e enclosed in some square ( o r circle). We shall t h e r e -
f o r e adopt as our f i r s t area postulate the following:
Postulate A 1 .
There is a function A ( c a l l e d area) defined
for all bounded sets In t h e plane; t o each bounded s e t S, A
assigns a unique non-negative number A ( S ) .
L e t us observe immediately t h a t a p o i n t and a segment are
bounded sets, so we have committed ourselves to the unfamiliar
positlon of a t t r i b u t i n g an area t o such s e t s . The area will turn
o u t t o be zero, of course. There a r e excellent precedents: l e t
us recall that we have allowed ourselves t o speak o f the d i s t a n c e
from a p o i n t t o i t s e l f as being zero. Analogously, in the theory
of probability it is u s e f u l t o have events w i t h zero probability,
even though the events a r e p o s s i b l e . Indeed, the t h e o r i e s o f
l i n e a r measure, area, volume, probability, and c o u n t i n g all have
a g r e a t deal in common, since they arc concerned with a s s i g n i n g
measures t o v a r i o u s s e t s . Far from being a disadvantage, t h e
concept of zero area is extremely valuable. It makes explicit
o u r sound intuition of what s e t s are "negligible" as f a r as area
1s concerned. For example, the A r e a Addition P o s t u l a t e I n the
text ( P o s t u l a t e 19) essentially a s s e r t s t h a t the area o f t h e union
of t w o s e t s is equal to the sum of their areas, provided t h a t they
o v e r l a p in a " n e g l i g i b l e " s e t -- a f i n i t e union of p o i n t s a d
segments. It is somewhat e a s i e r t o accept an Area Addition
P o s t u l a t e in which t h e "negligible" s e t is the empty s e t , as in
Postulate A2 t h a t follows, and to prove later that c e r t a i n s e t s
r e a l l y are " n e g l i g i b l e t t .
+
KN. Then L I s on the
-
S t a r t i n g a t K, l a y o f f p segments of l e n g t h 1 a l o n g ray KL
and q segments of length 1 along ray -+
+
p - t h segment on KL and N is on the q-th segment on KPI.
The rectangular region R is now enclosed between two rectangular
regions S and T, where S has dimensions and u, n
T has dimensions and2, Therefore
IA(R) 5 A(T)
NOW S c o n ~ i s t sof ( - 1 ) - 1) square regions of side ,;1
and T c o n s i s t s o f pq square regions of side .
1
If the area
of one of these square regions is A,, then
A@) = (P - l)(q - 1)A,,
= PW,,
SO
<
(P - l l ( q - l ) ~ , A(R) ( pqAn*
It remains to compute ,A and then A ( R ) . But a u n l t square,
2 1
whose area is 1, can be s p l i t up i n t o n squares of aide E,
2
1 = n An,
1
Therefore
1 1
(P - l)h - 1) -2 ( ( Pq 3%.
n
Now, f r o m the conditions dete&ing p and q.
The two fixed numbers A I R ) both l i e in the interval
and ab
w i t h end-points , n 2.9,
n n s o the a b s o l u t e v a l u e of
their difference is at most equal t o the length of the i n t e r v a l :
Since
n
b and
is appmxlmately 5 q
n
a
is approximately n,
1
the r i g h t a i d e Is approximately E(a + b ) , which is very small If
n is l a r g e . A n application of Theorem I to the fixed non-negative
number * . would then yield t h a t this number is 0, To
make t h i s argument p r e c i s e , choose n so large that I a and
1 < b.
-
n - Then < b implies that
Therefore