Exhaust Emission Catalyst Technology

NEW CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN EUROPE

By Dirk Bosteels and Robert A. Searles

Association for Emissions Control by Catalyst, Av. de Tervueren 100, 6-1040 Brussels, Belgium; (www.aecc.be)

New technologies, incorporating the platinum group metals, are available to meet the exhaust
emission regulations for cars, light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles and motorcycles being
adopted by the European Unionfor implementationduring the new century. These technologies
include low light-offcatalysts, more themlly-durable catalysts, impmved substrate technology,
hydrocarbon adsorbers, electrically heated catalysts, DeNOx catalysts and adsorbers, selective
catalytic reduction and diesel particulate filters. This large range of technologies will allow
exhaust emissions from all engines, both on- and non-road, to be lowered to unprecedented
levels. This paper examines the state of emission control technologies currently available
for all types of engine.

Catalyst-equipped cars were fist introduced in
the U.S.A. in 1974 (1) but only appeared on
European roads in 1985. Indeed, it was not until
1993 that the European Union (ELI) set new car
emission standards that effectively mandated the
installation of emission control catalysts on gaso-
he-fuelled cars. Worldwide, now more than 275
million of the world's 500 million cars and over 85
per cent of all new cars produced are equipped
with autocatalysts.
In the EU directives are being adopted to leg-
islate the maximum exhaust emissions permitted
from a wide range of vehicles and equipment pow-
ered by the internal combustion engine. Exhaust
emission catalyst technology is increasingly being
fitted on heavy-duty vehicles, buses, motorcycles
and on non-road engines and vehicles. The 13
candidate countries currently negotiating entry to
the EU (includingPoland, Hungary and the Czech
Republic) d, as a result of adopang the limit val-
ues of the EU, increase the application of the
technologies developed to control emissions in
the EU.
European Union Exhaust Emission
and Fuel Legislation
The final report of the European Auto Oil II
programme (2) concluded that some ait quality
problems, such as atmospheric levels of particulate
matter (PM) and ozone, are not yet solved. The
challenge is to abate the remaining pollutants emit-
ted while enabhg use of fuel-efficient engine
technologies. This is paramount for achieving
good air quality and the targets for greenhouse gas
reductions given the large increase in the number
of vehicles on European roads, the projections for
further increases in vehicle numbers and the
greater distances driven each year.
Emissionsfmm On-Road Vehickr
The EU emission limits for passenger cars that
came into effect from 1993 were lowered in 1996
and again in 2000. For passenger cars (Tables I and
Il)and hght commercial vehicles the emission
standards have been agreed for 2000 and 2005 (3).
Lght commercial vehicle limit values are adjusted
to compensate for the &her vehicle weights.
Heavy-duty diesel (HDD) vehicles have new
test cycles and tougher emission standards
finalised for 2000 and 2005. The limit values for
enhanced environmentally friendly vehicles
(EEVs) are set to serve as a basis for fiscal incen-
tives by EU Member States. The 2005 (Euro W)
emission standards set limit values for carbon
monoxide (CO) (1.5 g/kWh), hydrocarbons (HCs)
(0.46 g/kWh) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) (3.5
g/kWh) and also PM limit values intended to force
the use of particulate traps/diesel particulate filters
(DPFs). The PM limits are 0.02 g/kWh on the
steady state cycle (ESC) and 0.03 g/kWh on the

Phtinwnr Met& Rev., 2002,46,(I), 27-36 27

 Table I
Gasoline Car Limit Values, g/km
Year co HC NOx HC t NOx

1993/94 2.72 - - 0.97

1996/97(* ) 2.2 (2.7) - (0.341) - (0.252) 0.5
2000/01 2.3 0.20 0.15 -
2005/06 1.o 0.10 0.08 -

' Limit values corrected to current EU test cycle with no 4 0 second idle at start of test

transient cycle (ETC). The new limit values are a being ratified by the European Parliament and
30 per cent reduction in CO, HC and NOx and an Council. Tighter emission limits from 2003 for
80 per cent reduction in PM from Euro III limit new types of motorcycles are agreed and corre-
values of October 2000. spond to a reduction of 60 per cent for HCs and
In 2008 (Euro V), the NOx limit of 2.0 g/kWh CO for four-stroke motorcycles, and 70 per cent
reflects the need for DeNOx or Selective Catalytic for HCs and 30 per cent for CO for two-stroke
Reduction (SCR) catalysts. The limit is subject to a motorcycles. A second stage with new mandatory
European Commission study, which will report by emission limits for 2006 is proposed, to be based
the end of 2002, on technical progress of the on the new worldwide motorcycle emission test
required emission control technologies (4). cycle 0, which is also being developed by
The Working Party on Pollution and Energy the UNECE in Geneva.
(GRPE), an expert group of the World Forum for
Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations’ (WP.29) at Emissionsfrom Engines Used in Nan-RoadApplications
the United Nations Economic Commission for The process of bringing emission limit values
Europe (UNECE) in Geneva, is developing a and fuel quality in non-road applications in line
worldwide heavy-duty certification procedure with those of on-road vehicles has begun.
(WHDC) and is l o ow at new measurement pro- Technology adopted and proven in on-road appli-
tocols in order to ensure that ultra h e particles are cations will in time be transferred to non-road
controlled by hture emission legislation to mir- applications. The first European legislation to reg-
imise the health effects of diesel patticle emissions. ulate emissions from non-road mobile equipment
Another current action is a proposal by the is being implemented in two stages (5):
European Commission to set tougher, catalyst- Stage I implemented in 1999
requiring emission limits for motorcycles. This is Stage I1 implemented from 2001 to 2004,

Table II
Diesel Car Limit Values, g/km

Year co HC t NOx NOx PM

1993194 2.72 0.97 - 0.14

1996/97( *) 1.o 0.7/0.9§ - 0.0810.1 0
(1.06) (0.71/0.91§) (0.63/0.81§) -
2000101 0.64 0.56 0.50 0.05
2005106 0.50 0.30 0.25 0.025

Limit vulues corrected to currenr EU test cycle with no 40 second idle at starr oftest
Values.for Direct Injection Diesels

Phtintm Metuh h.,

2002,46, (1) 28
 Table Ill
EU Emission Limits for Non-Road Diesel Engines, g/kWh
Net Power co I HC
Stage I
130-560 kW 5.0 1.3
75-1 30 kW 5.0 1.3
37-75 kW 6.5 1.3
Stage II
130-560 kW 3.5 1 .o
75-1 30 kW 5.0 1 .o
37-75 kW 5.0 1.3
18-37 kW 5.5 1.5
dependmg on the engine power output.
The equipment covered indudes mobile con-
struction machinery, forklift trucks, road
maintenance equipment, ground support equip-
ment in airports, aedal lifts and mobile cranes.
Agricultural and forestry tractors have the same
emission standards but with different implementa-
tion dates (6). Engines used in ships, railway
locomotives, aircraft, and generating sets, not yet
covered by the directive, are being considered by a
Commission working group and will be included
in the future.
Stages I and I1 are based on a steady-state 8-
mode test procedure, and emission limit values are
shown in Table 111.
Values for the Stage 111limits using a new tran-
sient test procedure (NRTC) are under discussion
in a European Commission working group. The
intention is to develop global solutions and to
develop the legislation in dose cooperation with
the U.S.A. and Japan, using the global agreement
under UNECE in Geneva as the basis for legisla-
tion.
A European Commission Task Force has been
set up to improve the fuel quality for non-road
applications. Reducing sulfur content in non-road
fuels in line with those being introduced in the
road sector would allow engine makers to use the
advanced emission control technologies of cata-
lysts and traps to reduce gaseous and particulate
emissions. A Commission proposal was issued
at the end of 2000 (7) and established the first
Phtimm~Mefa? Rm, 2002,46, (1)
NOx I PM
9.2 0.54
9.2 0.70
9.2 0.85
6.0 0.2
6.0 0.3
7.0 0.4
8.0 0.8
emission limits for small spark-ignition engines
below 19 kW used in lawn mowers, chain saws,
bush cutters, trimmers and snow removal equip-
ment. The proposal, which is now being
considered by the European Parliament and
Council, has been developed in cooperation with
the US. Environmental Protection Agency in a
move toward worldwide harmonisation.
The proposal indudes two stages of limit val-
ues: the first to be met 18 months after the
directive comes into force and the second one
between 2004 and 2010 dependmg on the catego-
ry of the engine. The second stage will lower
emissions from handheld engines by about 80 to
85 per cent.
Gasoline and diesel engines installed in recre-
ational crafts and personal watercrafts are already
subject to some emission and noise requirements
and limits (8). The European Commission pro-
posed amendmentsin October 2000 to the current
directive, fuaher reducing the exhaust pollutants.
Fuels
The mandatory standards for fuel sulfur levels
for on-road fuels were set in 1998 (9). However
after a full technical study the European
Commission adopted a proposal in May 2001 to
require the introduction of sulfur-free (< 10 ppm)
gasoline and diesel by each EU Member State
from 1 January 2005. Under the proposal, still to
be ratified, gasoline and diesel fuel with ‘a sulfur
content’ would be banned from the EU market
29

Fig. I Effect of different pgm loadings mid cornposition
011light-off temperature
from 201 1. These fuels will speed the introduction
of the latest fuel-efficient technologies in cars and
other vehicles, significantly reducing the emissions
of carbon dioxide (COZ).
Exhaust Emissions from Internal
Combustion Engines
There are a number of ways in which exhaust
emissions can be lowered:
Reducing engine-out emissions by improving
the combustion process and fuel management, or
by changes to the type of fuel or its composition
Decreasing the time required for the catalytic
converter to reach its full efficiency
Increasing the conversion efficiency of catalysts
Storing pollutants during the cold start for
release when the catalyst is working
Using catalysts and adsorbers to destroy NOx
under lean operation
Using particulate filters with efficient regenera-
tion technology
Increasing the operating life of autocatalysts
and supporting systems
Retrofitting catalytic converters, particulate
traps and associated engine and fuel management
systems if they are not original equipment.
PLatinum Metah Kev., 2002,46, (1)
All,except the first, of the above opportunities,
will now be examined, looking at established and
new technologies.
Established Exhaust Emission Catalyst
Technology
AutocatahJtts
Oxidation catalysts convert CO and HCs to
COZ and water and decrease the mass of diesel par-
ticulate emissions but have little effect on NOx.
Three-way catalysts W C s ) operate in a closed
loop system which contains a lambda- (or oxygen)
sensor to regulate the &/fuel ratio. CO and HC
are simultaneously oxidised by the catalyst to COZ
and water while NOx is reduced to nitrogen. These
simultaneous oxidising and reducing reactions
have the highest efficiency in the small air-to-fuel
ratio window around the stoichiometiic value,
when air and fuel are in chemical balance. The
active components of these catalysts are the plat-
inum group metals (pgms) platinum (Pt), palladium
(Pd) and rhodium (Rh) in various combinations.
DieselOxihtion Cata!ysfJ (DOCS)
An oxidation catalyst will remove the soluble
organic fraction (SOF) of diesel particulate by up
to 90 per cent (10). Destruction of SOF is impor-
tant because this portion of the particulate
contains numerous chemicals of concern to health
experts. DOCs can thus reduce total particulate
emissions by 25 to 50 per cent, depending on the
constituents that make up the total particulate.
They also reduce diesel smoke, eliminate the pun-
gent diesel exhaust odour and make significant
reductions in CO and HCs. However the number
of particles is unchanged and issues associated with
the effects of ultra-fine particulates are unresolved.
DOC technology has been successfully used on all
diesel cars sold in Europe since 1996; not many
heavy-duty vehicles are equipped with a catalyst
(11).
DOCs are also used in conjunction with NOx
adsorbers, DeNOx catalysts, DPFs or selective
catalytic reduction (SCR) to increase NO2 levels
or to ‘clean-up’ any by-pass of injected reductant
used for NOx reduction (HCs or ammonia). The
preferred pgm for DOCs is Pt.
30
Fig. 2 Imn~~r~i~~entents to the thermal stahiliry cmd oxygen storage c a p m i 8 vj'ci ccitolyst support of mixed cerium and
:irconiurn o.i-ides ufirr air Ngeiiig at 900%,for 6 hours
Fast Lgbt-off Catahsts
The catalytic converter has to work soon after
the engine is switched on, and to achieve this the
exhaust temperature at which it starts to function
needs reducing so that untreated exhaust emitted
at the start of the legislated emissions test and on
short journeys in the real world is minimised.
Reductions in the thermal capacity of substrates
and improvements to the type and composition of
the active pgm catalyst have reduced light-off
times from as long as one to two minutes down to
less than 20 seconds (12). In Figure 1, the effect of
different catalyst compositions as they affect the
light-off temperature are shown.
The introduction of a new generation of Pt/Rh
technologies for current and future emission star-
dards is a technically and commercially amactive
alternative to Pd-based technologies for high
demanding applications in close-coupled and
underfloor positions using different cold start
strategies (13).
More Thermally Durable Catalysts
Increased stability of the catalytic converter at
high temperature allows it to be mounted closer to
the engine and increases its life, particularly during
demanding driving. Catalysts with stabilised pgm
crystallites and washcoat materials which maintain
high surface area at temperatures around 1000°C
are necessary. The surface area of the washcoat is
stabilised by improved oxygen storage compo-
nents that also maximise the air-fuel 'window' for
Pkatinnm MetaLr Rm, 2002, 46, (1)
three-way operation and indicate the 'health' of the
catalytic converter for onboard diagnostic (OBD)
systems. Figure 2 shows the progress made with
mixed cerium and zirconium oxides (14).
Substrate Technology
Great progress has been made in the technolo-
gy of the substrates on which the active catalyst is
supported. In 1974 ceramic substrates based on
cordierite (2Mg0.W203.5SiO$ had a density of
200 cells per square inch (cpsi) of cross-section (31
cells cm-7 and a wall thickness of 0.012 inch or 12
mil (0.305 mm). By the end of the 1970s the cell
density had increased through 300 to 400 cpsi and
wall thickness had been reduced by 50 per cent to
6 mil. Now 400,600,900 and 1200 cpsi substrates
are available and wall thickness can be reduced to
2 mil - almost 0.05 mm (15-19). Further increas-
es in cell density and reductions in wall thickness
are in development.
Substrates derived from ultra thin foils of cor-
rosion-resistant steels came onto the market in the
late 1970s. In the beginning the foils were made
from material 0.05 mm thick, allowing high cell
densities to be achieved and complex internal
structures could be developed. Today, wall thick-
ness is down to 0.025 mm and cell densities of 800,
1000 and 1200 cpsi substrates are available (20,21).
Progress in ceramic and metal substrate tech-
nology has given major benefits. A larger catalyst
surface area can be incorporated into a given con-
verter volume and this allows better conversion
31
efficiency and durability. The thin walls reduce
thermal capacity and avoid the penalty of increased
pressure losses. Alternatively the same perfor-
mance can be incorporated into a smaller
converter volume, which, as cars become more
compact, makes the catalyst easier to fit close to
the engine.
New Technologies for Exhaust
Emissions Control
Stoichiometric Combustion
Hydrocarbon Adsorbers
Special materials, such as zeolites, are incorpo-
rated upstream of or into the catalyst in HC
adsorber systems. Hydrocarbon emissions are col-
lected when exhaust temperatures are too low for
effective catalyst operation. The HCs are then des-
orbed at higher temperatures when the catalyst has
reached its operating temperature and is ready to
receive and destroy the HCs. This technology has
the potential to reduce HCs to less than half the
levels emitted from a TWC converter (22), see
Figure 3.
El'ectvicalh Heated Catahst .$terns
A small metallic substrate ahead of the main
catalyst, and onto which the catalyst is deposited,
allows an electric current to pass so it will heat up
quickly. This brings the catalyst to its fulloperating
temperature in a few seconds (23).
Lean Combustion
The development of lean bum direct injection
gasoline engines and increased use of diesel
engines makes lean combustion a challenge for
automotive catalysis. Lean combustion is essential
to limit CO:! emissions and reduce fuel consump-
tion. New diesel technologies with electronic
management and direct injection can achieve fur-
ther improvements in fuel consumption.
Conventional TWC technology (used on gasoline
engines) needs a richer environment with lower
&/fuel ratios to reduce NOx, so a radical new
approach is required.
The use of DeNOx catalysts and NOx traps
brings the prospect of substantially reduced emis-
sions of oxides of nitrogen. NOx conversion rates
Phtinum Metah REP., 2002,46, (1)
10
9
7 8
E
1m 7
6
vi
5 5
$ 4
I 3
w
2
1
0
co HC NOx
I
Fig. 3 Influence of improved three-wuy catalyst and
hydrocurbon udsorber systems on CO, HC and NOx
emissions (European cycle)
depend on exhaust temperature and the availabili-
ty of reducing agents. There are currently four
NOx-reducing systems under evaluation and
development by industry:
[i] Passive DeNOx catalysts using reducing agents
available in the exhaust stream
[i] Active DeNOx catalysts using added HCs as
reducing agents
[iii] NOx traps or adsorbers used in conjunction
with a TWC
[iv] Selective catalytic reduction using a selective
reductant, such as ammonia from urea.
Each of these systems offers different possibilities
in the amount of NOx control achievable and in
the complexity of the system. Fuel parameters, such
as sulfur content, can affect catalyst performance.
D e N O x (or L a n N O x ) Cata&
Advanced sa~cturalproperties in the catalytic
coating of DeNOx catalysts are used to create a
rich 'microclimate' where HCs from the exhaust
can reduce the NOx to nitrogen, while the overall
exhaust remains lean. Further developments focus
on increasing the operating temperature range and
the conversion efficiency.
N O x Adsorbers (or Lean N O x Traps)
NOx traps or adsorbers are a more promising
development as results show that NOx adsorber
systems are less constrained by operational tem-
peratures than DeNOx catalysts. NOx traps
32
 adsorb and store NOx under lean condi-
tions. A typical approach is to speed up the
conversion of nimc oxide (NO) to nitrogen
dioxide (NO,) using a pgm-containing oxi-
dation catalyst or TWC mounted close to
the engine so that NO2 can be rapidly stored
as nitrate. The function of the NOx storage
element can be fulfilled by materials that are
able to form sufficiently stable nitrates with-
in the temperature range determined by the
lean operation regime of a direct injection
gasoline engine. Thus especially alkaline,
alkaline earths and, to a certain extent, also
rare earth compounds can be used.
When this storage media nears capacity it
must be regenerated. This is accomplished
in a NOx regeneration step. Unfortunately,
alkaline and alkaline earth compounds have
a strong affinity for sulfation. As a conse-
quence alkaline and alkaline earth
compounds are almost irreversiblypoisoned
by the sulfur contained in the fuel during the
NOx storTage operation mode,mode, leading to a Fig. 4 The working principle of rhe NOx adsorber: Upper
diagram: under lean (low fuel) conditions, NO reucrs with 0
2 on
decrease in NOx adsorption
adsorption efficiency dur- the Pr catdvst, to produce NOr which is them adsorbed. Lower
ing operation. The stored NOx is released diagrurn: under rich (highfuel) conditions
by creating a rich atmosphere with injection
of a small amount of fuel. The rich running por- tion timing, results in a considerable increase in
tion is of short duration and can be accomplished fuel consumption, dependent upon the sulfur con-
in a number of ways, but usually includes some tent. Reducing fuel sulfur levels is the best way of
combination of intake air throthg, exhaust gas using the full fuel economy and CO, reduction
recirculation, late ignition tirmng and post com- potential of modern direct injection gasoline
bustion fuel injection. The released NOx is quickly engines.
reduced to N2by reaction with CO (the same reac- Developments and optimisation of NOx
tion that occurs in a TWC for spark-ignited adsorber systems are currently underway for diesel
engines) on a Rh catalyst site or on another pgm and gasoline engines. These technologies have
catalyst that is also incorporated into this unique demonstrated NOx conversion efficiencies rang-
single catalyst layer (Figure 4). ing from 50 to in excess of 90 per cent, depending
Thermal dissociation of the alkaline and aka- on the operaang temperatures and system respon-
line earth sulfates, under oxygen-rich conditions, siveness, as well as fuel sulfur content (27,28). The
would require temperatures above 1000°C. Such system is in production with direct injection gaso-
temperatures cannot be achieved under realistic line engines.
driving conditions. However, it has been demon-
strated that it is possible to decompose the Sehctive Catabiic Reduction (Sa)
corresponding alkaline earth sulfates under reduc- SCR technology has been used successfully for
ing exhaust and elevated temperature conditions more than two decades to reduce NOx emissions
to restore the NOx storage capacity (24-26). The from power stations fired by coal, oil and gas,
necessary catalyst heating, for example by late igni- from marine vessels and stationary diesel engines.

Phtinnm Mefdr Rev., 2002,46, (1) 33

SCR technology for HDD vehicles has
been developed to the commercialisation
stage and was available as an option in the
series production of several European
truck-manufacturing companies in 2001.
SCR technology permits the NOx
reduction reaction to take place in an oxi-
dising atmosphere. It is called ‘selective’
because the catalytic reduction of NOx
with ammonia as a reductant occurs prefer-
entially to the oxidation of ammonia with
oxygen. Several types of catalyst are used
and the temperature of the exhaust envi-
Fig. 5 Wallflow diesel partirulute filteK illustrating how the
Ionment determines the choice. For exhausi gas can puss through thefilter walls. Particulate matter
mobile source applications the preferred becomes trapped in the walls
reductant source is aqueous urea, which
rapidly hydrolyses to produce ammonia in the is the fine particulate carried deep into the lungs
exhaust stream. which could be the most dangerous size of PM to
SCR for heavy-duty vehicles reduces NOx health.
emissions by around 80 per cent, HC emissions by Since the wall flow filter would readily become
around 90 per cent and PM emissions by around plugged with particulate material in a short time, it
40 per cent in the EU test cycles, using current is necessary to ‘regenerate’ the filtration properties
diesel fuel (< 350 ppm sulfur) (29, 30). Fleet tests of the filter by regularly burning off the collected
with SCR technology show excellent NOx reduc- PM. The most successful methods to initiate and
tion performance for more than 500,000 km of sustain regeneration include:
ttuck operation. This experience is based on over [a] Incorporating a pgm-based oxidation catalyst
6,000,000 km of accumulated commercial fleet upstream of the DPF. This operates as a conven-
operation (31-33). tional oxidation catalyst but also increases the ratio
The combination of SCR with a pre-oxidation of NO2 to NO in the exhaust. Trapped particulates
catalyst, a hydrolysis catalyst and an oxidation cat- bum off at normal exhaust temperatures using the
alyst enables higher NOx reduction under low load powerful oxidative properties of NOz (37).
and low temperature conditions (34-36). [b] Using very small quantities of fuel-borne cata-
lyst, such as cerium oxide. The catalyst, when
DieselParticuhte Filtets (DPFs) collected on the DPF as an intimate mixture with
A diesel particulate filter is positioned in the the particulate, allows the particulate to bum at
exhaust and is designed to collect solid and liquid normal exhaust temperatures to form COz and
PM emissions while allowing the exhaust gases to water, while the solid residues of the catalyst are
pass through the system. Figure 5 shows one type retained on the DPF (37).
of filter material. [c] Incorporating a catalytic coating, typically a
However, a number of filter materials are used, combination of pgm and base metals, on the DPF
i n c l u w ceramic monoliths, woven silica fibre to lower the temperature at which PM bums.
coils, ceramic foam, wire mesh and sintered or [d] Electrical heating of the DPF either on or off
shaped metals. Collection efficiencies of these var- the vehicle, which would allow simple regenera-
ious filters range from 30 to over 90 per cent, but tion, but would impose a fuel penalty.
most DPFs achieve over 99 per cent when [el A combination of the above mentioned systems
expressed as numbers of ultra fine particles. This is and intelhgent engine-management allows efficient
very important since health experts believe that it regeneration under all operating conditions. The

Pbtinwnr Metah Rev., 2002, 46, (1) 34

first diesel passenger cat equipped with a com-
bined filter system was commercialised in 2000
and evaluations indicate a good and durable per-
formance of the system. The system has now been
extended to other models (39,40).
Continuously regeneraw DPFs are very suc-
cessful in retrofit applications of older HDD
vehicles and buses in various regions over the
world. Real world durability of these systems is
proven every day in major cities in Europe and the
U.S.A. (4143). With any catalyst/DPF combina-
don which includes pgms the use of diesel fuel
having a sulfur content lower than 10 ppm is nec-
essary to keep the formation of sulfate particulates
within future legislated limits (44).
Combined Emission ConhL Systems (DPF + SCR)
A combined emission control system is an
attractive proposition; this is because of the strin-
gent emission limit values for NOx and PM set for
HDD engines in 2005 and 2008, the demands by
the transport sector for minimum fuel consump-
don of the engine and the political, public and
health concerns over the emission of ultra h e
References
1 B. I. Bertelsen, PIatinrrm Metah h.,
2001,45, (2), 50
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the European Communities
of the
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6 European Diiective 2000/25/EC, 22 May 2000
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Phinwn Mctah b.,
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systems and DPFs with an appropriate regenera-
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generation HDD engines and to show significant
reductions of both NOx and PM (4547).
Conclusions
There is thus a wide range of gaseous and par-
ticulate emission control options based on the use
of catalytic, adsorption and trapping technologies,
with the pgms playing an essential role.
Retrofitting of catalyst systems and particulate
traps is increasingin response both to fiscal incen-
tive schemes introduced by governments and to
meet the requirements of environmental zones,
particularly in cities. Europe has a strong automo-
tive emissions control industry well placed to help
meet the challenge of future emission regulations
by worlung with its partners in the automotive
industry. Advanced catalyst and trap systems,
together with optimised engine management and
emission controls can aid the achievement of the
future low emission standards deemed necessary
to meet air quality goals.
12 R J. Brisley etal, ‘The use of palladium in advanced
catalysts’, S A E 950259
13 J. Schmidt et al, ‘Utilization of advanced Pt/Rh
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2001-01-0927
14 J.-P. Cuif et al, ‘(Ce, 2r)OZ solid solutions for three
way catalysts’, S A E 970463
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SAE 1999-01-0269
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The Authors
Dirk Bosteels is Technical Manager of AECC and his professional
background is in emissions testing and vehicle safety
homologation.
Rob Searles is Executive Director of AECC and has been involved
with catalytic emissions control for more than 30 years
36