CONTENTS

Sl.No. Name of Experiments Page

No.

1 Estimation of hardness of water by EDTA method 5

2 Estimation of copper in brass by EDTA method 11

3 Determination of Dissolved oxygen in water (Winkler’s method) 15

4 Estimation of Chloride in Water Sample(Argentometry) 19

5 Estimation of Alkalinity of Water Sample 23

Determination of Molecular Weight and degree of poymerisation

6 29
using Viscometry

7 Conductometric Titration of Strong Acid with Strong Base 33

8 Conductometric Titration of Mixture of Acids 35

9 Conductometric Precipitation Titration 39

10 Estimation of Ferrous ion by Potentiometric Titration 43

11 pH metry - Determination of Strength of HCl by NaOH 47

12 Determination of water of crystallization of copper sulphate 51

13 Estimation of Iron by Spectrophotometry 53

Expt.No.1
SHORT PROCEDURE
TITRATION I TITRATION II TITRATION III
Standardisation Determination of Determination of
CONTENTS of total hardness permanent hardness
EDTA (Std EDTA Vs (Std EDTA Vs Boiled
(EDTA Vs Std water sample) H2O)
CaCl2)
Burette EDTA solution EDTA solution EDTA solution
solution

Pipette
solution Std CaCl 2 20 ml hard water 20ml Boiled hard
water
Indicator EBT EBT EBT

Additional Ammonia Buffer Ammonia Buffer Ammonia Buffer

soln. solution (5ml) solution (5ml) solution (5ml)

End point Wine red to Wine red to steel Wine red to Steel
Steel blue blue blue

TITRATION I
STANDARDISATION OF EDTA
Std CaCl 2 Vs EDTA Indicator: EBT

S.No. Volume of Burette Reading Volume of Concordant

CaCl2 (ml) Initial Final EDTA value
(ml) (ml)

Step 1- Arriving at standard equation,

1ml of Std CaCl 2 = 1 mg of CaCO3 ( given)

V1 ml of EDTA = 20 ml of Std. CaCl 2

1 ml of EDTA = (20 / V1) ml of Std. CaCl 2

Therefore , 1 ml of EDTA = (20 / V1) mg of CaCO3 (standard equation.)

Expt.No.1 ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER - EDTA METHOD

AIM
To estimate the amount of total, temporary and permanent hardness
in the given sample of hard water. A standard solution of CaCl 2 is provided
such that 1 ml of solution is equal to 1 mg of CaCO3

PRINCIPLE

The estimation is based on the complexometric titration.

(i) Total hardness of water is estimated by titrating it against

EDTA using EBT indicator.

EBT+Mn+ [EBT-M] (complex)

EBT-M (unstable complex) +EDTA  [EDTA-M] (stable complex)

+EBT
(Wine red) (Steel blue)
EBT indicator forms wine red coloured complex with hardness causing metal
ions present in water. On addition of EDTA, metal ions preferably form
complexes with EDTA and steel blue EBT indicator is set free. Therefore
change of colour from wine red to steel blue denotes the end point.

(iii) Temporary hardness is removed by boiling the water.

Ca (HCO3)2  CaCO3 ↓+CO2 ↑+H2O

Mg (HCO3)2  Mg(OH)2 ↓ +2CO2 ↑

The precipitate is filtered and the remaining permanent hardness is

estimated using EDTA.

PROCEDURE

TITRATION – I
(i) STANDARDISATION OF EDTA

Pipette out 20ml of standard CaCl2 into a 250ml conical flask.

(Standard hard water is prepared by dissolving 1 g of calcium carbonate in
one litre of distilled water) . Add 5ml of buffer solution and 3 drops of
eriochrome black T indictor. Titrate the solution with EDTA from the
burette until the colour changes from wine red to steel blue at the end point.
Repeat the titration for concordant values. Let the titre value be V1ml.
TITRATION II
DETERMINATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS

Std.EDTA Vs Sample Hard Water Indicator: EBT

S.No. Volume of Burette Reading Volume of Concordant

sample hard Initial Final EDTA value
water (ml) (ml) (ml)

Step 2.- Calculation of total hardness.

Volume of EDTA consumed (V2) =-------- ml

20ml of sample hard water = V2 ml of EDTA

1000 ml of sample hard water = V2 X (1000/20) ml of EDTA

As per standard equation,

1000ml of given hard water = V2 X (1000/20) X (20 / V1) mg of CaCO3

= 1000 x (V2 / V1 ) mg of CaCO3

Therefore, total hardness = ----------ppm

TITRATION – II
(ii) DETERMINATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS

Pipette out 20ml of sample hard water into a clean conical flask. Add
5ml of buffer solution and 4 -5 drop of eriochrome black T indicator. Titrate
the wine red coloured solution with EDTA from the burette until the colour
steel blue appears at the end point. Repeat the titration for concordant
values. Let the titre value be V2ml.

TITRATION – III
(iii) DETERMINATION OF PERMANENT HARDNESS

Take 250ml of hard water sample in a 250ml beaker and boil gently
for about 20 minutes. Cool, filter it into a 250ml standard flask and make
the volume upto the mark. Take 20ml of this solution and proceed it in the
same way as in titration (I). The volume of EDTA consumed corresponds to
the permanent hardness of the water sample. Let the titre value be V 3ml.
Temporary hardness is calculated by subtracting permanent hardness from
total hardness.

RESULT

(i) Amount of total hardness of the given sample water = ------- ppm.

(ii) Amount of permanent hardness of the given sample water = -------ppm.

(iii) Amount of temporary hardness of the given sample water = -------ppm.

TITRATION III
DETERMINATION OF PERMANENT HARDNESS:
Std. EDTA Vs Sample boiled hard water Indicator: EBT

S.No. Volume of Burette Reading Volume of Concordant

sample Initial Final EDTA value
boiled hard (ml) (ml)
water (ml)

Step 3.- Calculation of permanent hardness.

Volume of EDTA consumed (V3) =-------- ml

20ml of boiled water = V3 ml of EDTA

1000 ml of boiled water = V3 X (1000/20) ml of EDTA

As per standard equation,

1000ml of given hard water = V3 X (1000/20) X (20 / V1) mg of CaCO3

= 1000 x (V3 / V1 ) mg of CaCO3

Therefore, permanent hardness = ----------ppm

Step 4 – Calculation of temporary hardness

Temporary hardness of the given sample of water = Total hardness – Permanent

hardness

= ------------ppm
SHORT PROCEDURE:
TITRATION I TITRATION II
Standardization of Estimation of copper
CONTENTS Na2S2O3 (Std. K2Cr2O7 Vs (Std Thio Vs Alloy solution )
Na2S2O3 )
Burette solution Na2S2O3 Na2S2O3

Pipette solution K2Cr2O7 Alloy solution

Indicator Starch Starch

End point Appearance of green Appearance of green colour

colour

TITRATION I
STANDARDIZATION OF Na2S2O3 WITH K2Cr2O7 SOLUTION
Std. K2Cr2O7 Vs Na2S2O3 Indicator : Starch
S.No. Volume of Burette Reading Volume of Concordant
K2Cr2O7 Initial Final Thio value (ml)
(ml) (ml)

1.

2.

3.

Volume of K2Cr2O7 (V1) = 20 ml

Strength of K2Cr2O7 ( N1 ) = N

Volume of Na2S2O3( V2 ) = ml

Strength of Na2S2O3 ( N2) = ?N

= ( 20 x N1 )/ V2

= N

Strength of Na2S2O3 is ------ N.

Expt. No 2 ESTIMATION OF COPPER IN BRASS

AIM
To estimate the amount of copper present in the given sample of brass.

PRINCIPLE
Brass is an alloy with 55% copper and 33% zinc and small
amount of lead and aluminium. Brass is dissolved in con.nitric acid to convert
copper present in the alloy to cupric ions. Then copper is estimated
iodometrically by titrating the iodine that was liberated against standard sodium
thio sulphate solution using starch as indicator.

2 Cu2+ + 4I- → 2 CuI + I2

I2 + 2 Na2S2O3 → Na2S4O6 + 2NaI

PROCEDURE
PREPARATION OF BRASS ALLOY SOLUTION
About 0.2g of the sample of brass was weighed
accurately and transferred into a clean dry 250ml beaker. To this
about 10ml of con. Nitric acid was added and allowed to boil for a
small interval of time till the alloy was dissolved. This was cooled,
diluted with water and made upto 250 ml in a standard flask.

TITRATION I
STANDARDIZATION OF Na2S2O3 WITH K2Cr2O7 SOLUTION
20ml of the standard potassium dichromate solution is
pipetted out into a conical flask. 20ml of dil.sulphuric acid and 10ml
of 10% KI are added. The liberated iodine is titrated against sodium
thio sulphate taken in the burette till the colour changes to yellowish
green. 1ml of starch is added till the colour changes from blue to
light green colour. Titration is repeated for concordancy.

TITRATION II
ESTIMATION OF COPPER
The brass solution is transferred into the 100ml standard flask and
10ml of dil sulphuric acid is added and made up to the mark using distilled
water.
20ml of the alloy solution was pipetted out into a conical flask. To
this aqueous ammonia is added in drops till a blue precipitate of Cu(OH) 2 is
formed. One or two drops of acetic acid is added to dissolve the precipitate.
To this 10ml of 10% KI is added and titrated against standard thio sulphate
using starch as indicator. The end point is the disappearance of blue colour
and appearance of green colour.

RESULT
The given sample of brass is found contain copper to ---------%
TITRATION II

ESTIMATION OF COPPER

Std. Thio Vs Alloy solution Indicator : Starch

S.No. Volume of Burette Reading Volume of
Alloy Initial Final Thio Concordant
Solution (ml) value (ml)
(ml)

1.

2.

3.

Volume of Na2S2O3 V1 = ml

Strength of Na2S2O3 N1 = N

Volume of brass solution V2 = ml

Strength of brass solution N2 = ?

= (V1x N1)/ V2

= --------- N

Strength of copper solution is =---------N

CALCULATION OF AMOUNT OF COPPER:

Amount of Cu in 1lt of given brass solution = strength of solution x Eq. Wt of Cu
= -----N x 63.5

So, Amount of copper in 100ml of given brass solution

= (-----N x 63.5 x 100 ) / 1000

ie, ----------g of brass contains = ------g of copper

Therefore, % of copper in the given brass sample = --------g x 100

------g of brass
= %
SHORT PROCEDURE

S.No CONTENTS TITRATION I TITRATION II

STANDARDIZATION OF ESTIMATION OF D.O
Na2S2O3
Std. K2Cr2O7 Vs Na2S2O3 Std. Na2S2O3 Vs W.Sample
1. Burette solution Na2S2O3 Std. Na2S2O3
2. Pipette solution Std. K2Cr2O7 20ml of treated water
sample*

3. Additional solution 1 Test tube of 2N H 2SO4 + 10ml -------

of 10% KI
4. Indicator Starch Starch
5. End point Disappearance of blue colour Disappearance of blue
colour

*200ml of sample water + 2ml of MnSO 4 + 2ml of alk. KI- Shaken for 10 mins. A
brown gelatinous precipitate will be formed. Dissolve it with minimum amount of
Con. Sulphuric acid to get a clear reddish brown solution.

TITRATION1
STANDARDISATION OF SODIUM THIO SULPHATE

Std. K2Cr2O7 Vs Na2S2O3 Indicator: Starch

S.No. Volume of Burette Reading (ml) Volume of Concordant

K2Cr2O7 Initial Final Na2S2O3 value
(ml) (ml) (ml)

Volume of potassium dichromate (V1) = 20 ml

Strength of potassium dichromate (N1) = N

Volume of sodium thio sulphate (V2) = ml

Strength of sodium thio sulphate (N2) = ? = V1 x N1 / V2

=--------- N
Expt.No. 3 ESTIMATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN WATER SAMPLE
(WINKLER’S METHOD)

AIM

To determine the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the given water

sample by Winkler’s method. A standard solution of potassium dichromate of
strength ______N is provided.

PRINCIPLE
Two methods are widely used to determine DO are:

(a) Winkler’s method of iodometry

(b) Electrometric method using a membrane electrode.

Winkler’s method

DO reacts with Mn2+ ions in alkaline medium forming basic magnanic oxide
which is a brown precipitate.
MnSO4 + 2 KOH  Mn(OH)2 + K2SO4

2Mn(OH)2 - + O2  2 MnO(OH)2 ↓(brown precipitate)

This brown precipitate dissolves on acidification and when treated

with iodide ions liberates iodine in an amount equivalent to the initial DO.

MnO(OH)2 + H2SO4  MnSO4 + 2H2O + [ O ]

2 KI + H2SO4 + [ O ]  K2SO4 + H2O + I2

The liberated iodine is finally estimated by titration with sodium thio sulphate.

I2 + Na2S2O3  Na2S4O6 + 2 NaI

Starch + I2  Blue coloured complex

The stoichiometric expression relating DO and sodium thio sulphate is

1 ml of 0.0125N Na2S2O3 ≡≡ 0.1 mg DO

Sodium thio sulphate (being a secondary standard) is standardized

iodometrically using standard K2Cr2O7.
Iodimetry : I2 (direct source) Vs Na2S2O3.
Iodometry: (oxidant + excess I- ) ≡ I2 (liberated) Vs S2O32-
The Net reaction is:
 Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6I-  2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 3I2
TITRATION II:
ESTIMATION OF DO

Std. Na2S2O3 Vs treated water sample Indicator :Starch

S.No. Volume of Burette Reading (ml) Volume of Concordant

water Initial Final S2O32- value
sample (ml) (ml) (ml)

1ml of 0.0125 N of S2O3 2- = 0.1mg of dissolved oxygen

____ml of ____ N of S2O3 2- = X mg of dissolved oxygen

X = (0.1 x ___ x____) / 1 x 0.0125

= _____ mg of dissolved oxygen

20 ml of water contains _____ mg of dissolved oxygen

Therefore 1000 ml of water contains = (______ x1000) / 20 mg/L

= ______ mg/L
The liberated iodine in an amount equivalent to Cr 2O72- reacts with sodium thio
sulphate .

∗ In iodometric titrations, a slight excess of I 2 must be added to ensure complete

conversion of I- in amounts equivalent to the oxidizing agent being estimated.

∗ Starch is added as indicator which forms an intense blue colour weak adsorption
complex with iodine present in low concentrations. The complex gets readily
broken when thio sulphate addition is continued and hence a sharp colour change
occurs at the end-point.
PROCEDURE

1) STANDARDISATION OF SODIUM THIO SULPHATE

20ml of std. K2Cr2O7 solution is pipetted out into a clean conical flask.
About 10ml of 10% KI solution and 20ml of dil.sulphuric acid are added. The
liberated iodine is titrated against sodium thio sulphate in the burette. When the
solution turns yellow (pale) colour, 2 to 3 drops of freshly prepared starch indicator
is added and the solution assumes intense blue colour. The addition of sodium thio
sulphate is continued till the blue colour is discharged leaving behind a pale green
colour (due to the presence of Cr3+ ions). The titration is repeated to get a
concordant value.

2) ESTIMATION OF DO (WINKLERS METHOD)

The given water sample is filled in a reagent bottle up to rim and

stoppered. This is done in order to exclude any air column present in the closed
bottle that may increase the actual DO leading to an error.
With the stopper removed, manganous sulphate (36%, 2ml) and alkaline KI(∼10%,
2ml ) are added. In this process, some sample may overflow. The overflow may also
occur when the stopper is inserted after the addition of each reagent. The stoppered
bottle along with the reagents is shaken by turning it several times up and down till
the formation of a brown coloured basic manganic oxide. It is subsequently
dissolved by adding sulphuric acid(1:1 few drops). 20 ml of this reddish brown
solution is pipetted out in to a clean conical flask and a few drops of starch solution
are added. The resultant blue coloured solution is titrated against the standardised
sodium thio sulphate till the end point is reached which is shown by the discharge of
blue colour. The titration is performed in duplicate.

RESULT

The amount of DO present in the given water sample = --------- mg/lit.

SHORT PROCEDURE:

CONTENTS TITRATION I TITRATION II

Standardization of Estimation of chloride
Silver Nitrate Std. AgNO3 Vs Water Sample
Std. NaCl Vs AgNO3
Burette solution AgNO3 Std. AgNO3

Pipette solution Std. NaCl Water sample

Indicator 1 ml of 2% K2CrO4 1 ml of 2% K2CrO4

End point Appearance of reddish brown Appearance of reddish brown

colour colour

TITRATION I
STANDARDISATION OF AgNO3 :
Std. NaCl Vs AgNO3 Indicator: Potassium Chromate

S.No. Volume of Burette Reading (ml) Volume of Concordant

NaCl (ml) Initial Final AgNO3 (ml) Value (ml)
Volume of sodium chloride (V1) = 20 ml

Strength of sodium chloride (N1) = N

Volume of silver nitrate (V2) = ml

Strength of silver nitrate (N2) = ?

N2 = (V1 X N1 ) / V2
= N

Expt.No. 4 ESTIMATION OF CHLORIDE CONTENT IN WATER SAMPLE

BY ARGENTOMETRIC METHOD [ MOHR’S METHOD ]

AIM
To estimate the amount of chloride present in the given water sample, being
supplied with standard solution of sodium chloride of strength _________N .

PRINCIPLE
Generally water contains chloride ions (Cl – ) in the form of NaCl,
KCl,CaCl2, and MgCl2. The concentration of chloride ions more then 250 ppm is not
desirable for drinking purpose. The total chloride ions can be determined by
argentometric method ( Mohr’s Method ).
In this method Cl – ion solution is directly titrated against AgNO3 using potassium
chromate ( K2CrO4) as the indicator
AgNO3 + Cl –  AgCl ↓ + NO3–
( in water ) ( white ppt )
At the end point when all the Cl – ions are removed. The yellow colour of
chromate changes into reddish brown due to the following reaction.
2AgNO3 + K2CrO4  Ag2CrO4 +2KNO3
(yellow ) ( Reddish brown )

PROCEDURE
Titration –I
Standardization of AgNO3
The burette is washed well with distilled water and rinsed with small amount
of AgNO3 solution. It is then filled with the same solution up to the zero mark
without any air bubbles. The pipette is washed with distilled water and rinsed with
the small amount of standard NaCl solution 20 ml of this solution is pipetted out in
to the clean conical flask.1ml of 2% K 2CrO4 indicator solution is added and titrated
against AgNO3 solution taken in the burette. The end point is the change of colour
from yellow to reddish brown. The titration is repeated for concordant values.
Titration –II
Estimation of Chloride ion
20 ml of the given water sample is pipetted out in the clean conical flask and
1 ml of 2% K2CrO4 indicator solution is added. It is then titrated against
standardized AgNO3 solution taken in the burette. The end point is the change of
colour from yellow to reddish brown.

RESULT
Amount of chloride ion present in the given water sample = …….ppm

TITRATION II
ESTIMATION OF CHLORIDE IN WATER SAMPLE:
Std. AgNO3 Vs Water Sample Indicator: Potassium Chromate

S.No. Volume of Burette Reading (ml) Volume of Concordant

water sample Initial Final AgNO3 Value (ml)
(ml) (ml)

Volume water sample (V1 ) = 20 ml

Strength of water sample ( Chloride ion ) (N1) = N
Volume of silver nitrate (V2) = ml
Strenght of silver nitrate (N2) = N

N1 = V2 X N2
V1

= N

Calculation of amount of Chloride ion

Amount of chloride ion present in 1 litre( 1000 ml )of the water sample
=Equivalent weight of Chloride ion X strength of chloride ion ppm

= 35.46 X strength of chloride ion ppm

SHORT PROCEDURE:
TITRATION I TITRATION II
Standardisation of HCl Estimation of alkalinity in
CONTENTS (Std NaOH Vs HCl) water sample
(Std HCl Vs water sample)
Burette solution HCl Std. HCl

Pipette solution Std. NaOH Water sample

Indicator Phenolphthalein (i) Phenolphthalein

(ii) Methyl orange

End point Disappearance of pink (i) Disappearance of pink

colour colour
(ii) Appearance of reddish
orange colour

Strength of HCl = --------- N

The end point when phenolphthalein is used as an indicator = P
The end point when methyl orange is used as an indicator = M
Relationship Nature of Amount of individual OH- HCO3- CO32-
in between alkalinity alkalinities
P &M
P = M only OH- (P or M) x 0.1 x 50 xxx 0.0 0.0
20

2P = M only CO32- (2P or M) x 0.1 x 50 0.0 0.0 xxx

20
P =0, M≠0 only HCO3- M x 0.1 x 50 0.0 xxx 0.0
OH- &CO32- 20
HCO3&CO32-
2P > M
OH- = (2P - M) x 0.1 x 50
20
xxx 0.0 xxx
2P < M CO32- = 2 (M-P) x 0.1 x 50
20

HCO3- = (M-2P) x 0.1 x 50

20
2-
CO3 = (2P) x 0.1 x 50
20 0.0 xxx xxx

Expt.No.5 DETERMINATION OF ALKALINITY IN WATER

AIM

To determine the type and amounts of alkalinity in the given water

sample. A standard solution of NaOH of strength ____N is given.

PRINCIPLE
Alkalinity in water is due to the presence of soluble hydroxides,
bicarbonates and carbonates. Alkalinity can be determined by

Potentiometric methods
Using pH meter
Titrimetry using different indicators

Determination of various types and amounts of alkalinity is easily carried

out by titration with standard HCl employing the indicators phenolphthalein
and methyl orange independently or in succession.

The following reactions occur when different types of alkalinity are

neutralized with acid.

OH- + H+  H2O completed at pH 8.2-9.0 ----------- (1)

CO32- + H+  HCO3- -------------- (2)

HCO3- + H+  (H2CO3)  H2O + CO2 , completed at pH 4.2-5.5---

(3)
 Neutralisation (1) & (2) will be notified by phenolphthalein end-point
while all the three will be accounted by methyl orange end-point. Bicarbonate
in eqn (3) may be due to the existence of soluble free bicarbonate salts or
bicarbonates resulting from half neutralization of soluble carbonates (eqn.
(2))

Various steps to be followed:

a) A known volume of water sample is titrated against std. HCl using

first phenolphthalein indicator till end-point (P) and the titration is
continued without break using methyl orange indicator till the equivalence
end-point (M).

TITRATION : 1
STANDARDISATION OF HCl :
Std. NaOH Vs HCl Indicator: Phenolphthalein

S.No. Volume of Burette Reading Volume of Concordant

NaOH (ml) Initial Final HCl value
(ml) (ml)

Volume of sodium hydroxide (V1) = 20 ml

Strength of sodium hydroxide (N1) = N
Volume of HCl (V2) = ml
Strength of HCl (N2) = V1 X N1 / V2

TITRATION – II
ESTIMATION OF ALKALINITY IN WATER SAMPLE
Std.HCl Vs Water sample Indicator:1. Phenolphthalein
2. Methyl orange
S.No. Volume of Burette Reading Volume of Concordant
water Initial Final HCl value
sample (ml) (ml)
(ml)
P M P M P M P M

b) From the magnitudes of the P & M, the nature of alkalinity can be

arrived as follows:
(i) P = M => Presence of only OH-

(ii) 2P = M => Presence of only CO32-

(iii) P =0, M#0 => Presence of only HCO3-

(iv) 2P > M => Presence of OH- & CO32-
(v) 2P < M => Presence of HCO3- & CO32-
(Mixture of OH & HCO3-are not listed since they do not exist together and
-

are considered equivalent to CO32-).

PROCEDURE
TITRATION – I
STANDARDISATION OF HCl

Exactly 20 ml of the given standard NaOH solution is pipetted out into a

clean conical flask and 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator is added. The
solution is titrated against the given HCl taken in the burette. The pink
colour of the solution in the conical flask disappears at the end-point. The
titre value is noted down from the burette and the titration is repeated to get
concordant value.

TITRATION – II
ESTIMATION OF ALKALINITY IN WATER SAMPLE

Exactly 20 ml of water sample is pipetted out into a clean conical flask.

Few drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added and titrated against the
standardized HCl taken in the burette. The end-point is the disappearance of
pink colour, which is noted as P. Into the same solution few drops of methyl
 orange indicator is added. The solution changes to yellow. The titration is
continued further by adding same HCl without break till the end-point is
reached. The end point is the colour change from yellow to reddish orange.
The titre value is noted as M.

The experiment is repeated to get concordant values. From the

magnitudes of P & M values, the type of alkalinity present in the water
sample is inferred and the individual amounts are calculated and reported.

RESULT
1) The type of alkalinity present in the water sample = ------ions.

2) The individual amounts of alkalinity present in the water sample

= ----- ppm

(i) Amount of OH- in water sample:

Volume of HCl (V1) = (2P-M) = ml

Strength of HCl (N1) = N
Volume of water sample (V2) = 20ml
Strength of OH- inwater sample (N2) = V1 X N1 / V2
Amount of OH-in water sample = N2 X 50 g/lit ( 50 is the eq.wt of CaCO3)
= N2 X 50 X1000 mg/lit.

= -------------- ppm.

(ii) Amount of CO32- in water sample:

Volume of HCl (V1) = 2(M-P) = ml

Strength of HCl (N1) = N
Volume of water sample (V2) = 20 ml
Strength of CO32- in water sample (N2) = V1 X N1 / V2
Amount of CO32- inwater sample = N2 X 50 g/lit
= N2 X 50 X1000 mg/lit.

=-----------ppm.
Solvent used = Water

K of the polymer solvent system = -----------------

a of the polymer-solvent system = -----------------

volume of liquid taken for finding the flow time = 10 ml

flow time of the solvent ( t0 ) = -----------------

s.no Conc. Flow η r = t / t0 ln η r ln η r / C η sp=η r η sp / C

g/dl (%) time -1
(t)sec

S.No Polymer Solvent K∗10-5 a

. (g/ml)

1. Polyvinyl alcohol Water 45.3 0.64

2. Polyvinyl pyrrolidone Water 39.3 0.59

3. Polystyrene (atactic) Benzene 11.5 0.73

4. Polystyrene (isotactic) Benzene 10.6 0.735

 Expt.No. 6 DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND
DEGREE OF POLYMERISATION OF A POLYMER
( VISCOSITY AVERAGE METHOD)

AIM
To determine the molecular weight and degree of polymerization of a
polymer by viscosity average method.

PRINCIPLE

Viscosity average method is based on the flow behaviour of the

polymer solutions . According to Mark – Hawnik equation, the intrinsic
viscosity of a polymer is given as

[η]int = KMa

Where,
M = molecular weight of the polymer
K & a are constants for a particular polymer – solvent system
η = Intrinsic viscosity = [η sp/C]C=0 = [η r/C]C=0
η sp = specific viscosity = η r – 1
η r = relative viscosity = η/η 0 = t / t0

Since accurate measurement of absolute viscosity is a difficult task, relative

viscosity is taken into account.

η = Viscosity of the polymer solution

η 0 = Viscosity of the pure solvent
t = flow time of the polymer solution
t0 = flow time of the pure solvent

The flow time of the polymer solution (t) and that of the pure solvent (t 0)
are found experimentally and substituted to get η sp , η r and thus [η]int.
Knowing K & a, molecular weight of the polymer solution is calculated.
DP = M / m (M= mol.wt of polymer, m = mol. wt of monomer)

PROCEDURE

Accurately 1g of polyvinyl pyrrolidone is weighed, dissolved in water

and made up to 100ml (1dl) in a standard flask.From the bulk solution,
polymer solutions of conc. 0.1g/dl, 0.2g/dl, 0.3g/dl.0.4g/dl and 0.5g/dl are
prepared using the relation V1N1 = V2N2
 [E.g. X * 1g / dl = 0.2g / dl * 100ml,

Graph - I
nsp/C

Concentration (g/dl)

Graph - II
lnnr/C

Concentration (g/dl)
Where X = volume of bulk solution to be taken for preparing 100ml of
0.2g/dl Polymer solution]

A well cleaned Ostwald viscometer is rinsed with water and filled with
10ml of distilled water, Water in the viscometer is sucked into the upper
bulb using a rubber bulb. The time taken for water to flow from the upper
mark to the lower mark is measured with a stop clock and noted as t0.

Water from the viscometer is drained completely and 10ml of the

polymer solution of conc. 0.1g/dl is poured in the viscometer. The flow time
of the polymer solution is found and noted as t. The procedure is repeated
with the other solutions of the polymer.

From the values of t and t 0 , η r / C and η sp / C are calculated and

graphs with η sp / C Vs C and ln η r / C Vs C are drawn. The straight lines
obtained are extrapolated to zero concentration. The intercept values are
equal to [η]int. From [η]int molecular weight of the polymer (M) is
calculated using the formula [η]int = KMa and the table.
From the values of M and m , degree of polymerization can be calculated.

RESULT:
The molecular weight of the given polymer =
The degree of polymerization of the polymer =
 Rough titration:
S.No Volume of Observed
. NaOH conductance
added (ml) (m mho)

Fair titration:
S.No Volume of Observed
. NaOH conductance
added (ml) (m mho)

Volume of Sodium Hydroxide (V1) = ml (from fair graph)

Normality of Sodium Hydroxide (N1) = N
Volume of Strong acid (V2) = ml
Normality of Strong acid (N2) = (V1 x N1) /V2
= --------------- N
The strength of the given strong acid is found to be = --------N

Expt. No.7 CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATION OF STRONG ACID

WITH STRONG BASE

AIM

To determine the strength of a given strong acid conductometrically. A standard

solution of NaOH of strength ---------N is provided.

PRINCIPLE

Solution of electrolytes conducts electricity due to the presence of ions. The

specific conductance of a solution is proportional to the concentration of ions in it.
The reaction between HCl and NaOH may be represented as,
HCl +NaOH - NaCl + H2O
When a solution of hydrochloric acid is titrated with NaOH, the fast moving
hydrogen ions are progressively replaced by slow moving sodium ions. As a result
conductance of the solution decreases, this decrease in conductance will take place
until the end point is reached. Further addition of alkali raises the conductance
sharply, as there is an excess of hydroxide ions.
A graph is drawn between volume of NaOH added and the conductance of
solution. The exact end point is intersection of the two lines.

PROCEDURE

The given HCl is made up in a 100ml standard flask. 20 ml of this solution is

pipetted out in a beaker and diluted to 50ml using distilled water. The burette is
filled with standard sodium hydroxide upto the mark.

A conductivity cell is dipped into the beaker with HCl solution and connected to
the terminals of the conductivity bridge. About 1ml of Std NaOH is added and
stirred well for 30 seconds. The conductance is measured and the titration is
continued till five measurements after the endpoint. A graph is plotted for the
conductance values against the volume of NaOH and the endpoint range is fixed.

The above titration is repeated again and the exact endpoint is found out by
adding in increments of 0.1ml of NaOH in the end point range and continued after
endpoint upto five readings.
A graph is plotted with the conductance values against the volume of NaOH and
then the strength of the strong acid is found out.

RESULT

The strength of the given strong acid is found to be ---------------N

Rough titration:

S.No Volume of Observed

. NaOH conductance
added (ml) (m mho)

Fair titration:

S.No Volume of Observed

. NaOH conductance
added (ml) (m mho)
(i) Calculation of strength of HCl:

Volume of NaOH (V1) = ml (from fair graph)

Strength of NaOH (N1) = N

Volume of HCl (V2) = ml

Strength of HCl (N2) = (V1 x N1 ) / V2

Strength of HCl = ---------- N

Expt. No 8 CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATION OF
MIXTURE OF ACIDS

AIM

To determine the strength of strong acid and weak acid present in the
given acid mixture

PRINCIPLE
Solution of electrolytes conducts electricity due to the presence of ions.
Since specific conductance of a solution is proportional to the concentration
of ions in it, conductance of the solution is measured during the titration.
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O (I neutralization)
CH3COOH + NaOH  CH3COONa + H2O (II neutralization)
When a solution of HCl is treated with NaOH the fast moving hydrogen
ions are progressively replaced by slow moving sodium ions. As a result
conductance of the solution decreases. This decrease will take place until
the first neutalisation point is reached. Further addition of alkali results in
formation of sodium acetate.
Since sodium acetate is stronger electrolyte than acetic acid,
conductivity slowly increases until all acetic acid is completely neutralized.
(II Neutalisation) This is due to the presence of fast moving OH - ions.
Anymore addition of alkali increases the conductance sharply.

PROCEDURE

The burette is filled with NaOH solution upto zero mark. The given
unknown solution (mixture of a weak & a strong acid) is transferred into a
100ml standard flask and made upto the mark with distilled water. 20ml of
the made up solution is pipetted out into a clean 100ml beaker. The
 solution is diluted to 50ml using distilled water. A conductivity cell is
dipped into the solution and the terminals are connected to a conductivity
meter.
The burette solution is added to the unknown solution in the beaker in 1
ml increments, the solution is stirred using a glass rod, and the observed
conductance values are read from the meter. The conductance values show
decrease in the initial values, then gradually increases and finally shows a
steep increase. The titration hence shows two end-points (ie) I
neutralization (strong acid) & II neutralization (weak acid).
The titration is repeated with the same procedure by adding 0.1 ml
increments of the burette solution in the region of the end-point and the
conductance values are noted for all the increments. The accurate end-
point is obtained by plotting a graph between observed conductance Vs
volume of NaOH added.

RESULT
The strength of acids present in the given unknown solution are
a) Strong acid = N b) Weak acid = N

(ii) Calculation of strength of CH3COOH:

Volume of NaOH (V1) = ml (from fair graph)

Strength of NaOH (N1) = N

Volume of CH3COOH (V2) = ml

Strength of CH3COOH (N2) = (V1 x N1 ) / V2

Strength of CH3COOH = ---------- N

 Rough titration:

S.No. Volume of Conductance in

Na2SO4 (ml) mmho.
Fair titration:

S.No. Volume of Conductance in

Na2SO4(ml) mmho.

Expt.No9 CONDUCTOMETRIC PRECIPITATION TITRATION

AIM

To determine the amount of BaCl 2 present in the given solution by

conductometric precipitation titration.

PRINCIPLE

Solution of electrolytes conduct electricity due to the presence of ions.

Since specific conductance of a solution is proportional to the
concentrations of ions in it, conductance of solution is measured during
titration.
In the precipitation titration, the ions are converted into insoluble
precipitate, which will not contribute to the conductance.
When Na2SO4 is added slowly from the burette to the solution of
barium chloride, barium sulphate gets precipitated while chloride ions are
remain as soluble ions with sodium ions.
.
{ Ba2+ + 2 Cl- } + {2Na+ + SO42-}  BaSO4 ↓ + 2Na+ + 2Cl-
 After the end-point, when all the Ba 2+ ions are replaced, further
addition of Na2SO4 increases the conductance. This is due to the presence
of excess of Na+ and SO42- ions in the solution.

PROCEDURE

The burette is filled with Na2SO4 solution upto the zero mark. The
given unknown solution is carefully transferred into a 100ml standard flask
using a funnel and glass rod and the solution is made upto the mark using
distilled water. 20ml of the made up solution is pipeted out into a clean
100ml beaker. The conductivity cell is placed in it and then the solution is
diluted to 50ml by adding distilled water. The conductivity cell is
connected to conductivity meter.

1ml of the burette solution is added to the solution taken in the

beaker, stirred and the conductance is read from the conductivity meter.
With successive additions of sodium sulphate solution from the burette, the
conductance values decrease first and then start increasing which is the end
point of the titration. After reaching the end point the titration is
continued for few more readings.

The titration is repeated with the same procedure. In the range of the
end point the titration is carried out by adding 0.1ml increments and the
accurate end point is obtained by plotting a graph between the observed
conductance values and the volume of sodium sulphate solution added.

RESULT

The amount of BaCl2 present in 1 litre of the solution is -------g.

precipitation
Conductance

Volume of Sodium Sulphate

Calculation of strength of BaCl2:

Volume of Na2SO4 (V1) = ml (from fair graph)

Strength of Na2SO4 (N1) = N

Volume of BaCl2 (V2) = ml

Strength of BaCl2 (N2) = (V1 x N1 ) / V2

Strength of BaCl2 = ---------- N

Amount of BaCl2 present in

1 litre of the solution = Strength x equivalent weight of
BaCl2(112.14)

= ---------- g
Rough titration:

S.No. Volume of EMF (milli volt)

dichromate (ml)

Fair titration:
S.No Volume of Emf in mVolt ∆E in mVolt ∆V in ml ∆E/∆V in
Dichromate m Volt/ml
in ml

Expt. No 10
ESTIMATION OF FERROUS ION BY POTENTIOMETRIC TITRATION.

AIM
To estimate the amount of ferrous ion present in the given solution
potentiometrically. A standard solution of potassium dichromate of strength
---------- N is provided.

PRINCIPLE
Potentiometric titrations depend on measurement of emf between reference
electrode and an indicator electrode. When a solution of ferrous iron is titrated
with a solution of potassium dichromate, the following redox reaction takes place.

6Fe2+ + Cr2O72- + 14 H+  6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

During this titration Fe2+ is oxidised in to Fe3+, whose concentration increases. At

the end point, there will be a sharp change in the emf values called sweeping
potential due to sudden removal of all Fe2+ ions.
 The cell is set up by connecting this redox electrode with a calomel electrode as
shown below:
Pt, Fe2+, Fe3+// KCl , HgCl2 (s), Hg
A graph between emf measured against the volume of potassium dichromate
added is drawn and the end point is noted from the graph.

PROCEDURE
The given Ferrous solution is made up in a 100ml standard flask. Std.
Potassium dichromate solution is filled in the burette upto the mark.
20ml of Ferrous solution is pipetted out into a 100 ml beaker. 10ml of
dil.H2SO4 and 20ml of distilled water are added. A platinum electrode and a
calomel electrode are dipped into this solution and connected to a potentiometer.
Then 1ml of potassium dichromate is added to the solution and stirred well for 30
seconds. The emf is measured and the titration is continued by adding potassium
dichromate in 1ml increments till five measurements after the end point.
A graph is drawn by plotting the emf against the volume of potassium
dichromate and the end point range is fixed.
About 20ml of Ferrous solution is pipetted out and the titration is continued by
adding 0.1ml increments of potassium dichromate in the end point range. The emf
is measured for each 0.1ml after stirring the solution well.
A graph is plotted between emf and the volume of potassium dichromate and
also a first derivative graph is plotted (ΔE/ΔV against vol. of K 2Cr2O7). The
strength of Ferrous solution and the amount of Ferrous ion present are calculated
from the end point.

RESULT

The amount of Ferrous ion present in the given solution is = ------------ g

Rough titration:

ROUGH GRAPH

EMF(mV)

Volume of Potassiumdichromate
 FAIR GRAPH

ΔE/ΔV

Volume of
Potassiumdichromate

Volume of Potassim dichromate (V1) = ml (from fair graph)

Normality of Potassium dichromate (N1) = N
Volume of Ferrous sulphate (V2) = ml
Normality of Ferrous sulphate (N2) = (V1 x N1 ) / V2

= ------------ N

Amount of Ferrous ion present

in 1000ml of the solution = Sterngth x equivalent weight of Fe (55.85)

= g
 Rough titration:

Std. NaOH Vs HCl.

Volume of NaOH (ml) pH

ROUGH GRAPH FAIR GRAPH

pH
ΔpH/ΔV

Eq.Pt
Volume of Volume of
NaOH(ml) NaOH(ml)
Expt.No. 11 DETERMINATION OF STRENGTH OF HCl WITH NaOH
BY pH METRY

AIM

To determine the strength of given HCl by pH metry. A standard

solution of ______ N NaOH is provided.

PRINCIPLE

The pH of a solution is related to H + ions concentration by the

following formula.
. pH = -log 10 [ H+ ]

pH of a solution is indirectly related to H + ion concentration. When

NaOH is added slowly to HCl, H + ions get neutralized by OH - ions. The
pH increases slowly.

H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH-  Na+ + Cl- + H2O

When all H+ ions of HCl are neutralized at the end point, addition of
NaOH causes high increase in pH because of the addition of excess OH -
ions.

PROCEDURE

The burette is washed with distilled water, rinsed with the given std.
Sodium hydroxide and filled with the same solution. Exactly 20ml of the
given HCl solution is pipetted out into a clean beaker. It is then diluted to
50ml with distilled water. A glass electrode is dipped into the solution and it
is connected to a pH meter.

Now NaOH is gradually added from the burette to HCl taken in the
beaker. pH of the solution is noted for each addition of NaOH. This
process is continued until atleast 5 readings are taken after the end point.

A fair titration is performed to find the exact end point.

RESULT
(i) Strength of the given HCl solution = ---------- N
Fair titration:

Std.NaOH Vs HCl

S.No Volume of pH ∆pH ∆V ∆pH/∆V

NaOH (ml)

Volume of NaOH (V1) = ml (from fair graph)

Strength of NaOH (N1) = N

Volume of HCl (V2) = ml

Strength of HCl (N2) = (V1 x N1 ) / V2

Strength of HCl = ---------- N

Calculation:

Wt of empty crucible with lid = W1 g

Wt of crucible with lid+ Crystalline Copper sulphate = W2 g

Wt of Crucible with lid and anhydrous Copper sulphate = W3 g

_
Wt of crystalline Copper sulphate = (W2 W1) g

Wt of anhydrous Copper sulphate = (W3 – W1) g

Therefore, Wt of water = ( W2 – W3) g

(W2 – W1) g hydrated salt contains (W2 – W3) g of water.

Therefore, 100g hydrated salt contains = (W2 – W3) x 100

( W2 – W1)

Percentage of water of crystallization = --------------------

Expt. No:12 DETERMINATION OF WATER OF CRYSTALLISATION OF A
CRYSTALLINE SALT (COPPER SULPHATE)

AIM:
Determine the percentage of water of crystallization in crystalline Copper
sulphate.

PRINCIPLE:

When hydrated Copper sulphate is heated, it loses its water of crystallization

and a residue of anhydrous Copper sulphate is left behind.

CuSO4 .5H2O  CuSO4 + 5H2O

A known weight of AR Copper sulphate crystals are heated and the weight of
anhydrous Copper sulphate is determined. From the weight loss, the percentage of
water is calculated.

PROCEDURE:

A silica crucible is heated to dull redness over a clay pipe triangle for about
15 minutes using a non luminous flame .Then it is heated strongly. After heating the
crucible is kept in a dessicator, allowed to cool for about half an hour and weighed
accurately.(W1 g)
About one gram of crystalline AR Copper sulphate is introduced in the
crucible and is again weighed accurately. (W2 g). It is then heated strongly keeping
the lid slightly tilted to one side for the water vapour to escape. Heating is
continued for half an hour. The crucible and contents are then cooled in a
desiccator and weighed. (W3 g) . The process is repeated for concordance. A
duplicate is also conducted.

RESULT:
The percentage of water of crystallization in hydrated Copper sulphate = -------
S.No. Concentration Absorbance
(N)

Amount of Iron = Strength X Eq. Wt (55.85)

MODEL GRAPH

ABSORBANCE

CONCENTRATION

Expt.No13 ESTIMATION OF IRON BY SPECTROPHOTOMETERY

AIM
To estimate the amount of Fe 3+ ions present in the given water sample using
spectrophotometer.

PRINCIPLE
When a monochromatic light passes through a homogeneous coloured
solution, a portion of incident light is reflected, a portion is absorbed and the
remaining is transmitted.
Io = Ir + Ia + It

Where Io = intensity of light entering solution

Ir = intensity of incident light reflected
Ia = intensity of light absorbed
It = intensity of light transmitted

Ir is usually eliminated and hence I o = It + Ia . The mathematical statement of

Lambert – Beer’s law is given by

T = I / Io = 10 -∈CI

Where T = transmittance of solution

Io = intensity of light entering of solution (incident light)
I = intensity of light leaving solution (transmitted light)
∈ = molar absorption co-efficient
C = Concentration of the solution in moles/lit
l = Path length of light through the solution.(cm)

(or) A = log Io / I = ∈Cl

Where A is the absorbance, or optical density of solution.

i.e., when a ray of monochromatic light passes through an absorbing

medium, its intensity decreases exponentially, as the concentration of the absorbing
substance and the path length increases independently. Keeping the path length
constant, (say l=1 cm) , the variation is with reference to only concentration, C.

Fe3+ ion does not give any colour in solution. However, it develops a red
colour when it reacts with KCNS solution.

Fe3+ + 6KCNS → [Fe (CNS) ]3- + 6K+

Red coloured complex
Further, this colour is in the blue region, (λ = 480 nm). Spectrophotometer has a
wide range of adaptability that allows selection of monochromatic light of any
wavelength in the visible spectrum.
LAYOUT OF SPECTROPHOTOMETER

I0
ELECTRICAL
SLIT
SIGNAL
SOURCE MONOCHROMATOR SAMPLE CELL DETECTOR DISPLAY

INSTRUMENTATION

The light source is an ordinary bulb and monochromatic light is obtained by

using either a glass prism or a diffraction grating. The monochromatic light is then
passed through the filter and is directed through a cell containing the sample. The
light that penetrates hits photoelectric cell and the output of this can be seen in the
display.

PROCEDURE

Switch on spectrophotometer and warm up to about 10 minutes. Adjust the

monochromator for λ = 480nm. The blank sample is a portion of distilled water
used for the preparation for various concentration of Fe 3+ thiocyanate solution.
Keep the blank sample (distilled water) in the cell and adjust the instrument to yield
a light transmission percentage corresponding to 100 for which absorbance is zero.
Similarly keep the various unknown concentrations of the iron solution in the cell
one by one and measure the corresponding absorbance. Also measure the
absorbance of the given solution. Draw the calibration graph to determine the
concentration of the given solution.

RESULT
The strength of iron present in the given solution = ----N
The amount of iron present in the given solution = ----------- ppm
CHEMISTRY PRACTICALS -- VIVA-VOCE – QUESTION BANK

1.ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS
1. What is Hardness?
2. What are the two types of hardness.
3. Write the structure of EDTA.
4. Give the reaction between EBT and metal ions.
5. What is the pH range for a complex stability.
6. What is the buffer used here?
7. Give the reason for formation of red and blue colour .
8. What are the ill effects of hardness.
9. What may be the range of hardness in a portable water sample.
10. What is the need of filtration during the experiment?
11. What are the units by which hardness is expressed?
12. What is the other name for Eriochrome black T?

2.ESTIMATION OF ALKALINITY
1. What is alkalinity?
2. What are the ions responsible for alkalinity?
3. What are the five possible alkalinities?
4. What are the indicators used ?
5. What is equivalent. weight of CaCO3.
6. Why we are taking CaCO3 equivalence as reference?
7. What is the reaction of Phenolphthalein end point?
8. What is PPM?
9. Explain Lewis concept.
10. Expalin Bronsted – Lowry concept .
11. What is the colour of phenolphthalein in acidic and basic mediums?
12. What is the colour of methyl orange in acidic and basic mediums?

3.ESTIMATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN

1. What is the extent of oxygen dissolution in water at 30°C?
2. What is the need of determining the amount of DO?
3. What is Winkler’s reagent?
4. What are the reactions involved in DO estimation?
5. Why are we dissolving the precipitate in sulphuric acid?
6. What is the principle of iodometry and iodimetry?
7. What is the name of brown precipitate we are getting?
8. How can we avoid dissolution of O2 in water?
9. Why should we put stopper always on the bottle?
10. Explain the process of Winkler’s method?

4.ESTIMATION OF CHLORIDE:
1. Explain the principle behind the argentometry?
2. What do you mean by back titration?
3. Why are we taking excess (40ml) of Silver nitrate?
 4. Why are we getting a blurred solution during the titration?
5. What is the reaction between alum and burette solution ( thio cyanate)?
6. What type of medium do you prefer for chloride estimation?
7. What is the colour change that infers you regarding the end point?
8. What is break point chlorination?
9. What is the relationship between ppm and gm/ml?
10. What are the different sources of chlorine in water?

5.DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF

POLYMER (VISCOSITY AVERAGE METHOD)
1. What is a polymer?
2. What is viscosity average method?
3. Give Mark– Howink equation
4. What are the factors influencing constant ‘a’?
5. Give the unit of viscosity.
6. What is relative viscosity?
7. Define Specific viscosity.
8. What is the name of viscometer used in this experiment?
9.. Give the equation relating flow time with viscosity.
10. Draw the structure of polyvinyl pyrrolidone
11. What type of graph will be obtained when you plot ηsp Vs C and ln ηr /C Vs C?
12. Give the value of k and a for polyvinyl pyrrolidone – water system.

6,7,8.CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATIONS (ACID-BASE,

MIXTURE OF ACIDS & PRECIPITATION)
1. Define the term conductivity?
2. Give the unit of conductance.
3. What is specific conductance?
4. Define Equivalent conductance and molar conductance
5. Explain why we get “V” shaped graph for conductometric titration of HCl Vs
NaOH?
6. List out the advantages of conductometric titrations
7. Draw the rough graph obtained by plotting conductance Vs Vol of NaOH in the
estimation of mixture of acids
8. Which acid will be neutralised first when the mixture of HCl and acetic acid is
titrated against NaOH?
9. Why the conductance decreases until the first neutralization point is reached?
10. Explain why after the first neutralization point conductance increases slowly then
shows steep rise.
11. Explain the graph obtained by plotting volume of Na2SO4 against conductance in
precipitation titration.

9. pH METRY
1. Define pH
2. Give the principle of pH metry
3. Name the electrodes used in the determination of pH of a solution.
4. Which electrode acts as anode and which acts as cathode?
5. What is the effect of temperature on pH
6. What is the effect of dilution on pH of an acidic solution?
7. What is the pOH of pure water at 25°C
8. What is a combined electrode?
9. What is the significance of pH titration?
10. Brief the function of calomel electrode.
11. What is the pH of lime juice, blood and de-ionised water?

10.POTENTIOMETRY – REDOX TITRATION

1. What is an electrochemical cell?
2. What is Single electrode Potential?
3. What is Standard electrode potential?
4. Define reduction potential
5. Mention the factors affecting electrode potential?
6. Give the formula to calculate EMF of a cell
7. Name the electrodes acting as cathode and anode in this experiment
8. When ferrous sulphate is titrated with potassium dichromate which element will
undergo oxidation and which will undergo reduction?
9. What is redox titration?
10. Give the redox reaction taking place when FeSO4 is titrated against K2Cr2O7
11. In the reaction between FeSO4 against K2Cr2O7 , why Fe is said to be oxidized and Cr
is said to be reduced?
12. How will you construct galvanic cell for measuring EMF of FeSO4 Vs K2Cr2O7 ?
13. Why Platinum electrode is called as oxidation – reduction electrode in the presence of
Fe2+ and Fe3+ ?
14. What is the reduction electrode potential of calomel electrode?
15. Give the advantages of Potentiometric titrations.

11.ESTIMATION OF IRON BY SPECTROPHOTOMETERY

1. What is the principle of spectrophotometry?
2. How the light from monochromatic source is distributed on falling upon medium?
3. What is absorbance.
4. What is transmittance
5. What is a spectrophotometer and spectrophotometry?
6. State Beer-Lamberts law
7. What is the role of KCNS in the estimation of iron by spectrophotometry?
8. Why the monochromator is adjusted for λ = 480nm during the estimation of iron?
9. Mention the working range of wave length of spectrophotometry.

12.WATER OF CRYSTALLISATION
1. What is the molecular formula for hydrated copper sulphate?
2. Give the reaction for the dehydration of copper sulphate?
3. What is the colour change for dehydration of copper sulphate?
4. What is the molecular weight of hydrated copper sulphate?
 5. What is gravimetry?
6. What are the precautions to be taken during gravimetric analysis?

13. COPPER IN BRASS BY EDTA METHOD

1. What are alloys?
2. What are the purpose of alloying?
3. What is the compostion of brass?
4. What is EDTA?
5. What is EBT ? What is the role of indicator in this estimation?
6. What are the types of alloy?
7. Write the structure of EDTA?
8. Do you add any additional solution during the reaction? If so, why?
9. Give the principle behind estimation of copper in brass by EDTA method?
10. Why should we dissolve the brass in con. Nitric acid?