Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Business Communication
Business Communication
What does it mean to communicate? Everyone read and talk a lot about
communication, but it means different things to different people. Someone may think
of communication as casual conversation, the formal use of mass media, books,
letters, friendly notes, or formal public speeches. Regardless of the many different
meanings that people give to the word communication, everyone seems to agree that
it is important.
Senders and receivers each have goals and objectives –things that they want
to accomplish. The sender may want to change the receiver’s mind, or secure
concessions toward a negotiated agreement. The receiver may not want to have his
mind changed, and not want to make concessions; moreover, the receiver may have
the identical objective in mind fo his opponent. The more diverse the goals of the
sender and receiver, or the more antaonistics they are in their relationship, the
greater likelihood of distortion and error in communication. Similarly, senders and
receivers differ in their individual makeup –each is likely to have a different pattern of
personel values, attitudes toward certain issues and objectives, previous
experiences, life history, and personality characteristics. Each of these elements
contributes to a different way of viewing the world.
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the receiver’s end, poor eyesight or faulty hearing may similarly diminish the ability to
accurately receive a message.
Decoding, meaning and encoding are the processes that the individual uses to
interpret the messages of others, and to formulate messages themselves. Decoding
is the process of translating messages from their symbolic form into interpretations
that we can understand.
If the parties speak the same language, or use the same common nonverbal
gestures to communicate messages, the process is reasonably simple and error-free;
if they do not, decoding is prone to contribute a high degree of error. While
“translators” may help to decode the other’s messages, full translation may not be
possible, i.e., understanding the other’s meaning or tone, as well as the words –or
may introduce additional error into the communication.
Meanings are the facts, ideas, feelings, reactions, or thoughts that exist whitin
individuals, and act as a set of “filters” through which the decoded messages are
interpreted. If a party has asked the other to “please pass me that pencil,” and the
other party has said “no,” the encoded “no” back to us is likely to stimulate a variety
of reactions in the search for “meaning.” Did the other hear the message? Was the
“no” a direct refusal to the request? Why did the other say “no”? Does he need the
pencil too? Is he being obstinate and intentionally blocking me? Answers to these
questions will vary depending upon a variety of other aspects of the communication
sequence and the relationship between the parties, and will lead to different
ascriptions of “meaning” to the word “no.”
Finally, encoding is the process by which messages are put into symbolic
form. The encoding process will be affected by varying degrees of skills in encoding,
e.g., fluency in language, skill at expression in written and verbal form, etc. It will also
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be affected by the meaning attached to earlier communication- what we want to
communicate, how we have reacted to earlier communications, etc. Senders are
likely to choose to encode messages in a preffered form; this form may not be the
same preffered by receivers. Two managers may need to distinguish a negotiated
contract; while one may prefer to “get together and discuss it over lunch,” the other
may prefer to have each one prepare a written draft that they can exchange and
revise individually. How this contract will eventually be prepared may thus be the
subject of the negotiation itself.
5-Feedback
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The message remembered by people often is not what communicator intended to
say. The message remembered is whatever the listeners interpret it to be.
An other important principle is that communication is irreversible. At once time
or another people may have wished they could change what they have said or done.
Unfortunately, that is simply impossible. People may give additional information or a
rationalization for their previous actions, but they can only modify the impession they
have already made.
A sixth principle of communication is that noise is a factor in any
communication situation. Noice is any factor that interferes with the clear and
accurate transmission of a given message.
Communication is circular, not linear. This means that people send and receive
communication simultaneously. Because of its simultaneously aspects, the
communication process could be considered a circle or spiral rather than a line.
People process feedback while they speak to others, and they speak to themselves –
think- while others are speaking.
An eight principle is that communication is most efficient when the participants
share a considerable amount of common experience. Common experience is
achieved by using shared symbols and speaking from a shared history.
Misunderstandings are less likely in such situations.
And the last principle is that communication always has an effect of some kind.
For every communication act, there will be consequences. People can even feel a
sense of accomplishment in a communication exchange in which a listener does not
respond verbally.
Verbal Messages
Nonverbal Messages
Voice
Paralanguage refers to the ways the voice is used in sending messages –the
inflection place on a particular word, how loudly, softly, quickly, or slowly a person
speaks, and so forth. Each quality of a person’s voice sends a particular messsage.
Most of time people use paralanguage deliberately. A person might say, for example,
“Oh, sure, i like him a lot,” using sarcastic inflections to make the words him exactly
the opposite. When a person choose to do this, she has sent her real messsage
nonverbally, not verbally.
Sometimes tha paralanguage message is not intentional. Suppose a person
are giving a speech and his voice shaky and halting. His words are strung together
with “uh…and, uh…” The audience gets a clear messsage that he is frightened,
uncomfortable, or possibly unprepared. That messsage may be strong that the words
he say are ignored by his listeners. In this case his nonverbal behavior is harmful to
his communication.
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Physical Movements
Space
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ADAPTING MESSSAGES TO PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE
Language
Appropriate language is the language that has been adapted to the receiver
while retaining a naturalness with respect to the sender. A “city slicker” who wears his
pinstripe whole suit and silk tie out to the field to talk to a farmer about leasing his
cotton land may mistakenly try to speak like a country rube in an effort to adapt the
message to the audience. However, the message will lack genuineness and could
offend the farmer. But even in a pinstipe suit and with educated speech, the city man
could adjust his message by using clear explanations, avoiding jargon, and speaking
with respect.
A politician may speak to an audience of independent oil men about the need
for the discontinuation of the oil taxes or a sanction on imported oil. Later in day, that
same politician may speak to a group of farmers about the need for agricultural price
supports. That candidate has adapted the message to the audience. He or she has
chosen the subject matter that each group wants to hear about. It is important that
the politician also use language taht will make the audience aware of his or her level
of knowledge of the issue.
Style
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Format
JOHARI WINDOW
The Johari Window, named after the first names of its inventors, Joseph Luft
and Harry Ingham, is one of the most useful models describing the process of human
interaction. A four paned "window," as illustrated belowed, divides personal
awareness into four different types, as represented by its four quadrants: open,
hidden, blind, and unknown. The lines dividing the four panes are like window
shades, which can move as an interaction progresses.
In this model, each person is represented by their own window.
Adjectives selected by both the participant and his or her peers are placed into
the Arena quadrant. This quadrant represents traits of the participant of which both
they and their peers are aware. For example, I know my name, and so do you. It may
also be called "open" quadrant.
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Adjectives selected only by the participant, but not by any of their peers, are
placed into the Façade quadrant, representing information about the participant of
which their peers are unaware. It is then up to the participant whether or not to
disclose this information. For example, I have not told you, what one of my favorite
ice cream flavors is. This information is in my "Façade" quadrant. As soon as I tell
you that I love "Ben and Jerry's Cherry Garcia" flavored ice cream, I am effectively
pulling the window shade down, moving the information in my façade quadrant and
enlarging the arena quadrant's area. Façade quadrant also called "hidden" quadrant.
Adjectives that are not selected by the participant but only by their peers are
placed into the Blind Spot quadrant. These represent information of which the
participant is not aware, but others are, and they can decide whether and how to
inform the individual about these "blind spots". For example, we could be eating at a
restaurant, and I may have unknowingly gotten some food on my face. This
information is in my blind quadrant because you can see it, but I cannot. If you now
tell me that I have something on my face, then the window shade moves to the right,
enlarging the arena quadrant's area.
Adjectives which were not selected by either the participant or their peers
remain in the Unknown quadrant, representing the participant's behaviors or motives
which were not recognized by anyone participating. This may be because they do not
apply, or because there is collective ignorance of the existence of that trait. For
example, I may disclose a dream that I had, and as we both attempt to understand its
significance, a new awareness may emerge, known to neither of us before the
conversation took place.
patient
able dependable intelligent powerful sensible
accepting dignified introverted proud sentimental
adaptable energetic kind quiet shy
bold extroverted knowledgeable reflective silly
brave friendly logical relaxed spontaneous
calm giving loving religious sympathetic
caring happy mature responsive tense
cheerful helpful modest searching trustworthy
clever idealistic nervous self- warm
complex independent observant assertive wise
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BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION
TANGIBLE DIFFERENCES
The kinds of categories used in a census of the population are all relevant to
understanding tangible differences between people. These are factors such as sex,
age, race, national or cultural origin, socioeconomic class, urban or rural
residence, educational level, and so forth. These are things that we can know by
observing people. We can be aware of these elements that shape their individuality,
simply by knowing tangible things about them.
No matter where people may live, will be associating and needing to
communicate with people from widely different backgrounds. For example; the
people work with will represent a wide variety of sex, age, and ethnic typers. The
person should not assume anything ahead of time about those with whom you will
work. Understanding how tangible elements such as sex and age affect
communication behavior, then, is vital to you in the business world.
ª SEX: For instance, your sex has been found to be a major influence on
the way you communicate with other people. Simply knowing a person’s gender can
allow you to draw some general conclusions that hold true for many people. These
general conclusions are based on reports of research projects by social scientists
conducting experiments to discover how people interact in the real world. Not all men
and women ct in these ways; in fact , these patterns are currently changing. We can
say, however, that men and women tend to communicate with one another in
different ways according to their sex. Since this is true, we can see that sex is one of
the factors leading to differences in interpersonal communication effectiveness.
According to studies by researchers; women and men differ as follows when
they communicate:
§When men and women work together in a group, men tend to be more assertive
and self-confident.
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§Women are more likely than men to express their emotions, to reveal how they feel
about a situation.
It should be obvious that these are not rules, but general tendencies. However,
they are important to us because they allow us to make some educated predictions
about communication. They allow us to analyze communication as it occurs.
1. Brad Sandefer, the middle-aged music director of the largest church in the
city.
2. Ethyl Brown, the local librarian
3. Marshall Pickering, an elemantary school principal.
4. Tyrone Jefferson, a seven grade student enrolled at Booker T. Washington
Vocational Technical School.
5. Howard Burke, PFC, U.S. Marine Corps.
6. Your father.
If your reaction to the statement about the video games would different
according to which person said it, you can see how individual differences can afferct
interpersonal communication.
INTANGIBLE DIFFERENCES
People’s attitudes and values would be different not only because they were
different physically, but also because of their different backgrounds. The differences
between people’s attitudes and values are often more important than their physical
differences in influencing how they communicate. Therefore, we should not neglect
the psychological factors that affect communication.
This mother and her teenager both see the same room, but through different
eyes. The mother’s perceptual screen is in the context of having everything handy
and out in the open. Often, communication problems arise as a result of different
selective perceptions by the persons involved. The advice that can be offered is to
look at the topic from the other person’s viewpoint. In this way, we can reduce some
of the misunderstandings and misperceptions that may come up.
Selective perception allows us not only to block out things that are there, but
also to see more things than are there. We make our own reality! This is most clearly
seen in the human tendency to stereotype others. We stereotype such groups as
women, ethnic minorities, older people, adolescents, and the members of verious
religious groups. So; when we get into communication difficulties with others, the
reason is often thet we do not share the same perceptions, and thus our meaning is
not clear.
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Very few people are extremely closed or open-minded. But nearly all people
lean one way or the other. These are ways of thinking about the world.
Communication is difficult when you must deal with a person who admits yo no errors
and accepts no compromise. The person with tunnel vision cannot cope well with
unforeseen developments and rapidly changing conditions. This is the person whose
attitude seems to say; “I’ve already made up my mind, Don’t confuse me with the
facts!!!”
Sour Grapes: This tactic involves rationalizing, saying that you did not really
want a thing, or downgrading the qualities of something you are unable to
achieve.
Projection: Projection involves accusing others of your own faults.
Scapegoating: Picking on others and blaming them unjustly are
characteristics of this tactic.
All of these ego-defensive mechanisms are normal in the sense that everyone
uses them on occasion. Sometimes they may even be necessary, as when others
seem unable to communicate with you without using hostile, abusive, or aggressive
attacks against you. Some people have poor self-images; so their communication
habits are based on these patterns. They feel that they must cut other people down in
order to build themselves up. They make communication difficult as best. The key
point to remember is that ego-defensive communication never deals with the
substance of a discussion, but rather with personalities. Thus, they can all be barriers
to good communication.
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These five psychological factors- perception, motivation, tunnel vision, ego
defensiveness, and negative emotions - are all elements of communication that you
must consider when you plan for better communication. You need to avoid them in
your own communication when possible, and you need to be able to see them for
what they are when others use them.
DISTORTION BARRIERS
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ª ABSENCE OF FEEDBACK: A third source of distortion in communication
is contributed by absense of feedback channels. One can see that cutting off the
feedback loop does not permit the sender to know whether his message was
received or received accurately. Research on one-way vs. two-way
communicationhighlights this problem. Two-way communication with discussion and
questions of clarification takes longer, but is much more likely to be accurately
received. One-way communication, in contrast, takes a shorter period of time, and is
usually more “efficient” but it is more frustrating to the sender. Teachers frequently
wish that students would ask more questions, to make sure that a particular lecture is
well-understood; students frequently wish that the instructor would stop and ask for
questions, rather than continuing on without probing at the right time. Negotiations is
by definition, a “give and take” process, one that requires two-way communication to
be effective. The more “dedicated” or one-way it becomes- for example, from
superior to subordinate –the more likely error and distortion will be introduced
because of the absence of feedback channels.
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expect low power parties to usea variety of appeals in order to persuade the high
power party to be mare equitable, fair, and just in his use of power in the negotiation.
Effective communication skills are necessary for smooth relations with other
people. They can be your family, friends, colleagues or even strangers.
Communication is engaging in an exchange with another person. Knowing how to
communicate effectively will help you get across what you mean more efficiently. You
do not need a long list of do’s and don’ts for verbal use. You do need to understand
that language is not always exact. It carries possibilities for misunderstanding if not
carefully controlled. Some general guidelines for selecting words and some tips for
effective communication are noted in the following;
ÃBe Exact: Try to find the most precise and specific words. Pay attention to
feedback that indicates how the meaning is perceived by the receiver.
ÃUse the word “is” carefully: When you say; “He is radical,” you may really mean,
“He seems to be a radical.” There is a vast difference between the two statements,
and each might bring a different reactions.
ÃDo not to overuse you or your: One sure way to produce a defensive reaction is
to assign ownership. “Your boss made another silly statement in his meeting last
night” is almost guaranteed to produce an argument rather than a discussion.
Although we now that messages can be sent in verbal form, we may not be
aware of how the choice of words affects the ability of the receiver to decode our
message accurately. So we should keep in mind the importance of words in message
sending.
ÃCount from 1 to 10: When you get in the middle of an intense argument or when
someone suddenly lashes out at you, don’t get mad right away. Count 1 to 10 before
responding. This will make you aware that the person you are speaking to might just
be experiencing severe stress and does not intend to attack you personally.
ÃRecognize that you don’t know all the answers to all questions: If you don’t
know the answer just say that you don’t know. You don’t have to make other people
feel and think that you know everything.
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Listen to other people’s concerns. People need to be heard just like you do. More
importantly, take the initiative to share in other people’s feelings.
ÃAlways remember that what others may not mean the way we think they
mean it: Our values, beliefs and judgments may have altered the meaning of what
someone has said. Always allow for the possibility that our impression of what
someone has said may not be true.
ÃFocus on common interests rather than differences:This will help you direct
your energy to promoting the common interest and making everyone happier, and will
also help you avoid frustration. Be aware when you impinge on someone’s space.
Personal space is very important for most people. When you impinge on their space
try to ask them respectfully. Tell them the reason you have to impinge on their space.
ÃThink positive:
Always see the glass as half full rather than half empty. Doing so will help you reduce
stress. Also it can keep you motivated and pleasant when you deal with other people.
Communicating can be a pleasant and enriching experience when you try to do it
more effectively. These simple pointers can help you moving towards more effectively
dealing with others, and will save you a great deal of stress and energy.
A number of techniques have been suggested for improving the accuracy and
efficiency of communications in negotiation. “Tutoring” communication- helping the
parties learn how to communicate accurately and appropriately- is a role typically
played by third parties. In the following; some other techniques that the parties
themselves can use to insure that some of the typical perceptual and communication
blocks are not confounding their ability to reach satisfactory agreement, are listed.
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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Types of Communication
The business communication settings includes the sending and receiving of
messages in an organization- between two people, or among a small group of
people, or in a one-to-many setting, with the intent of influencing organizational
behavior. The results of communication efforts thus may be intentional (one person
deliberately attempts to influence another) or unintentional (one person’s actions
areperceived and interpreted by another). All business communication is ultimately
persuasive in nature and represents an attempt to influence behavior in
organizations.
Some impressions are intentional- under the control of communicator. Skilled
business communication consider the importance of first impressions as they plan for
a presentation. They carefully the way confident people walk into a room; they
consider appropriate dress (colors, textures, style, etc.); they note how when
handshake techniques affect the impression. Additionally, skillful presenters manage
the amenities of small talk and factors such as seating arrangements in an effort to
make a favorable first impression.
Indeed, a “sharp image” may be planned and cultivated well in advance. One
must “sell oneself” before offering an idea or a plan of action; this should motivate the
communicator to consider communication variables that affect the success of the
appeal.
Other impressions are unintentional. While recognizing that such impressions
are unavoidable, effective communicators will try to be as sensitive to unintended
cues as possible in order to minimize potential distractions from an intended
message.
A good business communicator tries to minimize misunderstandings. Even the
most sensitive persuader will have to recognize that much unconscious
communication (communication below the treshold of awareness) and/or
unintentional communication will ocur during a given interaction.
Only a careful audit of the feedback behaviors of the audience members will
give the business communicator clues as to the presence of such unintentional
stimuli. Awareness is the beginning of stimulus management.
BUSINESS SETTING
Characteristics:
There are five characteristics of any business setting that have a srond
bearing on communication. The business world is complex, competitive, group
oriented, and data based.
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In very large organizations, communication must follow established networks.
The person must know about the chains of command. You must know the person to
people who make certain decisions or you have made. If the person fail to
understand and use those communication networks, you have communication
problems without realizing the reason.
In a more complex organization, the person must make decisions about
communication that depend on individual status or power. The person must decide
what kind of communication he or she need to use in getting a message to him or her
boss. The person also need to decide how best to communicate with co-wokers. If he
or she fail to make these decisions before communicating, the person will limithow
sucessful he can be.
b- Competitive: Business compete with one another to deliver the best goods or
services to their customers. Your ability to communicate with clients or customers
makes a difference in success in his job. However business is a competitive world in
another way, too. The person compete with others in his organization for recogition. A
promotion –even continued employment- can depend on that ability. In a very real
way, competition influences all the business communication.
A special communication problem comes from this characteristic. Although the
person compete with others he will also be expected to be a part of the team
competing with other businesses. He must select appropriate and nondestructive
ways to communicate within the organization. This not easy. It requires a careful
working knowledge of communication and a desire to use communication skills
effectively.
c- Group Oriented: Much of the communication in businesses takes
place in a group setting. The abilitiy to function well in a group is way important for
success in businesses. If the communication behavior in a group is negative, it will
block ability to function. It will endanger the group. It may even endanger the person’s
own job success. If he brings personal emotions such as anger or jealousy into a
sales meeting, he cannot communicate effectively in the group. If he dominate a
group meeting failing to allow anyone else to express ideas, he is blocking the
group’s effectiveness. On the other hand, if he fail to contribute anything in a group
meeting he is equally in effective. Understanding and applying the communication
behaviors needed for a group to function can be a real assets in his job.
d- Task Oriented: Every business has a task-it must sell something,
either a product or a service. The individual’s success within the business depends
on how well he or she helps it accomplish its task. As a part of the organization, he or
she helps it accomplish its task in the way he or she communicate both with others
inside the business and with those outside. Business letters, publis speeches, and
participation in civic groups assist the organization in accomplishing its tasks.
Realizing that the organization exists in order to accomplish a task will help the
individual be a better employee.
e- Data Based: Business in the latter half of the twentieth century are
forced to process greater and greater amounts of infomation for use within the
organization and for accountability outside it. As a consequence, today’s business
are increasingly dependent on information technology, and the ability communicate
with machines, to store and retrieve information, is a vital communication tool for
employees.
Two writers Carter and Huzan(1981), studied the nature of a business in a
terms of data –or information- related processes. They concluded that the following
processes are involved:
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People-to-people communication (telephone)
People-to-paper communication (typing)
Paper-to-paper transfer (copying)
Paper-to-file transfer (storing)
Files-to-people transfer (information retrieval)
Employees’ Responsibilities
The wise employee and employer both realize that the success of the
individual is tied to the success of the organization. A slovenly, slow-moving waiter
may cause a loss of customers. If enough of them go away, he will also cause his
own loss of employment. A cross receptionist could run off so many clients that her
boss could no longer afford to employ her.
Any employee of an organization should be prepared to fulfill three
responsibilities. The responsible employee serves as an interpreter for the company,
as a humanizer or personalizer, and as a promoter. Each of these roles requires
particular communication skills and attitudes.
Interpreter: Suppose that anyone want to purchase a very sophisticated
camera for your father as a gift, but you know nothing about cameras. Would you
order it from catolog? The chances are that you would go to a camera store where an
employee could interpret for you the various models and explain the advantages for
each. This employee’s function would be that of an interpreter of the organization and
its product.
Humanizer: As a business organizations get larger and larger, there is a
growing need for employees to humanize their organization. If an employee uses
highly skillful communication, the human contact can relieve the fear and sometimes
the anger of a customer. There was a time when people paid their their monthly bills
in person to business who employed people they knew.
This rarely true today. The person send payments to faraway computer
centers, and your inquiries about bills are handled by incividuals working in crowded
offices miles away. An employee who can create a sense of warmth and caring in
communicating with customers is humanizing the organization.
During a recent convention, a conventioneer picked up one of the houses
phones and asked for the hotel manager. When the manager answered, the
conventioneer described the kind and the patient actions of the desk clerk who had
been on duty during the frantic check-in time the night before.
Within the organization there are also opportunities for an employee to
humanize the business. If new rules, mandates, and policies that affect the
employees can be made more understandable, they will be accepted more readily.
An organization needs employees who can establish communication with a personal
touch.
Promoter: Employees are also important in promoting business. Promotion
can take the form of deliberate communications to audiences about the wok and
contributions of the business. This situation do not mean that an employee must
accept everything that the organization does; constuctive criticism is needed in any
group. But the emploee who promotes the organization helps it work to solve its
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problems rather than broadcasting them to the outside world. A sense of pride in the
place you work and a sense of loyalty to the organization should be part of your
attitude and should show in your communication.
Communication Skills
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Percentage of Time Spent on Office Activities by Various Levels of Employees
Noncommunication
Communication Activities
Activities
Level 1 employees
40% 42% 18%
(upper management)
Level 2 employees
(other management) 33% 35% 32%
Level 3 employees
(nonmanagement)
30% 31% 39%
Communication Ethics
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In ethical communication, the answers to all these questions have to be “yes”.
These are among the ethical questions that are raised whenever a business
communication is transacted. It is not ethical to lie or hide the truth when it prevents
another person from exercising the right to choose from a full range of options.
These is an inherent relationship between ethics and communication. In
addition to deciding what is efficient, effective, and desirable in a communication
interaction, the straightforward business communicator will choose what is ethical.
Communication Networks
CEO
AT CRX 3000
Computers AT
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An organization chart shows the levels of authority within an organization and
reflects the expected flow of information. Normally, each employee answers directly
to only one person. Such formal networks indicate a unity of command. A higher-
ranking company official who wants an employee under the authority of another to
perform some task normally communicates the request through an informal network
or asks the employee’s immediate supervisor to see that the task is completed.
Informal networks are unofficial channels through which information passes in
an organization. Formal communication networks contain more of the written,
predictable, and routine communications; informal networks are faster, richer, and
often more accurate, and communication is more likely to be face-to-face. Informal
communication networks are not controlled by management. Sometimes people
“leak” information to the informal network for the purpose of sending up ”trial
balloons” (ideas not ready for formal proposals). Conrad (1990) writes, “Because
using formal communication networks takes so much time and effort, people may
have choose to not communicate at all if they have no formal channels available.
Even ‘gossip’ and ‘rumors’ usually provide accurate information”. Such networks are
called grapevines. They reflect patterns that employees develop when the formal
channels are not clear, efficient, and/or respected. DeVito (1988) notes that the
grapevine’s “speed and accuracy make it an ideal medium to carry a great deal of the
social communications that so effectively bind together workers in an organization”.
Informal channels of communication flow upward, downward, and horizontally, with
little regard of designated positional relationships. Successful managers learn to “top”
the grapevine and alter the flow of formal communication appropriately.
Line and staff distinctions are important for business communicators. Line
functions are usually essential to the successful operation of the organization. On an
organization chart, line functions are usually connected by solid lines indicating the
direction of authority. Line networks normally involve superior-subordinate
relationships. Staff relationships between the members of an organization are most
often advisory in nature. It is possible for a given employee to have a line relationship
with one group in an organization and a staff relationship with another.
The span of control refers to the number of subordinates who are under the
authority of an individual supervisor or manager. The smaller the span of control, the
more communication access each employee will have to the supervisor. If employees
are assigned similar tasks, the span of control may be somewhat greater. If
employees perform complex and divergent tasks, then the span of control should be
consolidated so access can be increased; otherwise, communication problems may
result.
Tall organizational networks have multiple levels of management and
supervision; flat organizational structures are broad-based (look at followed figures).
Flat structures allow more independent action by employees and provide greater
access to top management. Flat (or wide) structures has fewer third- and fourth- level
supervisors. Communication tends to be freer in more broadly based (flat)
configurations because there is a shorter chain of command to pass through wth a
given message.
Some organizations are operated in a task-oriented manner. Other
organizations are more loosely disciplined. A relaxed communication network
(normally found in flat structures) is more likely to support innovations than a tight or
mechanistic one, because there is less delay in the communication flow and a less
restrictive atmosphere.
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(a)
CEO
Division
Division Division
Manager
Manager Manager
Department
Department Department Department Department Department Department Department
Department Head
Head Head Head Head Head Head Head
Head
(b)
CEO
Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager
Manager
Organizations charts do not indicate how all information travels. Even in the
best-managed organizations. Informal networks take the form of friendship groups
and the grapevine of corporate gossip. In a well-run organization, formal channels
should be more accurate. In many less effective organizations, the informal networks
appear to be more assurate in reflecting what is really happening.
Another factor in business communication is the direction of communication.
Downward communication occurs when a manager or supervisor sends a message
to one or more subordinates. Downward communication is often designed to give
instructions or to explain how a superior wants a task accomplished. Superiors send
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information to appraise a subordinate’s performance or to further motivate the
subordinate.
Downward communication sets the tone for a business organization. If the
majority of the communication in a business comes from the top (vertical down) and
generally is directive, the organizational styles tends to be autocratic. If the majority
of the downward communication is supportive and has a large element of concern for
the subordinates, the tone set will be more supportive. Such communication will
encourage collaboration between management and employees. Furthermore, it will
encourage a full range of upward communication.
Upward communication occurs when messages flow from subordinates to
managers or from supervisors to executives. Employeees are expected to report their
progress in completing tasks; what, if any, tasks are causing them problems;
suggestions for product or procedural improvement; and, most important, how they
feel about things are going. Upward communication is important-managers need
accurate feedback about whether their messages have been understood, how
decisions are being accepted, and what problems are developing.
Horizontal communication (or lateral communication) occurs between people
at the same level, or between people at corresponding levels in different divisions,
within an organization. Effective horizontal communication can help people to
coordinate projects, solve problems, provide a collation of information, resolve
conflicts, and pave the way for business relationships.
All too often, horizontal communication is blocked because of jealousy, the
barriers of technical specialization or seperate locations, and because too much
information flows for any one employee to process the data meaningfully. For
example, people in a unit may feel that they are in competition with the production
staff for all sorts of “perks” –bonuses, information, new positions, and so on- and they
may seek to limit the amount of information that is shared. Insightful managers create
an environment in which cooperation has more reward than competition; thus, they
improve the communication environment of the entire organization. Recognizing and
rewarding a group- a team- of employees is one way to encourage a cooperative
spirit.
COMMUNICATION STRATEGY
Defining the objectives provides two important benefits. First, you will be more
efficient, because you will no longer waste time writing or presenting material unlesss
you have a clear reason for doing so. Second, you will be more effective, because
formulating your objective precisely will help you communicate more clearly. To clarify
your purpose, hone down your objectives from the general to specific.
General objectives: These are your broad goals, the ones that trigger the
creative process and start you thinking. They are comprehensive statements about
what you are doing, what you hope to be doing, or what problem you are trying to
solve.
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Action Objectives: To define your objectives more specifically, determine yor
action objectives- specific, measurable, time-bound steps that will lead toward your
general objectives. State your action objectives in this form: “To accomplish a specific
result by a specific time.”
Communication Objective: Your communication objective is even more
specific. Based on your action objectives, decide precisely how you hope your
audience will respond to your written or oral communication. To define your
comuniaction objective, complete this statement: “As a result of this communication,
my audience will…”
Examples Of Objectives
As a result of this
Maintain annual debt-to-
Develop a sound financial phonecall, the accountant will
equity ratio no greater
position. give me the pertinent
than X.
information for my report
As a result of this
Increase the number of presentation, at least X
Hire X number by X date.
women hired. number of women will sign
up to interview with my firm.
As a result of this
presentation, the sales
Maintain market share Sell X amount by X date. representatives will
understand our product
enhancements.
Once you have defined your communication objective, choose the appropriate
style to accomplish that objective. The following model, adapted from organizational
theorists Tannenbaum and Schmidt, displays the range of communication styles used
at various times in virtually any job. The two dimensions to consider how much you
want to involve your audience. The more you control, the less you involve; the more
you involve, the less you control.
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In tell/ sell situations, you have enogh information; you know “the answer”. For
tell style, you are informing or explaining; you want your audience to learn. For sell
style, you are persuading; you want your audience to perform an action.
In consult/ join situations, you do not have enogh information; you do not know
“ the answer”. For consult style, you are interacting with your audience with some
control (such as meeting or a questionnaire). For join style, you are collaborating with
your audience to come up with the content (such as brainstorming session).
Your communication style should vary with each situation you encounter.
Generally, use tell/sell styles when you (1) have sufficient information, (2) can
understand that information without help from others, and (3) are concerned with a
quick, logical, orderly decision. Generally, use consult/ join styles when you (1)
needmore information, (2) need critical evaluation from other, and (3) are concerned
with implementation of the decision.
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Examples of Objectives and Styles
Communication Objective Communication Style
As a result of reading this statement,
the employees will understand the TELL: In these situations, you are
benefits progarm available in this instructing or explaining. You want your
company. audience to learn, to understand. You do
As a result of this presentation, my not need your audience’s opinions.
boss will learn what my department has
accomplished this month.
As a result of reading this letter, my
SELL: In these situations, you are
client will sign the enclosed contract.
persuading. You want your audience to
As a result of this presentation, the
do something different. You need some
committee will approve my proposed
audience involvement to do so.
budget.
As a result of reading this survey, the
employees will respond by answering the CONSULT: In these situations, you are
questionnaire. conferring. You need some give-and-take
As a result of this question-and-answer with your audience. You want to learn
session, my staff will voice and obtain from them yet the control the interaction
replies to their concerns over the new somewhat.
policy.
As a result of reading this agenda
statement, the group will come to the
JOIN: In these situations, you are
meeting prepared to offer their thoughts
collaborating. You and your audience are
on this issue.
working together to come up with the
As a result of this brainstorming
content.
session, the group will come up with a
solution to this problem.
c- What is credibility?
Once the person have formulated what to accomplish (that is, stated your
objective and choosen the appropriate style to accomplish it), consider your
audience’s perception of you. In other words, consider your own credibility; their
belief, confidence, and faith in you. Their perception of you has a tremendous impact
on how you will communicate with them.
Five factors- based on social theorists French, Raven, and Kotter- affect your
credibility: (1)rank, (2)goodwill, (3)expertise, (4)image, and (5) shared values. Once
you understand these factors, you can enhance your credibility by stressing your
initial credibility and by increasing your acquired credibility.
Initial Credibility: Initial credibility refers to audience’s perception of you
before you even begin to communicate, before they ever read or hear what you have
to say. Your initial credibility, then, may stem from their perception of who you are,
what you present, or how you related to them previously.
As part of your communication strategy, you may want to stress or remind your
audience of your initial credibility. Also, in those lucky situations in which your initial
credibility is high, you may use it as a “bank account”. If people in your audience
regard you highly, they may trust you even in unpopular or extreme decisions or
recommendations. Just as drawing on a bank account reduces your bank balance,
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however, drawing on your initial credibility reduces your credibility balance; you must
“deposit” more to your account, perhaps by goodwill gestures of further proof your
expertise.
Acquired Credibility: In contrast, acquired credibility refers to your
audience’s perception of you after the communication has taken place, after they
have read or heard what you have to say. Even if your audience knows nothing about
you in advance, your good ideas and your persuasive writing or speaking will help
earn you credibility. The obvious way to acquire credibility, therefore, is to do a good
job of analyzing and communicating in general.
You can however, also use more specific communication techniques to
increase your credibility. The chart on below lists these techniques.
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Bibliography
CURTIS Dan B., FLOYD James J., WINSOR Jerry L., Business
and Professional Communication, Harper Collins Publishers, 1992
www.noogenesis.com
www.wikipedia.org
www. kevan.org
www.businessballs.com
www.teleometrics.com
www.bartlettcommunications.com
www. video.yahoo.com
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