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Measurement of landslide displacements using a wire extensometer

Article  in  Engineering Geology · February 2000

DOI: 10.1016/S0013-7952(99)00086-1

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 Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166
www.elsevier.nl/locate/enggeo

Measurement of landslide displacements using

a wire extensometer
J. Corominas a, *, J. Moya a, A. Lloret a, J.A. Gili a, M.G. Angeli b, A. Pasuto c,
S. Silvano c
a Dpto. Ingenierı́a del Terreno, E.T.S. Ingenieros de Caminos, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya,
Jordi Girona 1–3. Edificio D-2, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
b IRPI-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Madonna Alta 126, 06128 Perugia, Italy
c IRPI-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Corso Stati Uniti 4. 35100 Padua, Italy

Received 21 April 1998; accepted for publication 15 April 1999

Abstract

A continuous recording of landslide displacements is often required in order to better understand the complex
relationship between the triggering factors and the dynamics of the movement. In this paper, we discuss the
performance of the borehole wire extensometer and the interpretation of its results. The analysis for the case of a
translational slide shows that the displacements measured with the wire extensometer are systematically smaller than
the movements observed at the ground surface. A relationship between the wire readings and the horizontal component
of the landslide movement has been established by means of three equations representing different stages of the wire
displacement within the borehole. The applicability of these equations and the interpretation of the wire extensometer
readings have been successfully checked at two landslide sites: Vallcebre in the eastern Pyrenees and Alverà in the
Dolomites. © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Landslides; Monitoring; Pyrenees and Dolomites; Wire extensometer

1. Introduction and for understanding the dynamics of the process

Reactivation or acceleration of landslides due
to rainfall events may occur in a very short period
of time. In these cases, observations made shortly
after the event may miss significant information
relative to the triggering conditions of the move-
ments. Continuous recording of parameters such
as rainfall, pore water pressures or landslide dis-
placements have become indispensable sources of
data for the analysis of the stability of the slope
* Corresponding author. Fax:+34-93-401-7251.
E-mail address: corominas@etseccpb.upc.es (J. Corominas)
of landsliding.
The measurement of displacements of relatively
fast-moving landslides, often has many constraints.
Surveying of superficial ground movements using
theodolites and Electronic Distance Measurement
( EDM ) instruments requires a system of local
benchmarks that has to remain stable during the
course of the investigation and to guarantee the
visibility of the monuments. This surveying often
implies tedious and expensive campaigns of moni-
toring. Downhole monitoring devices like the
probe inclinometer do not allow continuous
recording of the displacements. Furthermore, due
to the failure of the borehole casing, probe incli-

0013-7952/00/$ - see front matter © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0 0 1 3 -7 9 5 2 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 08 6 - 1
150 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166
nometers cannot work after displacements of only
a few centimetres. However, the interpretation of
the intermittent measurements of the landslide
movement is rather difficult. For instance, the rate
of displacement between consecutive measures is
normally assumed as constant. This assumption,
however, may lead to a fairly inaccurate interpreta-
tion of the actual landslide behaviour because
many movements observe periods with a sudden
acceleration, followed by lapses of quietness.
Under such circumstances, the relations between
displacements and ground water table fluctuations
or rainfall records cannot be properly established.
To overcome these shortcomings, in the last few
years, new equipment allowing continuous meas-
urements has been developed and improved. An
example of such equipment is the wire extensome-
ter that may be installed on either the landslide
surface (Bonnard and Steinmann, 1990) or into a
borehole (Angeli et al. 1988, 1989). The aim of
the paper is to present the performance of a wire
extensometer equipment placed within a borehole
for monitoring landslide displacements. The char-
acteristics of the equipment, the interpretation of
the readings and the accuracy of the measurements
are discussed as well.
In the paper, we have followed the terminology
for describing landslide types proposed by Dikau
et al. (1996).
2. Description of the borehole wire extensometer
The wire extensometer is a simple and low-cost
device that allows the measurement of the relative
displacement between two points, one in the land-
slide mass that is in motion and the other in stable
ground. The device that will be described here
requires a borehole drilled through the landslide
mass, up to the stable ground. It can be installed
together with either an inclinometer or a piezome-
ter casing. It consists of a protected steel wire
anchored to a fixed point inside the borehole below
the slip surface of the landslide. The opposite end
of the wire is attached to a frame outside the
borehole. The frame is anchored to the landslide
surface and holds a pulley. The wire is placed
around the pulley and is kept in tension by means
of a counterweight (Fig. 1). In order to protect
the wire against corrosion, it is inserted into a
plastic sheath and sealed with silicone. The move-
ment of the landslide displaces the wire either
inside or outside the borehole with the consequent
rotation of the pulley. The amount of wire dis-
placement is measured by means of a potentiome-
ter mounted on the axle of the pulley, which
provides an electrical signal proportional to the
angle of rotation. Readings of the potentiometer
may be carried out at defined time steps and the
signal transmitted to a data logger. Long-life bat-
teries allow data storage for 2 or 3 months, and
the device may last working for several metres of
displacement, provided that enough wire has been
left outside the borehole.
3. Interpretation of measurements
Wire extensometer readings cannot be properly
interpreted unless the general pattern of the move-
ment is known. There is no direct relationship
between displacements of the landslide and the
displacements of the wire. This is because the total
displacement of the wire depends on several factors
such as the diameter of the borehole, type of
landslide mechanism, and the thickness, depth,
and dip angle of the surface of failure.
Displacements measured with the wire extensome-
ter are global, and the device can neither detect
the vertical and the horizontal components of the
movement separately nor identify the presence of
several slip surfaces.
A theoretical analysis of the displacements of a
wire for the case of a translational slide is presented
in Appendix A. The analysis has been developed
according to the following assumptions: (1) a
simple sliding mechanism occurs, consisting of the
development of a single shear zone without or
with negligible internal deformation above it; (2)
a borehole, equipped with an extensometric wire,
has been drilled vertically through the landslide
body and crosses the surface of failure; (3) the
shear zone has a constant thickness and shows a
linear increase in the rate of displacement towards
the top. The rate of displacement is null at the
 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166
Fig. 1. Sketch of the borehole wire extensometer device.
lower boundary of the shear zone and maximum
at the upper boundary.
Displacements of the wire may be either inside
or outside the borehole. The sense of displacement
depends on the geometry of the surface of failure
in relation to the wire. From now on, displace-
ments will be considered as positive when the wire
is introduced into the borehole, and as negative
when it is pulled out.
We have given specific values to the equations
of Appendix A for a landslide moving over a shear
zone dipping downwards in the direction of move-
ment progression. In relation to the sense of dis-
placement of the wire, two main phases are
predicted (Fig. 2):
1. In the first phase, negative increments of wire
displacement occur. This is due to the down-
ward component of the movement of the top
borehole-end and pulley support, while the
151
lower end of the wire remains stable. The wire
length inside the hole is thus shortened, and the
counterweight pulls the wire out of the bore-
hole, causing the pulley rotate in a counter-
clockwise movement. As the landslide moves,
the wire is deflected from its original position,
and negative displacements will take place until
the angle between the wire and the vertical
equals the angle of inclination of the shear
surface, in other words, until the wire is located
perpendicular to the slip surface.
2. In the second phase, wire deflection continues,
but now the wire is pulled into the borehole.
Positive increments will continue if the landslide
geometry remains unchanged.
During the first phase and at the beginning of
the second phase, the displacements of the wire
are smaller than those measured at the ground
surface and show a non-linear relationship. For
152 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166
Fig. 2. Relationship between the theoretical displacements of
the wire extensometer and the displacements of the ground sur-
face for a translational slide. The displacements of the wire have
been calculated using Eqs. (1)–(3) of Appendix A according to
the following parameters: H =10 m, H =500 mm b=10° and
m s
w=60 mm.
landslide displacements much larger than the thick-
ness of the shear zone, the rates of displacement
of both ground surface and wire tend to coincide,
although the overall (cumulative) displacement of
the latter will always be smaller ( Fig. 3). The
thicker the shear zone the greater are the differ-
ences between both measurements. Translational
landslides with a single shear plane dipping down-
Fig. 3. Relationship between the theoretical displacements of
the wire extensometer and the displacements of the ground sur-
face for a translational slide with a vertical component of the
thickness of the shear zone (H ) ranging between 0 and 500 mm.
s
The rest of parameters are the same as those used in Fig. 2.
Fig. 4. Relationship between the theoretical displacements of
the wire extensometer and the displacements of the ground sur-
face for a translational slide moving over a shear zone dipping
an angle ranging from −20° (upward ) to 20° (downward) in
the sense of movement. The rest of the parameters are the same
as those used in Fig. 2.
hill are a particular instance of the case described
(H =0).
s
Negative displacements of the wire may only
occur when the movement develops over a down-
hill dipping shear zone. For a translational slide
moving over either a horizontal or upwards dip-
ping shear zone, only positive displacements are
predicted in the wire since the movements have
started (Fig. 4).
4. Monitoring with the wire extensometer at
Vallcebre and Alverà sites
The results of the performance of the wire
extensometer in the Vallcebre translational slide,
Eastern Pyrenees (Spain) and the Alverá mudslide,
Dolomites (Italy) will be presented below.
4.1. Geologic and geomorphologic context of the
Vallcebre landslide
The landslide site is located 140 km north of
Barcelona. The Vallcebre basin belongs to the
imbricated thrust system of the southern Pyrenees
 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166 153

(Muñoz et al., 1986) and, specifically, to the Lower
Pedraforca thrust sheet that displays an east–west
trend. It consists mostly of sedimentary rocks of
Garumnian facies ( Upper Cretaceous–Lower
Palaeocene).
The Vallcebre landslide is of a translational
type. Fig. 5 shows a geomorphologic sketch of the
landslide and the location of the monitored points
and boreholes. It has a stair-shaped profile formed
by four main morphological units of decreasing
thickness towards the landslide toe. Each unit is
formed by a gentle slope surface bounded by a
secondary scarp of the landslide of a few tens of
metres high. At the toe of each scarp, there exists
an extension area that originates a graben in which
both the ground surface and trees standing on it
are tilted upslope. The toe of the landslide is being
eroded by the Torrent of Vallcebre, originating a
minor scarp. There, the landslide foot reaches the
torrent bed and overrides the opposite slope with
the ground surface tilted backwards. The average
slope of the whole landslide is about 10. The slide
mass is 1200 m long and 600 m wide.
The direction of both the transverse scarps and
grabens is suggestive of a movement towards the
northwest. A secondary direction of movement,
towards the Torrent Llarg, is also observed in the
upper slide units. The most active area is the lower
unit bounded, in the southwestern side, by the
torrents of Vallcebre and Llarg and, on its north-

Fig. 5. Geomorphologic sketch of the Vallcebre landslide.

 154
J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166

Fig. 6. Geological cross-sections of Vallcebre landslide interpreted from surface mapping and borehole logs.
 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166
eastern side, by a well-developed lateral shear
surface.
The geological structure of the slope in which
the Vallcebre landslide is located has been obtained
either by mapping superficial exposures, from data
provided by geophysical surveys, or by interpreting
borehole logs (Fig. 6). The mobilized material
consists of a set of shale, gypsum, and claystone
layers gliding over a thick limestone bed. From
the bottom to the top, it includes: (1) densely
fissured shales, 1–6 m thick, showing slickensides
formed during the emplacement of the thrust fault-
ing; (2) gypsum lenses up to 5 m thick and some
tens of metres long. These gypsum lenses are
frequently 5–15 m above the sliding surface; and
(3) clayey siltstones rich in veins and micronodules
of gypsum. In addition to these layers, in the
extension zones located at the toe of the scarps,
colluvium, composed of gravel with a silty matrix,
may be found.
4.2. Monitoring network of the Vallcebre landslide
Vallcebre landslide has been monitored since
1987 using conventional surveying and photogram-
metry (Gili and Corominas, 1988). In July 1996,
a plan of drilling boreholes and installing a moni-
toring network was set out. The landslide was
equipped with 14 boreholes drilled into two sets
of seven boreholes. The first set was completed in
July 1996 and was arranged in an east–west direc-
tion close to the northern edge of the landslide.
The second set was drilled in March–April 1997
and arranged parallel to the southern edge.
Borehole logs have confirmed the existence of the
‘grabens’ between the landslide units. For instance,
borehole S-7, located at the upper edge of the
intermediate unit (Fig. 6), showed colluvium, 34 m
in thickness, lying directly above the slip surface .
The average inclination of the surface of failure of
landslide deduced from the results of inclinometer
readings is 10° towards the Vallcebre torrent and
roughly parallel to the ground surface.
Half of the boreholes were equipped with both
wire extensometers and open standpipe piezome-
ters. It was assumed that the Vallcebre limestone,
underneath the surface of failure, was stable
ground. Therefore, the boreholes were drilled at
155
least 1.5–2 m within the limestone in order to
ensure a proper anchorage of the wire. The wire
was introduced into the borehole up to the bottom
and then fixed to the ground with cement grouting.
To make sure that the wire reached the borehole
end, a weight was attached to the wire. This kept
the wire tensioned until it reached the borehole
bottom at the expected depth. The pulley system
of the wire extensometers was built at the work-
shop of the Technical University of Catalonia
( UPC ) as a prototype based on designs made by
Angeli et al. (1988, 1989). The pulley incorporated
a dial with marks every millimetre that would be
used to check the potentiometric readings. A com-
plete turn of the dial was equivalent to 400 mm
displacement of the wire. The potentiometer exhib-
ited a 1 kV electrical change for each 41 mm
change in wire displacement. The accuracy
achieved with the automatic reading (potentiome-
ter and data logger) was about 0.1 mm. The accu-
racy of the direct readings in the dial was about
0.5 mm. The upper end of the wire was placed
around the pulley and tensioned by attaching a
sliding counterweight that was left hanging in a
vertical hole 50 cm deep drilled on the other side
of the pulley system. When the counterweight was
close to the end of its travel — the pulley edge —
it could be relocated by sliding on the wire. In
order to measure large landslide displacements,
5 m of wire were left outside the borehole along
with the sliding counterweight. The potentiometric
signal was recorded with a data logger system with
adjustable time steps. Potentiometer readings were
taken automatically every 20 min and stored until
they were downloaded each 3–4 weeks.
Parallel to the installation of these instruments,
we carried out periodic monitoring of the Vallcebre
landslide. Measurements were made with an incli-
nometer every 2–3 weeks until they went out of
order and with a differential Global Positioning
System (GPS ), at least once in 2 months (Gili
et al., 1999, this volume). The latter included the
measurement of displacements at the upper end of
the boreholes that had been used to analyse the
relationship between the superficial displacements
and the movement of the wire. Finally, rainfall
and groundwater table changes were permanently
recorded as well.
156 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166
4.3. Performance of the wire extensometer in
Vallcebre
The extensometric wire device has proved to be
very useful in recording sudden changes in rates
of displacements that can be directly related to the
variations of the groundwater table and indirectly,
to the rainfall records. For instance, sudden
changes in the rate of displacement due to short
rainy periods were recorded in their entirety.
Displacements measured with the wire exten-
someters at boreholes S-2, S-5 and S-6 are shown
in Fig. 7. The first two boreholes are located in
the lower landslide unit, whereas the latter stands
on the intermediate unit. During the observational
period (from November 1996 to December 1997),
the landslide never stopped. However, rates of
displacement were different at each morphological
unit and experienced significant changes in relation
to the rainfall. The lower unit was the most active
with an accumulated displacement of the wire of
over 500 mm in borehole S-2. The highest landslide
activity period took place in the second half of
January and during February 1997, during which
rates of up to 9 mm/day and 50 mm/week were
recorded in this borehole. The intermediate unit
was much less active. At the borehole S-6, the
Fig. 7. Wire extensometer measurements at boreholes S-2, S-5
and S-6 of the Vallcebre slide versus time (each minor tick
corresponds to 1 week). Readings started 4 months after wire
extensometers were fixed to the borehole ends. Values below
zero observed at S-5 and S-6, correspond to the phase of nega-
tive displacements of the wire.
total accumulated (positive) displacement was less
than 10 mm during the observational period.
However, the actual horizontal displacements in
the intermediate unit measured with a GPS were
significantly greater than those recorded by the
wire.
The analysis of the displacements recorded at
the boreholes S-2, S-5 and S-6 also shows that the
wire has followed the two phases predicted for
translational slides. At the beginning, boreholes
S-5 and S-6 experienced negative increments of
wire displacement (shortening of the wire length
inside the tube). Positive displacements were
reached in a few weeks at S-5, although S-6 took
several months. Borehole S-2 showed only positive
displacements. The behaviour of the latter is
explained by the timing of the completion of the
instrumentation works. The wires were anchored
just after the completion of the boreholes in July
1996, and the pulley systems and data loggers were
installed by the end of November of the same
year. Because the landslide was active during this
period of time, the first phase of negative wire
displacement was already completed when the data
logger system was implemented at borehole S-2.
Instead, the lower rate of displacement at S-6
allowed both phases to be recorded.
The relation between the groundwater level and
the rate of wire displacement is shown in Fig. 8.
There is a perfect synchronism between changes in
both records. However, from November 1996 to
January 1997, both rates are not proportional.
This is because it corresponds to the end of the
early stages of wire movement in which there is
no linearity between them and superficial displace-
ments (see Fig. 3). After January 1997, the rate of
displacement of the wire tends to be the same for
similar positions of the water table. The event of
June 1997 is an exception that apparently contra-
dicts this direct relationship. However, this is
because the episode of June 1997 was a very short-
lasting event. The complete groundwater table rise
and withdrawal lasted for only 14 h, whereas the
rate of wire displacement is given for a 24 h span.
In this case, the rate of displacement is smaller
than the expected wire displacement if the ground-
water rise had lasted the whole day.
 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166 157

4.4. Estimation of superficial landslide

displacements from the wire extensometer

Monitoring of superficial landslide displace-

Fig. 8. Above: groundwater table fluctuation at the borehole
S-2 versus time. Below: rate of wire displacement (solid line)
and of horizontal component of superficial displacement
(dashed line). The latter has been calculated from the total wire
displacement using the equations of Appendix A. Each minor
tick on the time axis corresponds to 1 week.
ments was carried out by means of EDM and GPS
techniques. All the upper ends of the boreholes
were spatially referenced using a radiation method
with Real Time Kinematic GPS (Gili et al., 1999).
The results obtained were x, y (time) displacement
plots. The accuracy of the displacements measured
with GPS in the network implemented in Vallcebre
is estimated to be within 2 cm, which is similar (or
even better) to the accuracy provided by conven-
tional surveying using stable benchmarks located
on the opposite slope.
The measurements made with the GPS equip-
ment at the upper end of the boreholes were much
larger than those observed with the wire. For
instance, at borehole S-2 ( Table 1), a gap of about
15 cm occurred in only 2 months (from December
1996 to February 1997), increasing slightly until
June 1997. This gap is a consequence of the early
phase of negative wire displacements and is consis-
tent with the expected behaviour of the wire. After
June 1997, the observed increments with both
procedures tended to coincide.
We have used the data recorded in the field to
check whether the Eqs. (1)–(3) of Appendix A
are able to reproduce the horizontal displacements
of the landslide surface from readings of the wire
at borehole S-2. All the data required for solving
the equations were known except for the thickness
of the surface of failure.

Table 1
Displacements at the borehole S-2 of the Vallcebre landslide measured with a Global Positioning System (GPS) and a borehole wire
extensometer

Date of GPS displacement GPS accumulated Wire extensometer Wire extensometer GPS:wire
measurement (mm) disp. (mm) displacement (mm) accumulated disp. (mm) ratio

07.24.96 First measurement 0.0 Installation of the wire

10.24.96 81.5 81.5
11.19.96 Beginning of recording 0.0
12.03.96 80.2 161.6 5.8 5.8
02.13.97 364.9 526.5 217.7 223.5 1.67
04.04.97 91.4 617.9 78.2 301.7 1.17
06.02.97 54.5 672.4 37.3 339.0 1.46
07.29.97 62.4 734.8 66.2 405.2 0.94
10.03.97 84.5 819.3 77.3 482.5 1.09
158 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166

Fig. 10. Plot of the temporal evolution of the horizontal compo-

Fig. 9. Fitting of the measured displacements (dots) to a calcu-
lated curve relating both the horizontal and wire displacements
for the borehole S-2 (see the text for explanation). The set of
curves (solid lines) has been prepared solving Eqs. (1), (2a),
(2b) and (3) of Appendix A for several thicknesses of the shear
surface. The geometrical parameters of the S-2 used in the equa-
tions are: H =14.5 m; L =19.6 m; b=10°, w=58 mm;
m 0
X =30 mm and X =10 mm.
p b
The equations were then solved considering
several thicknesses of the failure surface. The
results have been expressed as a set of curves
relating the horizontal ground displacements at
the landslide surface and the displacements of the
wire ( Fig. 9). The pairs of field measurements
provided by the GPS and the wire extensometer
at borehole S-2 have been plotted and matched,
using a non-linear regression, to a curve corre-
sponding to a thickness of the surface of failure
of about 310 mm.
The excellent fitting confirms the feasibility of
using the equations of Appendix A for calculating
nent of the displacements of the Valicebre landslide with the
GPS and the probe inclinometer (open circles and stars), and
the total wire displacements of the borehole S-2 (solid line).
Each minor tick on the time axis corresponds to 1 week. A
continuous record of the horizontal component of displace-
ments has been calculated from the wire measurements using
the Eqs. (8)–(10) of Appendix A (dashed line). Borehole
parameters are the same used in the case of Fig. 9.
the horizontal displacement of the landslide from
the wire records. We have used these equations to
reproduce the movements at the surface of a
landslide at borehole S-2. Fig. 10 shows the epi-
sodic measurements of the horizontal component
of the displacements of the Vallcebre landslide
(measured with the GPS and probe inclinometer)
and total wire displacements of the borehole S-2.
A continuous record of the landslide horizontal
displacements (dashed line) has been calculated
from the wire displacements using Eqs. (8)–(10)
of Appendix A. The validity of the calculated
curve is confirmed by its perfect fitting to the
displacements measured in the field.

Table 2
Comparison between topographical and extensometric measurements in Alverà landslide

Year Topographic survey GPS accumulated Wire extensometer Wire extensometer GPS:wire
displacement (cm) disp. (mm) displacement (mm) accumulated disp. (mm) ratio

1991 17.1 17.1 6.6 6.6 2.59

1992 14.9 32.0 6.9 13.5 2.16
1993 18.6 50.6 10.5 24.0 1.77
1994 14.7 65.3 10.1 34.1 1.46
1995 10.8 76.1 8.0 42.1 1.35
1996 9.4 85.5 7.5 49.6 1.25
 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166 159

4.5. Wire extensometric measurements at the
Alverà mudslide
The Alverà landslide affects a slope located near
Cortina d’Ampezzo in the Eastern Dolomites, Italy
(Angeli et al., 1996a,b; Panizza et al. 1996). This
landslide is a rather elongated and active mudslide,
which, in the past, forced the adoption of emer-
gency measures for the village while the inhabitants
moved elsewhere (Fig. 11).
The stratigraphical sequence cropping out in
the area of Cortina d’Ampezzo covers a period of
time spanning from the Carnian to the Rhaetian
(Pasuto et al., 1997). The alternance of ductile
and brittle rock types has developed morphological
conditions favourable to the development of mass
movements, some of them showing a recurrent
activity since the retreat of the Würmian glaciers.
For instance, a sample of peat collected at the slip
surface of the Alverà landslide was dated back to
8710±70 years BP (Pasuto et al., 1997).
The unstable slope is characterized by the pres-
ence of clayey materials resulting from the weather-
ing of the S. Cassiano Formation, which mostly

Fig. 11. Topographic map of the Alverà landslide with the location of the boreholes.
160 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166
consists of alternating beds of sandstone, marls
and clays directly outcropping in the upslope area.
The study of the area started in 1989 in
co-operation with the Regione Veneto authorities
and was first directed to the protection of the
buildings located at the mudslide toe. At that time,
several monitoring investigations and laboratory
tests were being carried out. The monitoring net-
work consisted of inclinometric casing and open
(standpipe) piezometers equipped with electrical
transducers for the measurement of the hydraulic
head in the slope. The inclinometers were provided
with a steel wire extensometers for the continuous
measurement of the landslide displacements. In
1992, a meteorological station was set up for
recording precipitation (both rainfall and the
snow-water equivalent), air temperature and snow-
cover thickness. In 1994, within the frame of
the TESLEC project funded by the European
Commission, ten boreholes were drilled in the
mudslide to a depth between 9 and 30 m. The
boreholes were arranged following the longitudinal
profile of the mudslide (seven open-pipe piezome-
ters) and in a cross direction (three inclinometers).
Each borehole was included in the network of
repeated topographic survey ( Fig. 11).
The analysis of the borehole cores allowed the
identification of two separate layers and a main
slip surface ranging from a depth of 18 to 25 m.
Another more superficial slip surface that appeared
to be very active, was identified at a depth of 5 m
in the lower sector of the mudslide. The upper
layer, about 20 m thick, in which the mudslide
occurred, consists of irregular, poorly-sorted
blocks of the original rock dispersed in an argilla-
ceous matrix and widely affected by cracks. The
lower layer consists of more consolidated homo-
geneous clays. A system of fissures filled with
calcite up to several centimetres thick is suggestive
of groundwater flow coming from the upper calcar-
eous slabs.
Soil mechanics laboratory tests were carried out
on samples taken from boreholes, drainage
trenches and trial pits. The results showed signifi-
cant differences between samples collected at any
depth in the slope and those taken from the slip
surface in a trial pit dug at the foot of the mudslide.
Mineralogical analyses on samples form the slip
surface have revealed a high content of montmoril-
lonitic clay (Angeli et al., 1996a). Shear strength
tests performed on reconstructed samples gave w
r
values of 20–23°.
4.6. Effects of soil volume changes on the
displacement of the wire at Alverà
The displacements in the boreholes equipped
with extensometer devices were recorded every
10 min and stored in a data logger. The measure-
ments obtained with the wire extensometer were
checked with those obtained with both inclinome-
ter and superficial surveying. The results showed
significant differences that tend to stabilize with
time as expected after long displacements. Fig. 12
shows both displacements recorded with the wire
and superficial surveying between 1990 and 1997
at the most superficial sliding surface located 5 m
deep. The average rate of displacement is slightly
higher than 10 cm/year.
Table 2 shows the annual displacements mea-
sured with both procedures and their ratio. A
progressive convergence of measured displacement
is observed when comparing the ratio of the yearly
readings of both systems.
Some events of anomalous displacements have
been observed as well. Fig. 13(d ) shows three
episodes of positive wire displacement (wire
stretching) followed by negative wire displace-
ments of the same order of magnitude few weeks
later. We have interpreted these displacements as
Fig. 12. Alverà landslide, borehole S-5: comparison between
extensiometric and topographic data recorded from 1990 to
1997.
 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166 161

a result of the effects of climate on the ground.

There is a seasonal coincidence — all of them
occurred in winter time — in these episodes.
Positive displacements of the wire were subsequent
to the groundwater table rise in the piezometer,
but there exists no relationship between them and
the preceding rainfall records [Fig. 13(a)]. Instead,
the positive displacements coincide with the occur-
rence of air temperatures below 0°C [Fig. 13(b)
(a) and (d )]. Therefore, all of these data suggest that
the cause of the positive increments of the wire is
the increase of the volume (swelling) of the upper
soil layer at the ground surface by freezing of the
water in the soil pores. Swelling leads to a rise of
both the ground surface and the pulley support,
with the subsequent displacement of the wire into
the borehole. Thawing of the interparticle ice
results in soil shrinkage and negative wire
increments.
In the Alverà mudslide, temperatures below 0°C
may last for several weeks, and the observed
(b) swelling of the ground surface may be as much as
1.5 cm. Freezing of the upper soil or rock layers is
not an unusual phenomenon in mountain regions.
For instance, in a rock outcrop in Montana,
Mikkelsen (1996) reported movements of the
ground by as much as 1.5 mm due to expansion
and contraction by seasonal changes in
temperature.

5. Conclusions
(c)
Borehole wire extensometer equipment is cheap
and simple. It enables very frequent readings that
may be stored in a data logger. The readings made
with the potentiometer allow an accuracy of
0.1 mm in the measurements.
Superficial landslide displacements may differ
significantly from those measured with the wire.
This is because the total displacement of the wire
depends on several factors such as the diameter of

(d) Fig. 13. Alverà landslide, borehole S-5: daily rainfall (a),
groundwater level (b), temperatures (c) and displacements (d)
recorded from 1994 to 1997. The influence of superficial frozen
ground on extensometric data is clearly observable.
162 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166

the borehole, the type of landslide mechanism, and
both the thickness and the dip angle of the surface
of failure.
A theoretical analysis of the relation between
both wire and surgical landslide displacements for
translational slides has been carried out.
Considering a downhill dipping surface of failure,
two phases are expected: (1) negative displace-
ments of the wire are first produced due to the
shortening of the borehole casing; and (2) positive
displacements take place when the angle between
the wire and the vertical line equals the inclination

Fig. 14. Stages of the position of the wire within the borehole casing in relation to the landslide displacements. The wire changes its
form when it meets a new contact with the borehole casing at the sides of the shear zone. Points M and F are located on the upper
and lower boundaries of the shear zone, respectively. Points B and P are fixed to the bottom of the borehole and to the pulley,
respectively. Each stage of the wire position is characterized by an specific equation.
 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166
of the slip surface. This analysis also shows that
when displacements are very large in relation to
the thickness of the shear zone, the rates of dis-
placement of the wire and at the landslide surface
tend to coincide.
The applicability of this analysis has been
checked in the field at the Vallcebre translational
landslide. Displacements of wire extensometers,
when compared with measurements of superficial
displacements using differential GPS, follow the
relation predicted by the theoretical equations. A
direct consequence of the latter is that both hori-
zontal and vertical components of the landslide
displacement can be estimated from the measure-
ment of the wire extensometer.
The rates of displacement obtained with the
wire may be easily related to rainfall records and
groundwater fluctuations. However, anomalous
wire measurements can be expected in case of
freeze–thaw episodes of the upper soil layer as has
been shown in the Alverà mudslide.
When combined with piezometers, the extenso-
metric wire has a great capability to reproduce the
response to the rainfall and groundwater fluctua-
tions with a high degree of accuracy. It also allows
temporal trends of the displacement to be observed
during critical rainy events.
The combined use of the wire extensometers
with devices such as probe inclinometers is highly
recommended. They complement each other very
well. Inclinometers have a short life when the
landslide is very active, but they produce high-
quality information on landslide displacement pro-
files, velocities and the position of the shear surface
immediately after its installation. Instead, at the
early stages of deformation, the wire extensometer
may only record negative displacements that are
not directly related to the superficial ones. Once
the inclinometer is lost, it allows a continuous
recording, and it is operational for very large
displacements. The relationship found between the
wire and superficial displacements enables con-
tinuous recording of both horizontal and vertical
displacements of the landslide to be achieved.
The robustness of the equipment has been
proved at the Vallcebre landslide. While the incli-
nometer casings were out of order after movements
of less than 5 cm, total displacements of more than
163
50 cm were recorded with the wire extensometer
at borehole S-2 between November 1996 and
December 1997. All the wire extensometers
installed in Vallcebre were still functioning more
than 1 year later.
Acknowledgements
This work has been performed within the
NEWTECH project, funded by the Commission
of the European Communities, Environment and
Climate Programme (Contract ENV-CT96-0248).
The project joints the efforts from different groups
( France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal,
Spain and United Kingdom) working in a few test
sites in Europe. The financial support from the
European Union is therefore gratefully acknowl-
edged. The additional support of the Spanish
Research Council (CICYT ) through contract
AMB96-2480-CE is gratefully acknowledged as
well.
Appendix A: Analysis of wire displacement for a
theoretical translational slide
Fig. 14 shows a theoretical sequence of wire
displacement with the progression of a transla-
tional slide according to the following conditions:
(a) the slide moves as a rigid block over a single
shear zone bounded by parallel planes, (b) the
shear zone has a constant thickness and shows a
linear increase of the rate of displacement towards
the top. The rate of movement is null at the lower
boundary of the shear zone and maximum at the
upper one, and (c) the wire is installed inside the
casing of a vertical borehole and fixed underneath
the shear zone.
The total displacement of the wire will be taken
here as the change in length of the wire between
points B and P (Fig. 14), corresponding to the
fixed end at the borehole bottom and to the first
point of contact with the pulley, respectively. In
this analysis, the total displacement of the wire
will be expressed as a function of the horizontal
component of the displacement observed at the
surface (point E by the borehole end).
164 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166

The length of the wire inside the borehole zone [point M of Fig. 14(c)], or at the lower
changes as the movement progresses. Different one (point F ). The wire will meet first point M
stages in changing the wire length may be iden- when the following condition is accomplished:
tified, depending on how the wire comes into
h ≤h tan h ≤tan h ,
contact with the borehole walls. Fig. 14 illustrates mp bf mp bf
the existence of three main evolutive stages. because
For a translational slide, with negligible defor-
mation above the shear zone, the superficial dis- X
tan h = p
placement, D , observed at point E is assumed to mp H +H
s m p
be equal to the displacement of the point M located
in the upper boundary of the shear zone. The path and
of D is parallel to the shear surface and, therefore, w−X
s b,
given the dip angle of the latter, it may be decom- tan h =
bf H
posed into a vertical and horizontal components f
(D and D ). Both components are related in the then
v h
following way:
X w−X
D =D tan b, p ≤ b,
v h H +H H
m p f
where b is the angle of dip of the shear zone (by
convention b will take a positive value when the rearranging the equation gives:

A B
landslide is moving downwards and a negative H
value in the opposite case). X f +X ≤w,
p H +H b
Changes in length of the wire inside the borehole m p
are dependent on the dimensions of the borehole where h and h are the angle measured from
casing (H , w), the distance of the wire ends to the mp bf
t the vertical of the lines linking respectively
casing (X , X ), and on the position, vertical com- points M and P, and B and F. Provided that
b p
ponent of the thickness and dip of the shear zone X , X ≥0 and ≤w. In case the condition above
(H +H , H , b). p b
m p s is not accomplished, the first contact with the
The changes in wire length during the different casing wall will be at point F.
stages are as follows: $ First contact at point M [Fig. 14(c)]:
1. Stage 1. Wire displacement prior to its contact The change in length of the wire (D ) between
with the casing [Fig. 14(b)]: l
points P and B is:
The change in length of the wire (D ) between
l D =L +L −L , (2a)
points P and B is: l mp bm o
D =L −L , (1) where
l bp o
where L ={(X2 +(H +H )2}1/2=cte.
mp p m p
L ={(D +X −X )2 and
bp h p b
+(H +H −D tan b)2}1/2 L ={(D −X )2
t p h bm h b
and +(H +H −(D −w) tan b)2}1/2.
f s h
L ={(X −X )2+(H +H )2}1/2. $ First contact at point F:
o p b t p
2. Stage 2. Wire displacement after its contact D =L +L −L , (2b)
l bf fp o
with the casing at one single point:
where
There are two possible cases: the contact is
established at the upper boundary of the shear L ={(w−X )2+H2 }1/2=cte
bf b f
 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166 165

and then

L ={(D +X −w)2+(H +H +H X −X +d X
fp h p m p s p b 1,2a = p , (5)
−(D −w) tan b)2}1/2. H +H −d tan b H +H
h t p 1,2a m p
L and L are the distances between points rearranging and solving Eq. (4) for d :
bf fp 1,2a
B and F, and points F and P, respectively.
X (H −H )+X (H +H )
3. Stage 3. Wire displacement after its contact d = p t m b m p . (6)
with the casing at points M and F [Fig. 14(d )]: 1,2a H +H +X tan b
m p p
D =L +L +L −L , (3) Similarly, the boundary between stages 2a and 3
l mp s bf o is given by the following conditions:
where
H (w−X )
h =h d =w+ s b . (7)
L ={(D −w)2+(H −(D −w) tan b)2}1/2. bm bf 2a,3 H +(w−X ) tan b
s h s h f b
Eqs. (1), (2a), (2b) and (3), expressing the In case of a translational slide moving over a shear
change in length of the wire (D ) between points plane (H =0), the expression is reduced to:
l s
P and B, can be written in a general way as
follows: d #w.
2a,3
D ={(D +a)2+(b−D tan b)2}1/2+c, (4) However, the boundary between stage 1 and 2b
l h h
may be obtained from:
where a, b and c are geometrical constants that
are different for each displacement stage. (w−X )(H +H )−(X −X )H
h =h d = b t p p b f.
bp bf 1,2b H +(w−X ) tan b
f b
A.1. Range of applicability of the equations
Similarly, the boundary between stage 2b and 3 is
derived from:
The range of applicability of the Eqs. (1), (2a),
(2b) and (3) is defined by the geometrical charac- (H +H )w+(H +w tan b)X
teristics of the borehole and shear surface. h =h d = m p s p.
fp mp 2b,3 H +H +X tan b
The boundary between stages 1 and 2a is pro- m p p
duced when h =h . Being h and h , the angles In case of a translational slide moving over a shear
bp mp bp mp
that the deflected wire segments BP and MP form plane (H =0), the expression is reduced to:
respectively with the vertical. The horizontal dis- s
placement, d , that corresponds to the boundary d #w.
1,2a 2b,3
is:

h =h tan h =tan h A.2. Calculation of displacements at the ground

bp mp bp mp surface from the wire extensometer
because
Displacements of point E [Fig. 14(a)] can be
X −X +d calculated by rearranging the Eqs. (1), (2a), (2b)
tan h = p b 1,2a
bp H +H −d tan b and (3). The horizontal component (D ) of the
h
t p 1,2a landslide displacement at the ground surface is
and given by:

X D ={b tan b−a±

tan h = p , h
mp H +H 앀(a−b tan b)2−(a2+b2−(D −c)2)/cos2 b} cos2 b,
m p l
 166 J. Corominas et al. / Engineering Geology 55 (2000) 149–166

where Angeli, M.G., Gasparetto, P., Menotti, R.M., Pasuto, A.,

Silvano, S., 1996a. A visco-plastic model for slope analysis
a=X −X , b=H +H , and c=−L for stage 1 applied to a mudslide in Cortina d’Ampezzo, Italy. Quart.
p b t p 0 J. Eng. Geol. 29, 233–240.
(8) Angeli, M.G., Gasparetto, P., Menotti, R.M., Pasuto, A.,
Silvano, S., 1996b. Examples of mudslides on low-gradient
a=−X , b=H +H +w tan b, and clayey slopes, Senneset, K. ( Ed.), Landslides. Proc. 7th Int.
b f s Symp. Landslides, Trondheim Vol. 1. A.A. Balkema, Rot-
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Bonnard, C., Steinmann, G., 1990. Continuous measurement
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p p m s
Practice. Institution of Civil Engineers. Thomas Telford,
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bf 0 London, pp. 177–189.
Dikau, R., Brunsden, D., Schrott, L., Ibsen, M.L., 1996. Land-
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