Unit 1

Research Problem: Definition and Formulation

and
Research Process Steps

Dr. Kiran Patil

Meaning of Research
 Meaning of Research

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.

Can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for

pertinent information on a specific topic.

In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation

The term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of

enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the
facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
either in the form of solutions (s) towards the concerned problem
or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.
Meaning of It is a careful or
critical inquiry or
Research examination
in seeking
facts.

It constitutes
It is not merely a
a method for the
search for truth,
discovery of truth
but a prolonged,
which is really
intensive,
. a method of
purposeful
reflective
search.
Thinking.
 Research Purpose

It is the specific aim or goal hope to be accomplished.

It reflects “ Why the problem is being studied”

Example of a purpose statement:

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship

between nurse’s job satisfaction and tendency to leave.
 Research Process- Steps

1. Formulation a of a research problem

2. Creation of a research design
3. Constructing instruments for data collection
4. Selecting a sample
5. Writing the research proposal
6. Collecting data
7. Processing data
8. Writing the report
 Steps in Research

1.Search for an idea. They don’t come out of the blue!

You have to do brain gym, observe, read, read,
observe, think, read again...

– It is usually the case that your topic, problem or idea

has been previously worked or developed. Don’t
reinvent the wheel!
– Talking and asking to other researchers and
students can be crucial. Ask!
2. Do a search for relevant literature. Literature search
is a must.
– Once you have set the main ideas, Google around
and start building your conceptual map about the
selected problem.
– Take advantage of the resources to be found in the
Library, Online Journals, Data Bases etc.
– Do not fall in love with your original idea (yet): be
ready to reshape it a lot!
3. Talk to other people. If your idea can be understood by
other people not working in the field, then you are on the
right track.

– People is useful to comment, criticize or transform your

original idea.

– If you have experts at hand they can finally assess on

the references, constraints, required materials and
devices, and other technicalities you should take into
account.
4. Prepare an action plan. Organize the plan to get your
goals and be able to write a report and do a public
presentation of the work.

– Take Hofstadter’s law very seriously:

“it always takes longer than you expect, even if
you take Hofstadter's Law into account ”.

– Your supervisor will help you to set a realistic plan:

ask him/her!!! Do not wait to be in a rush in order to
ask for her/his help. The plan is a serious
compromise between you both!!!
5. Run a pilot test.
Don’t wait to get all the required data, all the code smoothly running and
everything perfected.

6. Design the study.

You have to identify the independent and dependent variables, other factors to be
controlled in order them not to confound the results.

7. Now “DO” the study.

A Pilot test is advisable before the real “GO!”

8. Analyse your data.

Start with simple counts, averages, deviations, correlations
Plot, plot, plot. And ask yourself questions for the data to answer them

9. Explain data and possible conclusions to other people.

10 Write a report and prepare a public presentation.

The Scientific Method
Research Problem
 Definition of Research Problem

• Research problems are educational issues

or concerns studied by researchers

• In education, a problem is a concern to

educators that exists in educational settings
 Research Problem

Selection of the problem: Select from real experience.

Source Select a viable problem;
Justification Not to be attracted by big one;
Scope Solvability of the problem.

Evaluation of the problem: Definition of the problem:

Suited to the apparatus Delimitation of the problem;
Suited for duration Keeping in view the duration
Worthwhile of the project.

15
 Problem Formulation
 "Well begun is half done" -- Aristotle

 Identifying the subject matter of your research is a good

start, but your topic won't be truly focused until you have
rephrased it as a Research Problem.
 Look to:

 Practical problems in the field

 Literature in your specific field
 Requests for Proposals
 Think up their Research
Problem Formulation (Contd…)
 Defining Terms

• Research Problem: Educational issue/problem in a study

• Research Topic: Broad subject matter being addressed in

a study

• Purpose: Major intent or object of study

• Research Questions: Questions to answer or address

in a study
General
Overview

Topic

Research
Problem

Research
Statement

Research
Questions
Specific
Research Topic: The broad general area expected to
investigate. It is a broad idea or concept from which many
problems may be delineated.

Research Problem: A situation or circumstance that requires

a solution to be described, explained, or predicted. It is an
unsatisfactory situation that wants you to confront.

PROBLEM
P = Pressure ; R = Realization; O = Obstacle; B = Barriers
L = Linkages; E = Extract/Eliminate M = Methodological approach
 Ask Yourself

• To help locate your research problem for your research ,

ask yourself such questions as:

What was the issue/problem you want to study?

What is the concern being addressed “behind” this study?

Why do you want to undertake this study?

Why is this study important to the scholarly community?

 Source for ideas
• The problems encountered in your daily life or profession
could be sources for questions or hypotheses.

Experience + Observation + Needs +

+ Interests = Research Problem

• Read professional literature of your field systematically.

– Suggestions from investigators
– Magazines

• Perusal of recent convention programs of your

professional organization.
 Source of the Problems

Previous researches/dissertations/studies/etc

Books/reports

Resource persons/professors/

Brainstorming

Newspapers/TV/radios/medias

Seminars, workshops/conferences

Relations organizations/research centres/research
institutes

Encyclopedia

Own critical observations

Discussions with fellows, colleagues, friends, etc

Dinning tables
 Criteria/Factors of selecting the problems
• Academic background of the researcher
• Researcher's experiences, aptitudes, capability, ability, values,
• Researcher's training and orientation
• Researcher's purpose and objectives
• Direction of the organization where the researcher works
• Availability of data and information – primary and secondary sources
• Access to the study area
• Resource availability – money, manpower
• Time factor
• Supervisor’s time, qualification, experiences, interest, etc
• Nature of the problems – need oriented, problem solving, etc
• Controversial topic
• Too narrow, vague
• Sufficiently original
• Cooperation of the stakeholders
• Avoidance of the troubles
 Criteria for selecting a Research Problem

Sustained motivation
→ You should be highly motivated to embark upon a
research study.

– Are you really interested in the topic which you have

chosen?
– Are you really excited about what you wish to study?
– Will this topic have some practical value in helping you in
your future career?
 Criteria for selecting a Research Problem

Adequate training and personal predilections →Is it right in light

of your training and personal preferences?
– Do you have enough training to undertake a certain study?
◦ Research design
◦ Manage most of your research study by yourself.
– Which type of research appeals to you?
◦ Historical, descriptive, experimental research…
◦ Observation, interview, questionnaire, test…
– Are you impatient to get fairly immediate results or do you have
patience to wait?
– How high is your frustration tolerance?
 Criteria for selecting a Research Problem

Feasibility → Is it feasible for you?

– Do you have sufficient time to carry it out?

◦ Meet the deadlines at your school or job.

– Do you have access to subjects?

◦ Available equipment and research tools
◦ Institutional sponsorship and cooperation
◦ Gathering data
◦ The need to protect privacy of individual
◦ A problem may be too complex

– Can you offer examples of intriguing and important problems which

seem too difficult to be solved via research at the present time?

→ Not all the problems are researchable!

 Criteria for selecting a Research Problem ( Contd.)

Importance to your profession →Is it important to your profession?

– Is the proposed project of some value to your profession?
◦ Original study
◦ Make contribution by replicating a study

– Does it add to our store of information?

– Does it provide fresh insights for some of your colleagues?

◦ The results may be helpful to guidance counselors.

→ Make a contribution to your field!

If there is a knowledge gap in an area that need to
be investigated, the research problem identifies this
gap.

Where as the research topic is simply a broad area

of interest, the research problem identifies what is
problematic about that topic.

Research Statement: A statement specifies exactly

what is being studied.
 The research statement should include six elements:

1) Information about the research topic that provoked the study

2) The scope of the problem
3) Why it is important to study the problem?
4) How nursing science would be influenced by the study?
5) General characteristics of the population of interest
6) The overall goal or aim of the study or the question to be
answered.
 Example of a Problem Statement

Hazardous noise is an important occupational health problem

because it leads to hearing loss and may lead to increased
stress and other deleterious physiological effects… More than
30 million workers are exposed to hazardous noise on the
job…Use of hearing protection devices, specifically ear plugs is
known to reduce noise exposure and prevent noise – induced
hearing loss… there are, however, relatively few investigators
who have examined factors related to the low use of hearing
protection by workers.
 Why define the Research Problem?

• Defining your destination before beginning a journey.

• It determines,

– What you will do,

– Will it withstand scientific scrutiny,
– How you will do it, and
– What you may achieve!
 Technique in Defining a Problem

– Statement of the problem in a general way;

– Understanding the nature of the problem;

– Surveying the available literature

– Developing the ideas through discussions; and

– Rephrasing the research problem into a working

proposition.
 How the Problem Differs From Other Parts of Research

• A research problem is an educational issue or problem

in the study.

• A research topic is the broad subject matter being

addressed in a study.

• A purpose is the major intent or objective of the study.

• Research questions are those that the researcher would

like answered or addressed in the study.

John W. Creswell
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition
Differences among the Topic, Problem, Purpose, and
Questions

General Topic Distance learning

Research Lack of students in distance

Problem classes

Purpose To study why students do not

attend distance education classes at
Statement
a community college

Research Does the use of Web site technology

in the classroom deter students
Question
Specific from enrolling in a distance
education class?
The following points must also be observed while
defining a research problem:

Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used

in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined

Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research

problem should be clearly stated

A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e.,

the criteria for the selection of the problem

The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available

The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the research
 How is a Research Problem selected?

• Researchers interest in a topic

• National or agency priorities

• Urgency of an issue

• Availability of research funds

• Availability of supervision
 Steps in Defining Research Problems

1. Identify a broad topic

2. Identify a narrow topic within the broad topic

3. Raise questions

4. Formulate objectives

• Use action-oriented words - To demonstrate;

To evaluate; To measure…
 Identifying Broad Topics

• Think of the BIG PICTURE

– What is the problem you are trying to solve?
– Think of something you like to learn more about
– Consult text books, journal or your supervisor

• Pick one based on:

– Interest and relevance
– Magnitude of work involved
– Level of expertise
• yours and your advisors
 Examples of Broad Topics

– Optimizing productivity of land and water resources

– Ensuring Food Safety & Security

– Sustaining Agricultural & Marine Environments

 From Broad Topic to Narrow Topic

• Examples of a narrow topic:

– CO2 Emission from Automobiles

– Separation of Aromatics via Green Engineering
– Catalyst Regeneration in FCC unit
– Grey water reuse potential in India

• When selecting a narrow topic think how it can contribute towards

solving the BIG PROBLEM!
The Research Questions
 The Research Question

• The foundation of the research process

• It all begins with a question

It is a direct rewording of the statement of the purpose phrased

interrogatively rather than declaratively

Questions that are simple and direct invite an answer and help to
focus attention on the kinds of data needed to provide that answer.
 Finding a Research Question

• From where ???????

– Curiosity
– Information Gaps
– Controversy
– Replication
– Literature Review
– Other People
– ...???
Criteria for developing a good Research Questions

• Feasible
• Interesting
• Novel
• Ethical
• Relevant
 Good Research Question?

• Feasible • Ethical
– Subjects
– Social or scientific value
– Resources
– Safe
– Manageable
• Relevant
– Data available?
– Advance scientific
• Interesting knowledge?
• Novel – Influence clinical practice?
– In relation to previous – Impact health policy?
findings – Guide future research?
• Confirm or refute?
– New setting, new
population
 A Research Question Must Identify

1. The variables under study

2. The population being studied
3. The testability of the question

Variables in research

Have 2 or more properties or qualities

Age, sex, weight, height

Is one variable related to another?

“ Is X related to Y? What is the effect of X on Y?” etc.
Characteristics of a Good Research Question

ETHICAL

SIGNIFICANT

CLEAR

FEASIBLE
 Characteristics of Good Research Questions

The question should be feasible:

 it can be investigated without an undue amount of

time, energy, or money.

 How do students feel about the new guidance

program?

 Is a whole-language approach to reading more or less

effective than a basal approach?
 Characteristics of Good Research Questions (Contd.)
The question should be clear:

-- Most people would agree as to what the key words in the

question mean.

-- Did the 2nd grade math curriculum work?

-- Is mainstreaming effective?
Key words?
Rephrase question
.
The question is significant: is the question worth investigating in terms of time
needed, energy required, effect on or for subjects.

-- What is the effect on student self-esteem when taught to type on a

manual typewriter vs. a Pentium II computer with a high resolution
video screen?
-- Does an in-school suspension program decrease problematic
behaviors?
Characteristics of Good Research Questions (Contd.)

The question is ethical: it will not involve physical or psychological harm

or damage to human beings, or to the natural or social environment of
which they are apart.

-- Is physical punishment more effective than positive reinforcement in

decreasing enuresis?
-- Will students master basic math facts faster if instruction is delayed
until grade 2?
 Research Question

Example of a research question:

– What is the relationship between the

engineers job satisfaction and their
tendency to leave the work setting
within a two years or even less than a
Year?
Development of Research Problem
 Development of Research Problem

Step 1: Selection of the research topic:

Write down general areas of interest

At this stage, it doesn’t matter if the terms used are broad or specific,
abstract or concrete. The important point is to put ideas on papers.

Then a list of ideas can be classified into Interesting topics.

Familiar topics.

Perplexing topics

Feasible/not feasible topics

And then, choose the most suitable one to work in.

 Step 2: Contemplating the ideas :

then explore the phenomena by examining the following eight areas

1. The topic’s, situation’s problem’s precipitating factors.

2. How it is exactly viewed or perceived by the researcher.
3. What are the responses of others who are involved in the situation?
4. The personal involvement in the situation.
5. Emotions felt.
6. Values and biases inherent in or related to the topic/situation.
7. Risk factors associated with searching this topic/situation/problem.
8. What contribution the research would offer.
Step 3: Narrowing the topic

• Once a research topic has been specified and

contemplate, the researcher must then narrow it down in
order to develop a research problem.

– This is done through generating questions from the research

topic.

– List of questions can be developed from the research topic,

and then investigated in relation to its feasibility to research.
• Step 4: Literature Review

Reviewing the related literature at this stage may throw light on:

Theoretical framework.

Methodology.

Data collection methods.

Data collection tools

Data collection techniques.

Sampling method…etc.

• Review of literature will also help to identify what is known and

what is not known about the research problem. Therefore, the
research problem could be specified and stated at this point.
Step 5: Writing the statement of the research problem :

• Expressed in a statement

• This statement serves as a guide to the researcher in the

course of designing the study.
• Step 5: Writing the statement (Contd.)

The problem statement should have the following characteristics:

– Identify the key variables in the study.

– Express a relationship between two or more variables.
(If not descriptive).
– Specify the study population.
– Imply the type of the research.
– Identify the study setting.
 Five Elements of a “Problem Statement”

FLOW OF IDEAS

What
Remedying
Evidence Deficiencies
Educational the Deficiencies
Topic for the in the
Issue Will Do for
Issue Evidence
Select
Audiences
Subject
•A concern •Evidence from •In this body of
area evidence, what How will addressing
•A problem the literature what we need to
•Something •Evidence from is missing? know help:
that needs practical •What do we – researchers
a solution experiences need to know – educators
more about? – policy makers
– individuals such as
those in the study
• The problem statement could be done in two
forms:

– Declarative: “The relationship between the Engineer’s

job satisfaction and tendency to leave work”

– Interrogative: “ Is there a relationship between the

Engineer’s job satisfaction and tendency to leave
work?”
 Formal Problem Statements

• Purpose

– Introduces reader to importance of problem

– Places problem in an educational context

– Provides framework for reporting results—

findings and conclusions
 Significance of Problem

• Does problem contribute to one or more of

following?
– Develops knowledge of an enduring practice
– Contributes to theory development
– Expands current knowledge
– Provides an extension of our understanding
– Advances methodology
– Related to a current social or political issue
– Evaluates specific practice or policy at given site
– Explores an issue about which little is known
 Statement of the Problem

• A very specific statement which clearly identifies the problem

being studied; will usually identify the key variables as well as
give some information about the scope of the study

• May be in either question or declarative form

• May include inherent sub-problems, if appropriate

• Formulation of problem statement takes place after an initial

review of related literature and the distillation process
Formulating and clarifying Research Problem

The important steps

• Identifying the attributes of a good research topic

• Generating ideas that help you select a suitable topic

• Turning ideas into clear research questions and

objectives

• Writing research proposal

 Attributes of a good research topic (1)

Capability: is it feasible?

• Are you fascinated by the topic?

• Do you have the necessary research skills?

• Can you complete the project in the time available?

• Will the research still be current when you finish?

• Do you have sufficient financial and other resources?

• Will you be able to gain access to data?

 Attributes of a good research topic (2)
Appropriateness: is it worthwhile?

• Will the examining institute's standards be met?

• Does the topic contain issues with clear links to theory?
• Are the research questions and objectives clearly
stated?
• Will the proposed research provide fresh insights into
the topic?
• Are the findings likely to be symmetrical?
• Does the research topic match your career goals?
Attributes of a good research topic (3)

And - (if relevant)

Does the topic relate clearly to an idea

you were given -

possibly by your organisation ?

 Generating Research Ideas
Useful Techniques

Rational thinking Creative thinking

Searching the literature Scanning the

media

Brainstorming Relevance Trees

Exploring past projects Discussion

Keeping an ideas notebook

 Rational Thinking

• Examining your own strengths and

interests
• Looking at past project titles
• Discussion
• Searching the literature
• Scanning the media
 Creative Thinking

• Keeping a notebook of ideas

• Exploring personal preferences using past
projects
• Relevance trees
• Brainstorming
 Rational Thinking and Creative Thinking

• These techniques will generate possible project

one of two outcomes:

– One or more possible project ideas that you might

undertake;

– Absolute panic because nothing in which you are

interested or which seems suitable has come to mind.
 Problem Statements

• “The problem of this study was to …”

• “This study was concerned with …”
• “This study is designed to …”
• “The purpose of this investigation is to …”
 Evaluation of the Research Problem
• Time: enough time will be available for the various steps of
the research.

• Timing :When the timing requirement of a task do not match

• Money : the researcher should ask the following questions:

– Will I have enough money to complete this research?

– Will be any sources for funding the research?
– Does the anticipated cost outweigh the value of the
expected findings?
Development of Research Problem: Main Factors

• Availability of research participants:

• Ethical consideration
• Facilities and equipment
• Co operation of the others
• Researchability
• Qualifications and experience of the researcher
• Significance of the problem
 Checklist for Testing the Feasibility of
The Research Problem

YES NO

Is the problem of current interest? Will the research results have

1
social, educational or scientific value?
2 Will it be possible to apply the results in practice?

3 Does the research contribute to the science of education?

4 Will the research opt new problems and lead to further research?
Is the research problem important? Will you be proud of the
5
result?
Is there enough scope left within the area of research (field of
6
research)?
Can you find an answer to the problem through research? Will
7
you be able to handle the research problem?

8 Will it be practically possible to undertake the research?

9 Will it be possible for another researcher to repeat the research?

10 Is the research free of any ethical problems and limitations?

11 Will it have any value?

Do you have the necessary knowledge and skills to do the research? Are
12
you qualified to undertake the research?
Is the problem important to you and are you motivated to undertake the
13
research?
Is the research viable in your situation? Do you have enough time and
14
energy to complete the project?

15 Do you have the necessary funds for the research?

16 Will you be able to complete the project within the time available?

Do you have access to the administrative, statistic and computer facilities

17
the research necessitates?

TOTAL:
Research Problem Formulation
1st step: Formulation and set framework of research problem

A. Einstein:
If I have one hour for solving the problem on which my life
is dependent, than I will devote 40 minutes to study
the problem, 15 minutes to analyse it, and only 5 minutes
to solve it

• Who is able to formulate scientific problem?

– a person with large and high quality of knowledge
– a creative person able to think, with good memory
with large and deep cultural knowledge and with
ability to persist in research work despite of serious
problems
 How the research problem is formulated

– accidental observation of phenomenon which we are not able

to explane → curiosity
– formulation of questions ( why and how the phenomenon originated) →
→ a lot of uncertainities
→ small amount of certainities
– considerations on possible cause(es) of the phenomenon:
- discussion with co-workers
Refinement of research
- study of literature
problem
- personal experience of researcher
– formulation of first draft of research problem
– considerations whether the research problem is solvable:
if yes – than what kind of methods should be used
if no – it is necessary to go back and start to think
by another way
2nd step: Looking for informations related to research
problem in literature

The aim of this step:

- to find the „older“ and current informations related
to the research problem

We would like to find the answers to following questions:

– did anybody formulate the same research problem as it is ours

in the past?
– did anybody solve the same or similar problem as it is ours?
– is the solving of the defined research problem fruitful or not?

Result of this process is more precisely defined research problem or the

research problem is rejected
 3) Development of the theoretical construction
for solving the research problem
Main aims: Thinking – on the content of future research
– on its timing and structure
– on the necessary conditions
Good virtual model of future research will save time, money and
decreases probability of stress and mistakes during research

Necessary conditions:
– the research problem is clearly defined
– the technical and personal conditions are available
– the social, legal and ethical views are known
– the main aims are defined

Result of this step: - clear framewerk for solving the research problem
4) Formulation of hypothesis

A well-thought-out and focused research question

leads directly into hypothesis
– Creation of rational assumption on
the possible cause(es) of the observed
phenomenon
– Creation of the questions focused to the essence of the
research problem

Characteristics of good hypothesis:

– gives isight into research questions

– is testable and measured by the proposed research
– springs logically from the experience of the staff

The goal of science is to find an explanation for why the facts are as
they are. Such an explanation is a hypothesis

A good hypothesis meets several standards. It should provide an
adequate explanation of the observed facts. If two or more
hypotheses meet this standard, the simpler one is preferred.

It should be able to predict new facts.

One of the most exciting events in science is to predict the results of

an experiment not yet performed if the hypothesis is valid and then
to perform the experiment

The hypothesis that the experimental treatment had no effect is called

the null hypothesis
II. Phase of Elaboration of Proposal and Research Plan

It is a general plan of research:

– selection of patients, animals, other objects used for solving

the problem: - creation of representative sample, inclusion, exclusion
criteria
– selection of the methods –qualitative, quantitative
– creation of pilot study
– selection of methods
– selection of research technology
– development a protocol of research
– to define the schedule of research
 III. Empiric Phase

The aim of this phase is production of results, collection

of data, and their preparation for next analysis

The results are produced by:

– experiment on animals
– by clinical study
– by using questionaire, interview, observation
– by using models - biological, electronic, mathematic....
Reproducibility of scientific work

The single feature that is most characteristic of science is its

reproducibility. If scientists cannot duplicate their first results, they are
forced to conclude that these were invalid. This problem occurs often. Its
cause is usually some unrecognized, and hence uncontrolled, factor in
the experiment (e.g., unrecognized variation in the properties of different
batches of the materials used in the experiment).

With luck, the inability to reproduce experiments will be discovered by the

same scientists who did the first experiments. This is why scientists
generally repeat their experiments several times before reporting them in
a scientific paper.
IV. Analytic Phase

The content of this phase is:

– Qauntitative analysis of the data
– Qualitative analysis of the data
– Statistic analysis of the data
– Interpretation of the results

Methods used in Analytic Phase:

- Corelation: looking for relationships among the two or more

values
- Comparation: comparation of the result obtained in our research
with similar research done by other researchers
 V. Disseminative phase

It is the phase when results of the research are published as:

– Research Report

– Lectures and posters at the Workshops and conferences

– Papers in Journals ......

 Problem Researchability
1. Will your research contribute to knowledge and practice?

It fills a void or extends existing research

It replicates a study with new participants or a new site

Problem has not be studied or understudied

It gives “voice” to people not heard, silenced, or rejected in
society

It informs practice

2. Accessed to people & sites

3. Time, Resources and skills

4. Therapy

5. To prove what your already know

Designing & Writing the Statement of the Research
Problem

1. The research problem within this study

2. Justification for the problem (based on past research

and practice)

3. Shortcoming of past research or practice

4. The importance / significance of the problem

 Steps in the formulation of a Research Problem

• Step 1 – Identify a broad field or subjects are of interest

to you
• Step 2- Dissect the broad are into a sub areas
• Step 3 –Select what is of most interest to you
• Step 4- Raise research question
• Step 5 –Formulate Objectives
• Step 6 – Assess your objectives
• Step 7- Double –check
 The formulation of Objectives
• Objectives are the goals Researcher set out to attain in the study

• Objectives should be listed under two headings

1.Min objectives – An overall statement of the thrust of the study

2. Sub objectives – Specific aspects of the topic should be listed
numerically

• Characteristics of Objectives:-

1. Clear
2. Complete
3. Specific
4. Identify the min variables to be correlated
5. Identify the directions of the relationship
 Identifying Variables
The Definition of a Variable
• An image , perception or concept that is capable of
measurement , hence capable of taking on different
values is called a variable
Or
• A concept that can be measured
e.g. : 1. This program is effective
2. We are providing a Quality service to
our clients
3. This product is doing well
 The difference between a concept & a variable

• Concepts are mental images Concepts Variables

or perceptions and therefore Effectiveness Gender
their meanings vary Satisfaction (Male/female)
Rich Attitude
markedly from individual to
Excellent Weight
individual Height

Where as ,
-Subjective Measurable
impression through the degree
• Variables are measurable , No uniformity as to of precision varies
its understanding from scale to scale
of course with varying among different from variable to
degrees of accuracy people variable
As such cannot be
measured
 Concepts , indicators and Variables
• If a concept is used in a study , the researcher need to
consider its Operationalization, that is , how it will be
measured

• To operationlise a concept , first need to go through the

process of identifying indicators, a set of criteria
reflective of the concept which can then be converted
into variables.
 Types of Variable
• Independent variable – The cause supposed to be responsible
for bringing about changes in a phenomenon or situation
• Dependent variable – The outcome of the changes brought
about by introduction of an independent variable
• Extraneous variable- several other factors operating in a real life
situation may affect changes in the dependent variable. These
factors , not measured in the study, may increase or decrease
the magnitude or strength o the relationship between
independent and dependent variables
• Intervening variable – This links the independent and
dependent variable.
Research Process
Research Process
Steps in Conducting Research
Selecting and Defining Problem
 Formulating Research Problem

• Begin with two important Questions:

• What Problem can be Solved?

• How Can the Problem be Solved?

Research Problem
Statement of Research Problem
Statement of Research Problem
Hypothesis
 Mantra For Good Research

PLAN YOUR WORK FROM NOW

FOLLOW YOUR PLAN

BE CLEAR OF THE RESEARCH PATH

UNDERSTAND YOUR PROBLEM STATEMENT AND
WHAT YOU WANT TO SOLVE

EXTENSIVE REFERENCES/LITERATURES

GOOD IN WRITING

WRITE LOTS OF PAPERS

HARDWORKING

PUNCTUAL
Thank You
 UNIT 2
Writing and Presenting
Literature Review

Dr. Kiran Patil

Literature Review: Introduction

2
 The Literature Review

The review of the literature is defined as a broad, comprehensive,
in-depth, systematic, and critical review of scholarly publications,
unpublished scholarly print materials, audiovisual materials, and personal
communications

The review of the literature is traditionally considered a systematic and

critical review of the most important published scholarly literature on a
particular topic.

Scholarly literature refer to published and unpublished data based literature

and conceptual literature materials found in print and non print forms

Data based literature reports of completed research

Conceptual research reports of theories, concepts

3
 Literature Review: A Process
The literature review: A synthesis of studies on any given topic.
Usually precedes a full-length original study as a way of
introducing the general topic.

Its purpose: To help the reader understand the background to

your study and see how it’s the next logical study to be conducted
in this domain.

Necessarily, a good literature review requires a thoroughly

researched topic.

Be prepared for a writing process. Do not attempt to write a

literature review over night. This process takes weeks and
months. Yes, months.
4
 Literature Review: Preparations

There are a number of preliminary steps to consider:

 Determine whether the literature review will be

quantitative (must be theory-driven) or qualitative.

Either choice will determine your emphasis on

statistics

 Topic selection and narrowing

 Research, research, research ….

5
Relationship of Review of Literature:
Theory, Research, Education & Practice

Research

Review of
Literature

Education Practice

Theory

6
 General Guidelines to
Write a Literature Review

• Introduce the literature review by pointing out the

major research topic that will be discussed

• Identify the broad problem area but don’t be too global

(for example, discussing the history of education
when the topic is on specific instructional strategy)

• Discuss the general importance of your topic for those

in your field

• Don’t attempt to cover everything written on your

topic
7
 General Guidelines to
Write a Literature Review (Contd..)

• You will need to pick out the research most relevant to the
topic you are studying

• You will use the studies in your literature review as

“evidence” that your research question is an important one

• It is important to cover research relevant to all the variables

being studied.

• Research that explains the relationship between these

variables is a top priority.

• You will need to plan how you will structure your literature
review and write from this plan.
8
 Purposes of Literature Review

The overall purpose of literature review is to discover

knowledge

Research purposes of Literature Review:

1. Determines an appropriate research design/method

(instruments, data collection and analysis methods)
for answering the research question

2. Determines the need for replication of a well designed

study or refinement of a study

9
 Purposes of Literature Review ( Contd.)
Non Research purposes of Literature Review:

1. Determines what is known about a subject, concept or problem

2. Determines gaps, consistencies & inconsistencies about a subject,
concept or problem
3. Discovers unanswered questions about a subject, concept or problem
4. Describes strengths & weaknesses of designs, methods of inquiry and
instruments used in earlier works
5. Discovers conceptual traditions used to examine problems
6. Generates useful research questions or projects/activities for the discipline
7. Promotes development of protocols & policies related to Engg.practice
8. Uncovers a new practice intervention, or gains support for changing a
practice intervention
10
 Literature Review Synonymous

Conceptual literature Data based literature

• Theoretical literature • Empirical literature
• Scholarly non research • Scientific literature
literature • Research literature
• Scholarly work • Scholarly research literature
• Soft versus hard science • Research study
literature • Study
• Review of the literature article
• Concept analysis article

11
 Steps of Searching the Literature
Determine concept/issue/topic/problem

Conduct computer (and/or hand) search

Weed out irrelevant sources before printing

Organize sources from printout for retrieval

Retrieve relevant sources

Conduct preliminary reading and weed out irrelevant sources

Critically read each source (summarize & critique each source)

Synthesize critical summaries 12

Critiquing Criteria for a Review of the Literature

• Does the literature review uncover gaps or inconsistencies in

knowledge?
• How does the review reflect critical thinking?
• Are all the relevant concepts and variables included in the
review?
• Dose the summary of each reviewed study reflect the essential
components of the study design?
• Dose the critique of each reviewed study include strengths,
weaknesses, or limitations of the design; conflicts; and gaps or
inconsistencies in information in relation to the area of interest?
• Were both conceptual and data based literature included?
• Were primary sources mainly included? 13
Critiquing Criteria for a Review of the Literature (Contd..)

• Is there a written summary synthesis of the reviewed scholarly

literature?

• Does the synthesis summary follow a logical sequence that

leads the reader to why there is the need for the particular
research or non research project?
• Did the organization of the reviewed studies
i.e. chronologically, or according to concepts/variables, or
type/design of study) follow logically, enhancing the ability of
the reader to evaluate the need for the particular research or
non research project?

• Does the literature review follow the purpose(s) of the study or

non research project?
14
Elements of an Effective
Literature Review

15
Literature Reviews
Why?

What?

When?

How?

&

How Not?
16
“Researchers almost never conduct a study in an
intellectual vacuum: their studies are undertaken
within the context of an already existing knowledge
base. Researchers generally undertake a literature
review to familiarise themselves with that
knowledge base”.

(Polit and Hungler, 2000)

17
 Why Conduct a Literature Review?
• Avoid “reinventing the wheel”
– Learn from others in/outside your area
– Know the ‘leading edge’
• Help define your objectives & hypotheses
– Source for research idea, research approach
– Justify significance (science, engineering...)

• Is your work asking/answering the best questions?

• Put your work in context within the field

– Link in discussion section of thesis
• Agreement/disagreement…..lead to conclusions
18
 What’s In a Literature Review?

• Critical review of the “State of the Art” relevant

to your objectives

• Synthesis of relevant literature

– Organized in appropriate topics

– Not a sequence of abstracts!

19
 Literature Review Steps
• First step, on day 1 of thesis (Paper)
• Define your objectives (broadly) to know what you are
looking for
• Collect literature of relevance

– Cast a ‘wide net’…go outside the obvious

– Look to supervisor, theses, computer search,
library, main journals in your field
– Find good keywords from articles

• Read title, abstract, paper, Reread

20
 Literature Review Steps (Contd..)

• Take notes on articles, make a table

– Table has columns with paper, main topics of

interest to you (e.g. methods, conditions,
organism etc.), main findings, comments…

• Update and review regularly!!

– Review main journals monthly

– Broaden as thesis direction evolves

21
 Writing the Review
• Start with notes/table
• Brainstorm main thoughts/points
• Organize points (not papers)
– Logical groupings and order

• Points help form the ‘Topic Sentences’ for each

paragraph in the review
• Write, Review, Edit, Review….
– Show to others
– Review with supervisor
22
 Topic Sentences

• State the controlling idea of a paragraph

– Rest of paragraph supports and develops topic

sentence with related details

• Can come anywhere but is normally the first sentence

• Attention to topic sentences is a simple tool that can

improve writing

• Remember one topic per paragraph!!

23
 Plagiarism

• “To appropriate of pass off (the ideas or words of

another) as one’s own”1
• Growing problem with internet
• An academic offence
• Citing the reference at the end of a copied (or mostly
copied) phrase/paragraph is still plagiarism
• Use your own words

1The New Penguin English Dictionary, Penguin, 1986

24
 References

• Cite the original reference, not the reference that

cited the original reference

• Go to the source article so you know what it said

• Be current and go back in time!!!

– The 90’s..80’s…70’s…….20’s…

25
 Concluding Remarks
• Get started on the review and never stop
• Cast a wide net
• Revise objectives….let them evolve so you will make a
significant contribution
• Be critical and synthesize
• Remember topic sentences
• Spending time on review is essential
– Basis for high quality questions (objectives/hypotheses)
and answers
– Saves lab time in the long run
26
Creswell’s 5 steps to Conduct
a Literature Review

27
 Creswell’s 5 steps to Conduct a
Literature Review

• Step 1: Identify Key Terms or “Descriptors”

 Extract key words from your title (remember,
you may decide to change the title later)

 Use some of the words other authors reported

in the literature

Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research
28
 Step 2: Locate Literature

• Use academic libraries, do not limit your search to an

electronic search of articles

• Use primary and secondary sources.

• A “primary source” is research reported by the
researcher that conducted the study.
• A “secondary source” is research that summarizes
or reports findings that come from primary sources

Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research

29
 Step 2: Locate Literature (Contd..)

• It is “best to report mostly primary sources” (p. 82)

• Search different types of literature: summaries,

encyclopedias, dictionaries and glossaries of terms,
handbooks, statistical indexes, reviews and
syntheses, books, journals, indexed publications,
electronic sources, abstract series, and databases

Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research

30
Step 3: Critically Evaluate and Select Literature

• Rely on journal articles published in national

journals

• Prioritize your search: first look for refereed

journal articles, then, non-refereed articles, then
books, then conference papers, dissertations and
theses and then papers posted to websites

31
 Step 4: Organize the Literature

• Create a “file” or “abstract” system to keep track

of what you read. Each article you read should be
summarized in one page containing

 Title (type the title so that you can later copy-

paste this into the References section of your
paper)

 Source: journal article, book, glossary, etc.

32
Step 4: Organize the Literature (Contd..)

• Research problem: one or two lines will suffice

• Research Questions or Hypotheses

• Data collection procedure (a description of sample

characteristics can be very handy as well)

• Results or findings of the study

• Sort these abstracts into groups of related topics or

areas which can then become the different sections
of your review
33
 Step 5: Write a Literature Review
• Types of Reviews:
(a) Thematic Review: a theme is identified and studies found
under this theme are described.
- Major ideas and findings are reported rather than details.

(b) Study-by-study Review: a detailed summary of each study

under a broad theme is provided.

- Link summaries (or abstracts) using transitional sentences.

Must be organized and flow coherently under various
subheadings.
- Avoid string quotations (i.e., lengthy chunks of text directly
quoted from a source)
34
Sources of Literature

35
 Sources of Literature

• Own Books or Journals

• Library Books
• Library Journals
e.g.
- Jour. Chemical Engineering, Chemical Engineering Science, Applied
Engineering Research, SPE Conference papers, Journal of Hydrocarbons,
Jour. of Oil and Gas Facilities, Jour. of Petroleum Technology (JPT), Peer
Reviewed journals from SPE: SPE Economics & Management, SPE
Production & Operations, SPE Drilling & Completion, SPE Reservoir
Evaluation & Engineering etc.
• Abstracts from other disciplines
• Search sources
e.g. onepetro,SPE Bookstore, Petrowiki, www.spe.org, www.sciendirect.com

36
 On-line Literature Search Key Sites

• www.windsor.igs.net/~nhodgins/literature_search
es.html (Online Literature Search Workshop)

• Web of science

• Google scholar

37
 Structure of review articles
• Literature reviews are in reality a type of research
• Should conform to the anatomy of a typical scholarly
article
– Abstract
– Introduction
– Methods
– Results
– Discussion
– Conclusion
– References
38
 Structure of Literature Review
• Introduction

• Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such as

the central theme or organizational pattern.

• Body
• Contains your discussion of sources.

• Conclusions/Recommendations

• Discuss what you have drawn from reviewing literature so far.

Where might the discussion proceed?

39
 Organization of Literature Review

• A general organization looks like a funnel

– Broader topics

– Subtopics

– Studies like yours

40
 How to Organize Studies
• Chronological
– By publication date
– By trend
• Thematic
– A structure which considers different themes

• Methodological
– Focuses on the methods of the researcher, e.g.,
qualitative versus quantitative approaches

41
 Making Links between Studies
Agreements

• Similarly, author B points to…

• Likewise, author C makes the case that…
• Author D also makes this point…
• Again, it is possible to see how author E agrees with author D…

Disagreements

• However, author B points to…

• On the other hand, author C makes the case that…
• Conversely, Author D argues…
• Nevertheless, what author E suggests…
42
 Summary Table
• It is useful to prepare.

• Such a table provides a quick overview that allows the

reviewer to make sense of a large mass of information.

• The tables could include columns with headings such as

– Author
– type of study
– Sample
– Design
– data collection approach
– key findings

43
 Citation Sample Environment Method Conclusions

Summary table of literature

Atmospherics in service environments
Colour
Bellizzi, Crowley and 125 Adults Furniture Laboratory Warm and cool colours created different emotional
Hasty (1983) store experiment responses. Customers view red retail environments
Photographic as more negative and unpleasant than blue.
slide
simulations
Bellizzi, & Hite 70 Adult Televisions Laboratory Study based on PAD affect measures and
(1992) women shown with experiments approach-avoidance behaviours.
107 Students different Photographic More positive retail outcomes occurred in blue
colour slide environments than red.
backgrounds simulations
Furniture
stores

Music
Smith and Curnow 1100 Retail store Field Time in store reduced with loud music but level of
(1966) Supermarket experiment sales did not.
shoppers
Milliman (1982) 216 Shoppers Supermarket Field The tempo of background music influenced the pace
experiment at which customers shopped. Slow tempo music
slowed customers down but resulted in increased
volume of sales.
Hui, Dubé and 116 Students Bank branch Laboratory The positive impact of music on approach
Chebat (1997) - waiting for experiment behaviours is mediated by an emotional evaluation
service. Video of the environment and the emotional response to
simulation waiting. Pleasurable music produced longer
perceived waiting times.

Lighting
Areni and Kim 171 Shoppers Wine store Field The investigation found that brighter in-store lighting
(1994) experiment influenced shoppers to examine and handle more of
the merchandise in the store
Summers and 2367 Hardware Field Confirmed Areni and Kims (1994) results. Increased
Hebert (2001) Customers store experiment 44
levels of lighting will produce arousal and pleasure
Apparel store and increase the approach behaviours of customers.
 Citation Styles
• Information prominent citation
Example:
– For Viscoelastic fluids, the behavior of the time-dependent
stresses in the transient shear flows is also very important (Boger
et al., 1974).

• Author prominent citation

Examples:
– Close (1983) developed a simplified theory using an analogy
between heat and mass transfer and the equivalent heat transfer
only case.
– Several authors have suggested that automated testing should
be more readily accepted (Balcer, 1989; Stahl, 1989; Carver &
Tai, 1991).

45
 Active or Passive Voice

• We should use, where appropriate, both

active and passive voice

• As a general rule, use active voice unless

there is good reason not to

46
 Reporting Verbs
• Argue • Note
• Assert • Object
• Assume • Observe
• Challenge • Persuade
• Claim • Propose
• Contend • Prove
• Contradict • Purport
• Describe • Recommend
• Dispute • Refute
• Emphasize • Reject
• Establish • Remark
• Examine • Suggest
• Find • Support
• Maintain
47
 Verb Tenses – Present
• A statement about what the thesis, chapter or section does

Examples:

– This thesis presents a report of an investigation into …….

– This chapter thus provides a basis for the next
– In this section, the results from the first set of experiments are
reported.

• A statement of a generally accepted scientific fact

Examples:
– There are three factors that control the concentration of
aluminum in seawater.
– The finite rate coefficients have an effect on heat transfer through
a horizontal porous layer.
48
 Verb Tenses – Present
• A review of current research work, or research work of immediate
relevance to your study.
Example:

– Schulze (2002) concludes that hydraulic rate has a significant effect on

future performance.

• Comments, explanations and evaluative statements made by you when

you are reviewing previous studies.

Examples:

– Therefore, this sequential approach is impractical in the real world where

projects are typically large and the activities from one stage may be carried
out in parallel with the activities of another stage.

– The reason for this anomalous result is that the tests were done at low
hydraulic rates at which the plastic packing was not completely wetted.
49
 Verb Tenses – Past
• Report the contents, findings or conclusions of past
research

Examples:

– Haberfield (1998) showed that the velocity of many

enzyme reactions was slowed down if the end
product had an increased paramagnetism.

– Allington (1999) found that the temperatures

varied significantly over time.

50
 Verb Tenses – Present Perfect
• In citations where the focus is on the research area of several
authors
Examples:
– Several studies have provided support for the suggestion that the
amount of phonological recoding that is carried out depends on
orthographic depth (Frost, 1994; Smart et al, 1997; Katz & Feldman,
2001, 2002).
– Joint roughness has been characterized by a number of authors
(Renger, 1990; Feker & Rengers, 1997; Wu & Ali, 2000).

• To generalize about the extent of the previous research

Examples:
– Many studies have been conducted in this field.
– Few researchers have examined this technique.
– There has been extensive research into.........
51
 The Writing Process

• Rough Draft
• Final Draft
• Edit
• Edit Again
• ………..

52
 Show others
Have someone else look at your literature review for

• Clarity

– Can they understand what you’re trying say?

• Flow

– Does the organization make sense?

• Completeness

– Are there areas left out?

– Questions left unanswered?
– Statements without citations?

53
 A Good Literature Review is:
• Focused - The topic should be narrow. You should only present ideas
and only report on studies that are closely related to topic.
• Concise - Ideas should be presented economically. Don’t take any
more space than you need to present your ideas.
• Logical - The flow within and among paragraphs should be a smooth,
logical progression from one idea to the next
• Developed - Don’t leave the story half told.
• Integrative - Your paper should stress how the ideas in the studies
are related. Focus on the big picture. What commonality do all the
studies share? How are some studies different than others? Your
paper should stress how all the studies reviewed contribute to your
topic.
• Current - Your review should focus on work being done on the cutting
edge of your topic.
54
 Pitfalls

• Vagueness due to too much or inappropriate

generalizations
• Limited range
• Insufficient information
• Irrelevant material
• Omission of contrasting view
• Omission of recent work

55
Common Errors in Reviewing Literature
• Hurrying through review to get started could mean that
you will miss something that will improve your
research.

• Relying too heavily upon secondary sources.

• Concentrating on findings rather than methods.

• Overlooking sources other than academic journals.

Don’t forget newspaper articles, magazines, blogs, etc.

• Searching too broad or too narrow of a topic.

• Inaccuracy in the compiling of bibliographic

information. 56
 What is an Effective Presentation?
and
How to Give an Effective Presentation?

57
Why Do You Give a Presentation?

• Present your work

• Communicate your ideas

• Inform your audience

58
What is an Effective Presentation

• Effectively present your work

-audience understands the work

• Effectively communicate your ideas

-audience understands your interpretations

• Effectively inform your audience

-audience remembers

59
Steps to an Effective Presentation

• Analyzing the basics

• Preparing the presentation

• Giving the presentation

60
 Analyzing The Basics

• Audience background
• Purpose of your presentation
• Time

61
 Analyzing The Basics ( Contd..)

• Audience background
- Terminology and Concepts
- Introduction
- Content and focus of presentation

Purpose of your presentation

Time

62
 Analyzing The Basics ( Contd..)

• Audience background

• Purpose of your presentation

- What do you want to tell your audience

- Why are you giving this presentation

• Time

63
 Analyzing The Basics (Contd..)

• Audience background
• Purpose of your presentation
• Time
Range of presentation
Depth of presentation
Do not go over!

64
Preparing Your Presentation
1. Outline presentation
- Introduction
- Methods
- Results
- Conclusions
- Future Work
2. Prepare visual aides
3. Write talk
4. Practice presentation
65
 Outline Presentation
Introduction
Present background information that:
 - Briefs the audience
 - Peaks their curiosity
 - Explains concepts and terminology

Method
Results
Conclusions
Future Work
66
 Outline Presentation (Cond..)
 Introduction
Methods
 How you did the experiments
 Outline of procedure
 Diagrams of special equipment

Results
Conclusions
Future work
67
 Outline Presentation (Contd..)

 Introduction
 Methods
Results
 Analyzed Data
 What does it mean
Conclusions
Future work

68
 Outline Presentation (Contd..)

 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
Conclusions
- Bottom line for each experiment
Future work

69
 Outline Presentation
 Introduction
 Method
 Results
 Conclusions
Future Work
- How you will continue your research?

70
Preparing Your Presentation

Outline presentation
Prepare visual aides
Write talk
Practice presentation

71
 Prepare Visual Aides
(Guidelines for Making Slides)

Color scheme
Visible when projected ?
Fonts
2 is the limit
Style – Arial, Times New Roman
size – 36, 32

Be consistent..!
72
 Prepare Visual Aides
(Guidelines for Making Slides) (Contd.)

1. Title on every slide

- Topic of slide
2. Brief statements
3. No more than 7 lines of text
4. Use bullets
5. Presentation of data
6. Numbers vs graphs
73
Preparing Your Presentation

 Outline presentation
 Prepare visual aides
 Write talk
 Practice presentation

74
 Write Talk

As you write your talk:

- Adjust outline and slides as necessary
- Will the audience understand the presentation?

- Am I saying what I think I am?

75
 Practice Presentation
• Practice, Practice, Practice, Practice out loud
• Don’t need to memorize your talk
• Modify text and slides as necessary
• Point to slide
• - Turn laser on and off
• - Do not wave the laser around
• - Look at audience

76
 Giving the Presentation

• Breath deeply
• Be energetic
• Talk to your audience

77
Assignments: Literature Review

78
 Research Questions
• From Topic to Research Questions:
A good research topic asks a clear, concise question.
Asking a research question helps you keep a tight focus on your topic

• Tweaking Your Research Question

A good research topic is broad enough to allow you to find plenty of material,
but narrow enough to fit within the size and time constraints of your paper.

– If your topic is either too broad or too narrow, consider adding or

eliminating the following elements:

Time Period, century, decade, future, Population Type, age, gender,

nationality, species, Geographic Location country, state, region,
Point of View economic, social, cultural, biological
79
 Assignment: Components

• Title Page
• Nature of the Problem
• Background and Significance of the Problem
• Literature Review
• Research Questions
• References (list three papers)

80
THANK YOU

81